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DICTIONARY

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OP

THE HOLY BIBLE,

FOR GENERAL USE

THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES;

WITH

ENGRAVINGS, MAPS, AND TABLES,

PUBLISHED BY THE
AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY,

NEW YORK: 150 NASSAU-STREET.

ENTERED according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by the AMERICAN TRACT
SOCIETY, in the Clerk's office of the District Court for the Southern District of New
York.

LOAN STACK
SIFT

PREFACE.

THIS work is based on " A Dictionary of the Holy Bible, for
the use of Schools and Young Persons, by Edward Robinson,
D. D.," issued in 1833, by Messrs. Crocker and Brewster, Boston.
The use of the copy-right of that volume having been procured
from the publishers, about two-thirds of it are embodied m these
pages, constituting about one-third of the whole: but without any
participation or responsibility on the part of Dr. Robinson. His
own later biblical works, including his Researches in Palestine,
afford invaluable aids to the Bible student, which have been freely
used in the preparation of the present volume. Much aid has
also been drawn from the Bible Dictionaries of Rev. John Brown
of Haddington, and Professor Eadie of the United Presbyterian
church, Scotland ; Bost, of Switzerland ; Kitto, and other sources ;
while the accuracy of all that has been inserted has been studi
ously tested, in every case as far as possible, by a comparison
with the only infallible standard, the inspired word itself.

The aim of this work and the principles on which it has been
prepared, cannot be better expressed than in the language of
Dr. Robinson in 1833, in his preface to the work on which it is
based.

" In the present work," he says, " the Editor has aimed to give
only the results of his previous investigations ; and to present them
in such a form as may ue attractive and useful to the very large
class of young persona and others, who may be supposed to take
an interest in this species of knowledge. There are doubtless
thousands of such persons, especially females, to whom the infor
mation contained in this small volume would be in a high decree

135

PREFACE.

interesting and instructive ; but who, nevertheless, would never
think of seeking for it in the larger and more learned volumes in
which it is usually contained.

" It has everywhere been my endeavor, not to omit any re
sults, or any information, which might be useful to the classes of
readers for whom this volume is more particularly designed. The
processes of induction and reasoning, the allusions to the original
Hebrew and Greek of the Scriptures, have of course been passed
by; and also all the references to sources and authorities, except-,
ing to the Bible itself. These last I have endeavored to render
full and correct.

"If I may be permitted to advise in respect to the mode of
using this little volume, I would strongly recommend that it be
read and studied chiefly as a companion of the Bible, and always
with the Bible in the hand ; and that every reference to the sacred
volume be immediately looked out, and the passages, or the sense
of them, faithfully impressed upon the memory. In this way, not
only will a great amount of biblical knowledge be acquired by
degrees, but the mind of the learner, by thus comparing the state
ments of facts with the authorities on which they rest, is ever
gaining discipline and strength, and learning to ' prove all things,
and hold fast that which is good.7

"That, through this little work the Editor may be useful in
his day and generation to his youthful friends, by enlarging and
facilitating their acquaintance with that HOLY BOOK in which
alone are contained the words of eternal life, and treasures of
wisdom that will never fail, is his sincere and fervent prayer."
NEW YORK, 1859.

DICTIONARY

OP

THE HOLY BIBLE.

A, the first letter in almost all alpha
bets. In Hebrew, it is called aleph; in
Greek, alpha, the last letter in the Greek
alphabet being omega. Both the He
brews and Greeks used their letters as
numerals ; and hence A (akph or alpha)
denoted one, or the first. So our Lord says,
"I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning
and the end, the first and the last ;" thus
declaring his eternity, and that he is the
cause and end of all things, Rev. 1 : 8,
11 ; 21 : 6 ; 22 : 13. Compare Isa. 44 : 6 ;
48 : 12 ; Col. 1 : 15-18.

AAR'OX, the son of Amram and Joch-
ebed, of the tribe of Levi, and brother
of Moses and Miriam, Ex. 6 : 20 ; born
about the j^ear A. M. 2430; B.C. 1574. He
was three years older than Moses, Ex.
7:7; and was the spokesman and assist
ant of the latter in bringing Israel out
of Egypt, Ex. 4 : 16. His wife was Eli-
sheba, daughter of Amminadab ; and his
sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Itha-
mar. He was 83 years old when God
summoned him to join Moses in the des
ert near Horeb. Cooperating with his
brother in the exodus from Egypt, Ex.
4-16, he held up his hands in the bat
tle with Amalek, Ex. 17 ; and ascended
mount Sinai with him to see the glory of
God, Ex. 24:1,2, 9-11.

Aaron's chief distinction consisted in
the choice of him and his male posterity
for the priesthood. He was consecrated
the first high-priest by God's directions,
Ex. 28, 29 ; Lev. 8 ; and was afterwards
confirmed in his office by the destruction
of Korah and his company, by the stay
ing of the plague at his intercession, and
by the budding of his rod, Num. 16, 17. i

He was faithful and self-sacrificing in the
duties of his office, and meekly "held his
peace ' ' when his sons Nadab and Abihu
were slain, Lev. 10 : 1-3. Yet he fell
sometimes into grievous sins: he made
the golden calf at Sinai, Ex. 32 ; he join
ed Miriam in sedition against Moses,
Num. 12 ; and with Moses disobeyed God
at Kadesh, Num. 20 : 8-12. God, there
fore, did not permit him to enter the
promised land; but he died on mount
Hor, in Edom, in the fortieth year after
leaving Egypt, at the age of about 123
years, Num. 20:22-29; 33:39. In
Deut. 10 : 6, he is said to have died at
Mosera, which was probably the station
in the valley west of mount Hor, whence
he ascended into the mount. The Arabs
still pretend to show his tomb on the
mount, and highly venerate it. In his
office as high-priest, Aaron was an emi
nent type of Christ, being "called of
God," and anointed; bearing the names
of the tribes on his breast ; communicat
ing God's will by Urim and Thummim ;
entering the Most Holy place on the Day
of Atonement, ' ' not without blood ;' ' and
interceding for and blessing the people
of God. See PRIEST.

AAR'ONITES, descendants of Aaron
the high-priest, so called 1 Chr. 12 : 27 ;
27 : 17. Thirteen cities were assigned to
them, in Judah and Benjamin, Josh.
21 : 13-19 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 57-60.

AB, father, found in many compound
Hebrew proper names : as Abner, father
of light ; Absalom, father of peace.

AB. The fifth month of the sacred,
and the eleventh of the civil year among
the Jews. It began, according to the
5

ABA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

latest authorities, with the new moon
c. August. It was a sad month in the
o ewish calendar. On its first day, a fast
was observed for the death of Aaron,
Num. 33 : 38 ; and on its ninth, another
was held in memory of the divine edicts
waich excluded so many that came out
<x? Lgypt from entering the promised

land ; and also, of the overthrow ci the
first and second temple. See MONTH

ABAD'DON, or APOL'LYON. The for
mer name is Hebrew, and the latter
Greek, and both signify the destroyer,
Rev. 9 : 11. He is called the "angel cl
the abyss," that is, the angel of death,
or the destroying angei.

RIVER ABANA. NOW BARADA, AND DAMASCUS.

AB'ANA, and PHAR'PAR, rivers of Da
mascus, 2 Kin. 5 : 12. The Abana, (or,
as in the margin, Amana,) was undoubt
edly the present Barada, the Chrysor-
rhoas of the Greeks. It is a clear, cold,
and swift mountain stream, rising in
Anti-Lebanon, north-east of Hermon,
flowing south-east into the plain, and
near Damascus turning eastward, skirt
ing the northern wall of the city, and
terminating 20 miles east in one of three
large lakes. It is a perennial river, and
so copious, that though no less than nine
or ten branches or canals are drawn off
from it to irrigate the plain and supply
the city and the villages around it, the
stream is a large one to the end.

The only other independent river of
any size in the territory of Damascus is
the Awaj, which crosses the plain south of
Damascus, and enters the southernmost
of the three lakes above referred to. This
is supposed to be the Pharpar of the Bi
ble. As these rivers of Damascus were
never dry, but made the region they wa
tered like the garden of Eden for fertil

ity and beauty, Naaman might well con
trast them with most of ' ' the waters of
Israel," which dry up under the summer
sun. See AMANA.

AB'ARIM, mountains east of the Dead
sea and the lower Jordan, "over against
Jericho," within the territory of Moab
and the tribe of Reuben. It is impossi
ble to define exactly their extent. The
mountains Nebo, Pisgah, and Peor were
in the Abarim, Num. 27 : 12 ; 33:47, 48 ;
Deut. 32:49; 34:1. Ije-abarim, Num.
21 : 11, seems to denote the southern part
of the same chain.

AB'BA, a Syriac word signifying father.
When the Jews came to speak Greek,
this word may have been retained from
their ancient language, as being easier
to pronounce, especially for children,
than the Greek pater. It expresses the
peculiar tenderness, familiarity, and con
fidence of the love between parent and
child, Mark 14: 36 ; Rom. 8:15 ; Gal. 4:6.

ABED'NEGO, servant ofNcgo; a Chal-
dee name given to Azariah, one of the
three captive young princes of Judah,

ABE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ABI

who were Daniel's companions at the
court of the king of Babylon, Dan. 1 : 7.
Their virtue, wisdom, and piety secured
their promotion at court, Dan. 1 : 3-19 ;
2 : 17, 49 ; and their steadfastness in wit
nessing for God among idolaters, with
their deliverance from the fiery furnace
by the Angel- Jehovah, led many to ac
knowledge the true God, and rendered
these pious youth for ever illustrious as
monuments of the excellence and safety
of faith in Him, Dan. 3 ; Heb. 11 : 34.
bee FURNACE.

A' BEL, the second son of Adam and
Eve. He became a shepherd, and offered
to God a sacrifice from his flocks, at the
same time that Cain his brother offered
of the fruits of the earth. God had re
spect to Abel' s sacrifice, and not to Cain' s ;
hence Cain in anger killed Abel, Gen.
4. It was ' ' by faith' ' that Abel offered
a more acceptable sacrifice than Cain ;
that is, his heart was right towards God,
and he worshipped Him in trustful obe
dience to the divine directions. His of
fering, made by the shedding of blood,
was that of a penitent sinner confiding
in the atonement ordained of God ; and
it was accepted, ' ' God testifying of his
gifts," probably by fire from heaven ;
' ' by which he obtained witness that he
was righteous," that is, justified, Heb.
11:4. " The blood of Abel ' ' called from
the ground for vengeance, Gen. 4 : 10 ;
but the blood of Christ claims forgive
ness and salvation for his people, Heb.
12 : 24 ; 1 John 1 : 7.

ABEL is also a prefix in the names of
several towns. In such cases it signifies
a grassy place or meadow.

ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH, meadow of
the house of Maachah; a town in the tribe
of Naphtali, north of lake Merom. It
was besieged in the rebellion of Sheba, 2
Sam. 20 : 13-22 ; eighty years afterwards
it was taken by Ben-hadad, 1 Kin. 15:20,
and again, after 200 years, by Tiglath-
pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. It is called Abel-
maim in 2 Chr. 16 : 4. Compare 1 Kin.
15:20. Also simply Abel, 2 Sam. 20:18.

ABEL-CAEMA'IM, meadow of vineyards ;
a village of the Ammonites, six miles
from Rabbath-Ammon ; in the history of
Jephthah it is called "the plain of the
vineyards," Judg. 11 : 33.

ABEL-MEHO'LAH, or ABEL-MEA, a
town of Issachar, near the Jordan, ten
miles south of Beth-shean. Near this
place Gideon defeated the Midianites,

Judg. 7 : 22 ; and here Elisha was born,
1 Kin. 19:16.

ABEL-MIZEA'IM, meadow of the Egyp
tians; so called from the seven days' lam
entation of Joseph and his company, on
bringing up the body of Jacob from Egypt
for burial, Gen. 50:10, 11. It lay in" the
plain of Jericho, between that city and
the Jordan.

ABEL-SHIT'TIM, in the plains of Mo-
ab, east of the Jordan, and near mount
Peor. It was one of the last encamp
ments of Israel before the death of Mo
ses, Num. 33 : 49 ; called also Shittim,
Josh. 2 : 1. Here the Israelites Avcre en
ticed by the women of Moab and Mid-
ian into imcleanness and the idolatry of
Baal-peor, and 24,000 died of the plague,
Num. 25.

ABIA, in the NewTestament the same
as ABU AH in the Old Testament, which
see.

ABI AH, second son of Samuel, who
appointed his brother and him judges in
Israel. Their corruption and injustice
were the pretext upon which the people
demanded a king, 1 Sam. 8 : 1-5.

ABI'ATHAR, son of Ahimelech, and
tenth high-priest of the Jews. When
Saul sent his emissaries to Nob, to de
stroy all the priests there, Abiathar, who
was young, fled to David in the wilder
ness, 1 Sam. 22 : 11-23, with whom he
continued in the character of priest, 1
Sam. 23 : 9 ; 30 : 7. Being confirmed in
the high-priesthood on David's accession,
to the throne, he aided in bringing up
the ark to Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 15: 11, 12,
and adhered to David during the rebel
lion of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15 : 35, but after
wards was led to follow Adoriijah, thus
strangely betraying his royal friend in
his old age. Solomon succeeding to the
throne, degraded him from the priest
hood, and sent him to Anathoth, 1 Kin.
2 : 26, 27 ; thus fulfilling the prediction
made to Eli 150 years before, 1 Sam.
2 : 27-36. Saul, it would appear, had
transferred the dignity of the high-priest
hood from the line of Ithamar, to which
Eli belonged, to that of Eleazar, by con
ferring the office upon Zadok. Thus
there were, at the same time, two high-
priests in Israel ; Abiathar with David,
and Zadok with Saul. This double priest
hood continued from the death of Ahim
elech till the reign of Solomon, after
which the office was held by Zadok and
his race alone.

AB1

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ABI

A difficulty arises from the circum
stance that, in 1 Kin. 2 : 27, Abiathar is
said to be deprived of the priest's office
by Solomon ; while in 2 Sam. 8 : 17 ; 1
Chr. 18 : 1C ; 24 : 3, 6, 31, Ahimelech the
son of Abiathar is said to be high-priest
along with Zadok. The most probable
solution is, that both father and son each
bore the two names Ahimelech and Abi
athar, as was not at all unusual among
the Jews. See under ABIGAIL. In this
way also we may remove the difficulty
arising from Mark 2 : 26, where Abiathar
is said to have given David the show-
bread, in allusion to 1 Sam. 21 : 1-6,
where it is Ahimelech.

A'BIB, the first month of the ecclesi
astical year of the Hebrews ; afterwards
called Nisan. It answered nearly to our
April. Abib signifies green ears of grain,
or fresh fruits. It was so named, be
cause grain, particularly barley, was in
car at that time. Cn the tenth of this
month the passover-lamb was set apart ;
it was killed on the fourteenth towards
sunset, and eaten the same evening after
the fifteenth day had begun. The seven
days from the fifteenth to the twenty-
first inclusive, were "the feast of unleav
ened bread," closing with a solemn con
vocation, Ex. 12, 13.

ABIE'ZER, great-grandson of Manas-
seh, Num. 20 : 29, 30, and founder of the
family to which Gideon belonged, Josh.
17 : 2 ; Judg. 6 : 34 ; 8 : 2. In this last
verse, ' ' the vintage of Abiezer ' ' means
the first rout of the Midianites by the 300,
mostly Abiezrites ; and ' ' the gleaning of
the grapes of Ephraim ' ' means the cap
ture of Oreb and Zecb, and other fruits of
the victory, gathered by the Ephraimites.

AB'IGAIL, I., formerly the wife of Na-
bal of Carmel, and afterwards of David.
Upon receiving information of Nabal's
ingratitude to David, 1 Sam. 25 : 14, she
loaded several asses with provisions, and
attended l>y some of her domestics went
out to meet him. Her manners and con
versation gained for her his esteem, and
us soon as the days of mourning for Na-
bal's death, which happened soon after
wards, were over, he made her his wife.
The issue of the marriage was, as some
critics suppose, two sons, Chileab and
Daniel, 2 Sam. 3 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 3:1; but it
is most probable that these names were
borne by one person.

II. A sister of David, and mother of
Arnasa, 1 Chr. 2 : 16, 17.

AB'IHAIL, the wife of Rehoboam, king
of Judah, 2 Chr. 11 : 18 ; the "daughter "
—that is here, the descendant— of Eliab,
David's brother.

ABI'HU, the second son of Aaron, con
secrated to the priesthood with his three
brethren, Exod. 28 : 21 ; but consumed
shortly after by fire from the Lord, with
Nadab his brother, for burning incense
with common fire instead of that kept
perpetually on the altar of burnt-offer
ing, Lev. 10 : 1-2 ; 16 : 12 ; Num. 16 : 46.
As this is immediately followed by the
prohibition of wine to the priests when
ministering in the tabernacle, it is not
improbable that Nadab and Abihu were
intoxicated when thus transgressing.
Their death is a solemn warning not to
presume to worship God except with in--
cense kindled at the one altar which
Christ hath sanctified, Heb. 10:10-14.
It is a dangerous thing, in the service of
God, to decline from his own institutions.
We have to do with a God who is wise
to prescribe his own worship, just to re
quire what he has prescribed, and pow
erful to avenge what he has not pre
scribed.

ABI' J AH, I. , called, in Luke 1 : 5, Abia ;
founder of a family among the posterity
of Aaron. When David divided the
priests into twenty-four courses, to per
form the temple-service in turn, the
eighth class was called after him, 1 Chr.
24 : 10. To this class or course Zacharias
belonged.

II. Son of Jeroboam, the first king of
Israel. He died young, and much be
loved and lamented, for in him there
was found some good thing towards the
Lord, 1 Kin. 14 : 1-18.

HI. Son of Rehoboam, the first king
of Judah ; called, in 1 Kin. 15:1, Abijarn.
He came to the throne A. M. 3046, and
reigned only three years. In war with
Jeroboam he gained a signal victory, 2
Chr. 13 ; yet he followed the evil example
of his father. His mother Maachah, or
Michaiah, wras probably the $w??c?-daugh-
ter of Absalom, 1 Kin. 15 : 2 ; 2 Chr.
11:20; 13:2.

IV. The mother of king Hezekiah, 2
Chr. 29 : 1.

ABILE'NE, the name of a district of
country on the eastern declivity of Anti-
Lebanon, from twelve to twenty miles
north-wrest of Damascus, towards Heli-
opolis, or Baalbek; so called from the
city ABILA, and also called Abilene of

ABI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ABO

Lysanias, to distinguish it from others.
This territory, in the fifteenth year of
Tiberius emperor of Rome, was governed
as a tetrarchate by a certain Lysanias,
Luke 3:1.

ABIM'ELECH, I. , king of Gerar of the
Philistines, who took Sarah into his ha
rem ; but being warned of God in a
dream, he restored her to Abraham, and
gave him 1,000 pieces of silver as a " cov
ering of the eyes" for Sarah, that is, as
an atoning present, and to be a testimo
ny of her innocence in the eyes of all.
He afterwards made a league with Abra
ham, Gen. 20.

II. Another king of Gerar, probably
son of the former, and contemporary
with Isaac. He rebuked Isaac for dis
simulation in regard to Rebekah, and
afterwards made a new league with him
at Bcersheba, Gen. 26.

III. A son of Gideon by a concubine,
made himself king of Shcchem after his
father's death, and slew his father's sev
enty sons on one stone, only Jotham the
youngest being left. Jotham reproach
ed the Shechemites for their conduct, in
his celebrated fable of the trees. Three
years afterwards, they rose against Abim-
elech ; he defeated them, and destroyed
their city, but as he was attacking The-
bez, a woman threw down a piece of a
millstone on his head, which so injured
him, that he called to his armor-bearer
to slay him, Judg. 9.

ABIN'ADAB, the same as Aminadab,
b and m being often interchanged in
Hebrew. I. A son of Jesse, one of the
three who followed Saul in the war with
the Philistines, 1 Sam. 16 : 8 ; 17 : 13.

II. A son of Saul, slain in the battle
at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 31 : 2.

III. A Levite of Kirjath-jearim, in
whose house the ark of God, when re
stored by the Philistines, remained sev
enty years, 1 Sam. 7:1; 1 Chr. 13 : 7.

ABI'RAM, a prince of Reuben, who
with Korah, Dathan, etc., conspired to
overthrow the authority of Moses and
Aaron in the wilderness, Num. 16.

AB'ISHAG, a beautiful virgin of Shu-
nem, in Issachar, chosen to marry David
in his old age and cherish him. After
his death, Adonijah sought her hand to
promote his treasonable aspirations, and
was punished by death, 1 Kin. 1, 2.

ABISH'AI, a son of Zeruiah, David's
sister, brother of Joab and Asahel, one
of the bravest of David's mighty men,
1*

1 Chr. 2 : 16, and always faithful to hif
royal uncle. He went with him alone
to the tent of Saul, 1 Sam. 26 : 7-11 ; and
was a leader in the war with Ish-hosheth,

2 Sam. 2 : 18, 24, in the war with the
Edomites, 1 Chr. 18 : 12, 13, and with
the Syrians and Ammonites, 2 Sam.
10 : 10. In a battle with the Philistines,
he rescued David, and slew Ishbi-benob
the giant, 2 Sam. 21 : 16, 17. He lift-
ed up his spear against three hundred,
and slew them, 2 Sam. 23 : 18 ; and was
with David in the affairs of Shimei, Ab
salom, and Sheba, 2 Sam. 16 : 9 ; 18 : 2 ;
20:6, 7.

ABISH'UA, son of Phinehas, and
fourth high-priest, 1 Chr. 6 : 50. He was
probably a contemporary of Eglon and
Ehud, Judg. 3.

AB'NER, the son of Ncr, Saul's uncle,
and the general of his armies, 1 Sam.
14 : 50. For seven years after Saul's
death, he supported Ish-bosheth ; but
being reproved by him for his conduct
towards Rizpah, he undertook to unite
the whole kingdom under David. He
was, however, treacherously slain by
Joab, either to revenge the death of
Asahel, Joab's brother, whom Abncr had
formerly killed, or more probably from
jealousy. David abhorred this perfid
ious act, and composed an elegy on his
death, 2 Sam. 2 : 8 ; 3 : 33. He also
charged Solomon to punish the crime of
Joab with death, 1 Kin. 2 : 5, 6.

ABOMINATION, a term applied in
Scripture to objects of great detestation.
| Idols and their worship were so named,
because they robbed God of his honor,
I while the rites themselves were impure
I and cruel, Dent. 7 : 25, 26 ; 12 : 31. The
term was used respecting the Hebrews in
Egypt, Gen. 43 : 32, Ex. 8 : 26, either
because they ate and sacrificed animals
held sacred by the Egyptians, or be
cause they did not observe those cere
monies in eating which made a part of
the religion of Egypt ; and in Gen. 46 : 34,
because they were " wandering shep
herds," a raee of whom had grievously
oppressed Egypt.

The ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION fore
told by Daniel, 9 : 27, denotes, probably,
the image of Jupiter, erected in the tem
ple of Jerusalem by command of Antio-
chus Epiphanes, 2 Mac. 6 : 2 ; 1 Mac. 6 : 7.
But by the Abomination of Desolation
spoken of by our Lord, Matt. 24 : 15 ;
Mark 13 : 14, and foretold as about to be

ABR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ABR

seen at Jerusalem during the last siege
of that city by the Romans under Titus,
is probably meant the Roman army,
whose standards had the images of their
gods and emperors upon them, and were

worshipped in the precincts of the tem
ple when that and the city were taken.
Luke 21:20. See ARMOR.

A'BRAM, high father, afterwards named
ABRAHAM, father of a multitude, Gen.
17:4, 5 ; the great founder of the Jewish
nation. He was a son of Terah, a de
scendant of Shem, and born in Ur, a city
of Chaldea, A. M. 2008, B. c. 1996, Gen.
11:27, 28. Here he lived seventy years,
when at the call of God he left his idol
atrous kindred, and removed to Haran,
in Mesopotamia, Acts 7:2-4, accompa
nied by his father, his wife Sarai, his
brother Nahor, and his nephew Lot. A
few years after, having buried his father,
he again removed at the call of God,
with his wife and nephew, and entered
the land of promise as a nomadc or wan
dering shepherd. Sojourning for a time
at Shechem, he built here, as was his cus
tom, an altar to the Lord, who appeared
to him, and promised that land to his
seed. Removing from place to place for
convenience of water and pasturage, he
was at length driven by a famine into
Egypt, where he dissembled in calling
his wife his sister, Gen. 12. Returning
to Canaan rich in nocks and herds, he
left Lot to dwell in the fertile valley of
the lower Jordan, and pitched his own
tents in Mamre, Gen. 13. A few years
after, he rescued Lot and his friends from
10

captivity, and received the blessing of
Melchizedek, Gen. 14. Again God ap
peared to him, promised that his seed
should be like the stars for number, and
foretold their oppression in Egypt 400
years, and their return to possess .the
promised land, Gen. 15. But the prom
ise of a son being yet unfulfilled, Sarai
gave him Hagar her maid for a second
ary wife, of whom Ishmael was born,
Gen. 16. After thirteen years, God again
appeared to him, and assured him that
the heir of the promise should yet be
born of his wife, whose name was then
changed to Sarah. He established also
the covenant of circumcision, Gen. 17.
Here, too, occurred the visit of the three
angels, and the memorable intercession
with the Angel-Jehovah for the inhabit-
! ants of Sodom, Gen. 18. After this, Abra
ham journeyed south to Gerah, where he
again called Sarah his sister. In this re
gion Isaac was born ; and soon after, Ha
gar and Ishmael were driven out to seek
a new home, Gen. 21. About twenty-five
years after, God put to trial the faith of
Abraham, by commanding him to sacri
fice Isaac, his son and the heir of the
promise, upon mount Moriah, Gen. 22.
Twelve years after, Sarah died, and the
cave of Machpelah was bought for a bur
ial-place, Gen. 23. Abraham sent his
steward, and obtained a wife for Isaac
from his pious kindred in Mesopotamia,
Gen. 24. He himself also married Ke-
turah, and had six sons, each one the
founder of a distinct people in Arabia.
At the age of 175, full of years and hon
ors, he died, and was buried by his sons
in the same tomb with Sarah, Gen. 25.

The character of Abraham is one of
the most remarkable in Scripture. He
was a genuine oriental patriarch, a prince
in the land ; his property was large, his
retinue very numerous, and he com
manded the respect of the neighboring
people : and yet he was truly a stranger
and a pilgrim, the only land he pos
sessed being the burial-place he had pur
chased. Distinguished by his integrity,
generosity, and hospitality, he was most
of all remarkable for his simple and un
wavering faith, a faith that obeyed with
out hesitation or delay, and recoiled not
from the most fearful trial ever imposed
upon man, so that he is justly styled
"the father of the faithful," that is, of
believers. No name in history is ven
erated by so large a portion of the hu-

ABS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ACH

man race, Mohammedans as well as Jews
and Christians. As the ancestor of Christ,
in whom all the nations are tlessed, and
as the father of all believers, the cove
nant is abundantly fulfilled to him : his
seed are as the stars of heaven, and with
them he shall inherit tlia heavenly Ca
naan.

ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. In Luke 16 : 22,
Lazarus is said to have been carried to
Abraham's bosom, that is, to the state
of bliss in paradise 'v/hich. the father of
the faithful was enjoying. This is often
represented by a feast, by sitting down
to a banquet, Matt. 8:11 ; Luke 13:29.
To lie on ones bosom refen to the oriental
mode of reclining at tab! 3, Jolm 13:23.
See EATING.

AB'SALOM, only son of David by Ma-
acah, 2 Sam. 3:3. He was remarkable for
his beauty and for his fine head of hair,
2 Sam. 14:25, which being cue from time
to time when it incommoded Mm, used
to weigh 200 shekels by the king's stand
ard, that is, probably about thirty ounces,
an extraordinary, but not incredible
weight. Amnon, another of the king's
sons, having violated his sister Tamar,
Absalom caused him to be slain, and
then tied to Geshur, where Talmai Ms
grandfather was king. After three year's,
at the intercession of Joab, David per
mitted him to return to Jerusalem, and
at length received him again into favor,
2 Sam. 14. Absalom, however, grossly
abused his father's kindness ; he soon
began to play the demagogue, and by
many artful devices ' ' stole the hearts of
the people," and got himself proclaimed
king in Hebron. David retired from Je
rusalem ; Absalom followed him ; and in
the battle which ensued, the troops of
the latter were defeated, and he himself,
being caught by his head in a tree, was
found and slain by Joab. David was
much affected by his death, and uttered
bitter lamentations over him, 2 Sam.
18:33.

His history affords instructive lessons
to the young against the sins to which
they are prone, particularly vanity, am
bition, lawless passions, and filial diso
bedience.

AC'CAD, one of the four cities built in
the plain of Shinar by Nimrod, founder
of the Assyrian empire, Gen. 10:10. Its
site is identified by some travellers with
ruins which lie from six to nine miles
west of Bagdad. There is here a ruin

ous structure called Tell-i-nimrood, Hill
of Nimrod, consisting of a mass of brick
work 400 feet in circumference at the
base, and 125 feet high, standing on a
mound of rubbish. More recently, Col.
Rawlinson claims that the site of Accad
was at a place now called Niffer, amid
the marshes of Southern Babylonia.

AC'CHO, a city of the tribe of Asher,
Judg. 1:31. In the New Testament, Ac-
cho is called Ptolemais, Acts 21:7, from
cne of the Ptolemies, who enlarged and
beautified it. The crusaders gave it the
name of Acre, or St. John of Acre. It
is still called Akka by the Turks. It sus
tained several sieges during the crusades,
and was the last fortified place wrested
from the Christians by the Turks.

The town is situated on the coast of the
Mediterranean sea, thirty miles south of
Tyre, on the north angle of a bay to which
it gives its name, and which extends in
a semicircle of three leagues, as far as
the point cf mount Carmel, south-west
of Acre. After its memorable siege by
Buonaparte, when he was repulsed by Sir
Sidney Smith, in 1799, Accho was much
improved and strengthened, and its pop
ulation was estimated at from 18,000 to
20,000. It has since then suffered great
ly, having been besieged six months by
Ibrahim Pacha, in 18o2, and bombarded
by an English feet in 1840. Present
population, (18c£,) 10,000 or 12,000.

Accho, and all the sea-coast beyond it
northwards, was considered as the hea
then land cf the Jews.

ACEL'DAMA, field of Hood, a small
field south of Jerusalem, which the
priests purchased with the thirty pieces
of silver that Judas had received as the
price of our Saviour's blood, Matt. 27:8 ;
Acts 1:19. Pretending that it was not
lawful to appropriate this money to sa
cred uses, because it was the price of
blood, they purchased with it the so
called potter's field, to be a burying-

?lace for strangers. Judas is said, Acts
:8, to have purchased the field, because
it was bought with his money. Tradi
tion points out this field on the steep
side of the hill of Evil Counsel overhang
ing the valley of Hinnom on the south.
It appears to have been used, since the
time of the crusaders, as a sepulchre for
pilgrims, and subsequently by the Ar
menians. At present it is not thus used.
ACHA'IA is used in the New Testament
for the wbole region of Greece south of
U

ACH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ACT

Macedonia, including the Peloponnesus,
or Morea, and some territory north of
the gulf of Corinth, Acts 18:12 ; 19:21 ;
2 Cor. 11:10. Achaia Proper, however,
was a province of Greece, of which Cor
inth was the capital, and embraced the
north-western part of the Peloponnesus.
See GREECE.

A'CHAN, the son of Carmi, who diso
beyed the strict charge of the Lord, and
purloined some of the spoils of Jericho
which were doomed to destruction. This
brought a curse and defeat upon the peo
ple. He was discovered by lot, and ston
ed with all his family in the valley of
Achor, north of Jericho, Josh. 6 : 18 ;
7 : 1-26. He is called Achar in 1 Chr. 2:7.

ACHISH, king of Gath, a city of the
Philistines, to whom David twice fled for
protection from Saul. On the first occa
sion, being recognized by the king's offi
cers, arid thinking his life in danger, he
feigned madness, and by this device es
caped, 1 Sam. 21:10. Several years af
ter, he returned with a band of 600 men,
and was welcomed by Acliish as an ene
my of Saul and of Israel. Achish gave
him Ziklag for a residence ; and being
deceived as to the views and operations
of David, expected his assistance in a war
with Israel, but was persuaded by his
officers to send him home to Ziklag, 1
Sam. 27-29.

ACH'METHA, Ezra 6 : 2, supposed to
mean Ecbatana, a city of Media, inferior
to none in the East but Babylon and Nin
eveh. It was surrounded by seven walls,
of different heights and colors, and was
a summer residence of the Persian kings
after Cyrus. Travellers identify it with
the modern Hamadan, in which many
Jews still reside, and where they profess
to point out the tomb of Mordecai and
Esther.

A'CHOR, trouble, a valley north of Jeri
cho ; so called, perhaps, from the troubles |
occasioned by the sin of Achan, who was !
here put to death, Josh. 7 : 26. The j
prophets allude to it with promises of
hope and joy in the gospel era, Isa.
65:10; Hos. 2:15.

ACH'SAH, the daughter of Caleb, giv
en in marriage with a large dowry to his
nephew Othniel, as a prize for taking the
city Debir, Josh. 15 : 15-17; Judg. 1 : 12,13.

ACH'SHAPH, a royal city of the Ca-
naanites, Josh. 11:1, conquered by Josh
ua, and assigned to the tribe of Asher,
Josh. 12:20; 19:25.
12

ACH'ZIB, a city of Asher, from which,
however, the Jews were unable to expel
the Canaanites, Judg. 1:31. It was af>
terwards called by the Greeks, Ecdippa,
and is now named Zib ; it lay on the sea-
coast, ten miles north of Acre.

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, a canonical
book of the New Testament, written by
Luke as a sequel to his gospel, and a his
tory in part of the early church. It is
not, however, a record of the acts of all
the apostles, but chiefly of those of Peter
and Paul. In his gospel, Luke described
the founding of Christianity in what
Christ did, taught, and suffered: in the
Acts he illustrates its diffusion, selecting
what was best fitted to show how the
Holy Spirit guided and blessed the first
followers of Christ in building up his
church. Beginning where his gospel
ended, he narrates the ascension of the
Saviour and the conduct of the disciples
thereupon ; the outpouring of the Holy
Spirit according to Christ's promise ; the
miraculous preaching of the apostles,
their amazing success, and the persecu
tions raised against them ; with other
events of moment to the church at Jeru
salem, till they were scattered abroad.
He then shows how Judaism was super
seded, and how Peter was led to receive
to Christian fellowship converts from the
Gentiles. The remainder of the narra
tive is devoted to the conversion and
calling of the apostle Paul, his mission
ary zeal, labors, and sufferings, and ends
with his two years' imprisonment at
Rome.

Luke himself witnessed, to a great ex
tent, the events he narrates. His Greek
is the most classical in the New Testa
ment ; and the view he gives of the
spirit of the early church, so many of
whose members had "been with the
Lord," is invaluable. The book was
probably written about A. D. 64, that is,
soon after the time at which the narra
tion terminates. The place where it was
written is not known.

In order to read the Acts of the Apos
tles with intelligence and profit, it is
necessary to have a sufficient acquaint
ance with geography, with the manners
of the times and people referred to, and
with the leading historical events. The
power of the Romans, with the nature
and names of the public offices they es
tablished, and the distinctions among
them, must be understood, as well as the

ADA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ADA

disposition and political opinions of the
unconverted Jewish nation, which were
too prevalent among the Christianized
Hebrews.

AD' AM, the progenitor and representa
tive head of our race ; formed of the dust
of the ground, and made a living soul by
the Creator's breath. He was the last
work of the creation, and received do
minion over all that the earth contained.
That he might not be alone, God provid
ed Eve as a helpmeet for him, and she
became his wife. Marriage is thus a
divine institution, first in order of time,
as well as of importance and blessedness
to mankind. Adam was made a perfect
man — complete in every physical, men
tal, and spiritual endowment ; and placed
in the garden of Eden on probation, holy
and happy, but liable to sin. From this
estate he fell by breaking the express
command of God, through the tempta
tions of Satan and the compliance of
Eve; and thus brought the curse upon
himself and all his posterity. Sovereign
grace interposed ; a Saviour was revealed,
and the full execution of the curse stayed ;
but Adam was banished from Eden and
its tree of life, and reduced to a life of
painful toil. His happiness was farther
imbittered by witnessing the fruits of
his fall in his posterity. Cain his first
born son, and Abel the second, born in
the likeness of their fallen parents, were
ere long lost to them — the one slain,
and the other a fugitive. They proba
bly had many other sons and daugh
ters, but the name of Seth alone is
given. Adam lived to the age of nine
hundred and thirty years, and saw the
earth rapidly peopled by his descend
ants ; but ' ' the wickedness of man was
great upon the earth. ' ' At the time of
his death, Lamech, the father of Noah,
was fifty-six years of age ; and being
in the line of those who ' ' walked with
God," had probably heard the early
history of the race from the lips of the
penitent Adam.

The curse pronounced on man in
cludes not only physical labor and toil
on a barren and thorny earth, and the
physical dissolution of the body, but also
the exposure of the soul, the nobler part,
to "everlasting death." In that very
day he should lose the moral image of his
Maker, and become subject not only to
physical death, but also to God's eternal
wrath and curse, which is death in the

highest sense of the word, and is trie
doom which has fallen upon all his race.
Such is the view of the apostle Paul ; who
everywhere contrasts the death introduced
into the world through Adam, with the
life which is procured for our race through
Jesus Christ, Kom. 5. This life is spirit
ual ; and the death, in its highest sense,
is also spiritual. So far as the penalty
is temporal and physical, no man is or
can be exempt from it ; but to remove
the spiritual and eternal punishment,
Christ has died ; and he who comes to
him in penitence and faith will avoid
the threatened death, and enter into life
eternal, both of the body and the soul.

The Redeemer is called "the second
Adam," 1 Cor. 15 : 45, as being the head
of his spiritual seed, and the source of
righteousness and life to all believers, as
the first Adam was the source of sin and
death to all his seed.

II. A city near the Jordan, towards
the sea of Tiberias, at some distance from
which the waters of the Jordan were
heaped up for the passage of the Jews,
Josh. 3 : 16.

ADAMANT, a name anciently used
for the diamond, the hardest of all min
erals. It is used for cutting or writing
upon glass and other hard substances,
Jer. 17 : 1. It is also employed figura
tively, Ezek. 3:9; Zech. 7 : 12. Others
suppose the smiris, or emery, to be meant.

AD'DEIl, a species of serpent, more
commonly called viper. The word adder

is used five times in the Bible, as a trans
lation of four different Hebrew words,
denoting different serpents of the venom
ous sort. In Gen. 49 : 17, it seems to
mean the cerastes, or horned viper, of
the color of sand, and very deadly bite ;
accustomed to lie hidden in the tracks in
13

ADA

BIBLE DICTIONARif.

ADO

the sand, and dart up on the unwary
traveller. In Psa. 58 : 4 ; 91 : 13, it is
probably the asp. In Psa. 140 : 3 per
haps the tarantula, or some serpent that
strikes backward. See SERPENT, VIPER.
A'DAR, the twelfth month of the He
brew ecclesiastical year, and the sixth of
the civil year. In this month occurred
the celebrated feast of Purim. It nearly
answers to our March. As the lunar
year, which the Jews follow, is shorter
than the solar year by eleven days,
which, after three years, make about a
month, they then insert a thirteenth
month, which they call Ve-Adar, or a
second Adar. See MOXTII.

AD'MAH, one of the four cities in the
plain of Siddim, destroyed by lire from
heaven and covered by the Dead sea,
Gen. 14 ; 2 ; 19 : 24, 25 ; Hos. 11:8.

ADONI-BE'ZEK, lord of Bczck, a Ca-
naaiiite tyrant of Bezek, east of Shechem.
Having taken seventy of the neighboring
petty chiefs, he disabled them by cutting
off their thumbs and great toes, and fed
them like dogs. The same barbarous
treatment was meted out to him, when
defeated at the head of an army of Ca-
naanites and Perizzites, by Judah and
Simeon, Judg. 1 : 4-7.

ADONl'JAH, the fourth son of David,
by Haggith, 2 Sam. 3:4. After the
death of Amnon and Absalom, he as
pired to the throne, although it was
promised to Solomon, his younger broth
er. Having gained over Joab and Abia-
thar and other adherents, he at length
openly revolted and claimed the crown
while David was yet living. The news
of this revolt being brought to the king,
he caused Solomon to be crowned king
at once ; upon which the friends of Adoiii-
jah dispersed, and he took refuge at the
horns of the altar. Solomon dismissed
him with only an admonition. But soon
after the death of David, he applied for
the hand of Abishag, thus renewing his
pretensions to the throne, for which he
was put to death, 1 Kin. 1,2.

ADONI-ZE'DEK, a king of Jerusalem,
who made an alliance with four other
kings against Joshua. A great battle
was fought at Gibeon, where the Lord
aided Israel by a terrific hailstorm, and
by miraculously prolonging the day.
The five kings were utterly routed, and
hid themselves in a cave at Makkedah ;
but were taken by Joshua, and put to
death, Josh. 10.
14

ADONI'RAM, a receiver of tributes
under David and Solomon, and director
of the thirty thousand men sent to Leba
non to cut timber, 1 Kin. 5 : 14. The
same person is also called Adoram, by
contraction, 2 Sam. 20:24; IKin. 12:18;
and also Hadoram, 2 Chr. 30:18. He
was stoned to death by the revolted ten
tribes, having been sent to them by Re-
hoboam, either to induce them to re
turn, or to test them by gathering the
taxes.

ADOPTION is an act by which a per
son takes a stranger into his family,
acknowicdges him for his child, and con
stitutes him heir of his estate. Jacob's
adoption of his two grandsons, Ephraim
and Manasseh, Gen. 48:5, was a kind of
substitution, whereby he intended that
these his grandsons should have each his
lot in Israel, as if they had been his own
sons : ' ' Ephraim and Manasseh are mine ;
as Reuben and Simeon, they shall be
mine." As he gives no inheritance to
their father Joseph, the effect of this
adoption was simply the doubling of
their inheritance.

But Scripture affords instances of an
other kind of adoption — that of a father
having a daughter only, and adopting
her children. Thus, 1 Chr. 2 : 21, Ma-
chir, grandson of Joseph, and father of
Gilead, Num. 26 : 29, gave his daughter
to Hezron, "who took her; and he was
a son of sixty years," sixty years of age,
' ' and she bare him Segub ; and Segub
begat Jair, who had twenty-three cities
in the land of Gilead," Josh. 13:80;
1 Kin. 4 : 13. However, as well he as
his posterity, instead of being reckoned
to the family of Judah, as they would
have been by their paternal descent from
Hezron, are reckoned as sons of Ma-
chir, the father of Gilead. Nay, more,
it appears, Num. 32:41, that this Jair,
who was in fact the son of Segub, the
son of Hezron, the son of Judah, is ex
pressly called "Jair, the son of Manas
seh," because his maternal great-grand
father Avas Machir the son of Manasseh.
In like manner we read that Mordecai
adopted Esther, his niece ; he took her
to himself to be a daughter, Esth. 2:7-
So the daughter of Pharaoh adopted Mo
ses; and he became her son, Ex. 2:10.
So we read, Ruth 4:17, that Naomi had
a son — a son is born to Naomi ; when in
deed it was the son of Ruth.

At the present day, adoption is not

ADO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ADU

uncommon in the East, where it is made
before a public officer with legal forms.

In the New Testament, adoption de
notes that act of God's free grace by
which, on being justified through faith,
we are received into the family of God,
and made heirs of the inheritance of
heaven. It is "in Christ," and through
his atoning merits, that believers "re
ceive the adoption of sons," Gal. 4:4, 5.
Some of the privileges of this state are,
deliverance from a fearful and servile
spirit ; the special love and care of our
heavenly Father ; conformity to his im
age ; a filial confidence in him ; free ac
cess to him at all times; the witness of
the Holy Spirit, whereby we cry, "Abba,
Father;" and a title to our heavenly
home, Rom. 8:14-17; Eph. 1:4, 5.

ADORAIM, a town in the south of
Judah, fortified by Rchoboam, 2 Chr.
11:9. Robinson has identified it with
the modern Dura, a large village five
miles west by south from Hebron.

ADO'RAM, see ADONIRAM.

ADRAM'MELECH, I., son of Sennach
erib, king of Assyria, Isa. 37:38, 2 Kin.
19:37, who, upon returning to Nineveh
after his fatal expedition against Heze-
kiah, was killed by his two sons, Adram-
melech and Sharezer, through fear, ac
cording to a Jewish tradition, of being
sacrificed to his idol Nisroch. They then
tied to the mountains of Armenia, B. c.
713.

II. One of the gods adored by the in
habitants of Sepharvaim, who settled in
Samaria, in the stead of those Israelites
who were carried beyond the Euphrates.
They made their children pass through
fire, in honor of this false deity, and of an
other called Anammelech, 2 Kin. 17:31.
Some think that Adrammelech represent
ed the sun, and Anammelech the moon.

ADRAMYT'TIUM, a maritime town
of Mysia, in Asia Minor, opposite to the
island of Lesbos, Acts 27 : 2. It is now
called Adramyt.

A'DRIA, in Acts 27:27, is the Adriatic
sea. This term now denotes only the
Gulf of Venice ; but in St. Paul's time it
included the whole sen lying between
Italy anr? Greece, and extending on the
south from Crete to Sicily, within which
the island of Malta or Melita lies. So
Ptolemy and Strabo.

A'DRIEL, a son of Barzillai, married
Merab, daughter of Saul, who had been
promised to David, 1 Sam. 18:19. Adri-

el had five sons by her, who were deliv
ered up to the Gibeonites, to be put to
death before the Lord, to avenge the cru
elty of Saul their grandfather against
the Gibeonites. In 2 Sam. 21:8, these
are said to be the sons of Michal, whom
she "brougBt up" for Adriel ; but un
less this is a copyist's error, Michal had
adopted the children of her sister Merab,
who was perhaps dead ; or possibly both
sisters may have borne the name Michal.
Compare under ABIATIIAR.

ADUL'LAM, an ancient city in the
plain of Judah, south-west of Jerusalem,
Gen. 38:1; Josh. 15:35. Its king was
slain by Joshua, Josh. 12 : 15. It was
one of the cities rebuilt and fortified by
Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:7 ; Mic. 1:15, and
was reoccupied by the Jews after the
captivity, Neh. 11:30.

When David withdrew from Achish,
king of Gath, he retired to the "cave of
Adullam," 1 Sam. 22:1 ; 2 Sam. 23:13.
The location of this cave, however, is
uncertain. Tradition places it in the
hill country, about six miles south-east
of Bethlehem, the city of David ; a large
and fine cave, visited by many travellers.
It is capable of holding thousands.

ADUL'TERY is a criminal connection
between persons who are engaged, one or
both, to keep themselves wholly to oth
ers ; and thus it exceeds the guilt of for
nication, which is the same intercourse
between unmarried persons. As the
highest sin of its kind, and so including
all other sins of the flesh, it is forbidden
in the seventh commandment. Where
polygamy was allowed, as among the an
cient Jews, illicit intercourse between a
married man and a woman who was not
married, nor betrothed, constituted not
adultery, but fornication.

Fornication may be, in some sense,
covered by a subsequent marriage of the
parties ; but adultery cannot be so healed.
Hence God often compares himself to a
husband jealous of his honor, Jer. 31 :32 ;
and hence the forsaking of the true God
is compared to fornication and adultery
of the vilest kind, Jer. 3:9; Ezek.
23:30-49.

By the law of Moses, both the man
and the woman who had committed
adultery were punished with death, Lev.
20 : 10 ; 21:9; John 8:5. A woman sus
pected of this crime might, in order to
clear herself, drink the "water of jeal
ousy," as prescribed in Num. 5.
15

ADU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

AHA

ADUM'MIM, a border town of Benja
min and Judah, not far from Jericho on
the road to Jerusalem. This road ascends
through a desolate and rocky region, ' ' the
ascent of Adummim," Josh. 15:7 ; 18:17;
it furnished many lurking places for rob
bers, and was the scene of our Saviour's
parable, The good Samaritan, Luke 10.

AD'VOCATE, or PAR'ACLETE, one that
pleads the cause of another. In its tech
nical sense, the office was unknown to
the Jews till they became subject to the
Komans. It is applied to Christ as our
intercessor, 1 John 2:1; compare Rom.
8:34; Heb. 7:25; and to the Holy Spir
it, as our teacher and comforter, John
14:16; 15:26.

^E'NON, see ENON.

AFFIN'ITY, 1 Kin. 3:1 ; relationship
by marriage ; as consanguinity is rela
tionship by blood. The degrees within
which relatives were forbidden by the
Levitical law to intermarry, may be
found in Lev. 18.

AG'ABUS, "a prophet" of the early
church, perhaps one of "the seventy"
disciples of Christ. He foretold the fam
ine, of which Suetonius and others speak,
in the days of Claudius, A. D. 44. It was
very severe in Judea ; and aid was sent
to the church at Jerusalem from Antioch,
Acts 11:27. Many years after, Agabns
predicted the sufferings of Paul at the
hands of the Jews, Acts 21 : 10.

A'GAG, a general name of the kings
of the Amalekites ; apparently like Pha
raoh for the Egyptian kings, Num.
24:7; 1 Sam. 15:8. The last one men
tioned in Scripture was "hewed in
pieces" by Samuel, before the Lord, be
cause Saul had sinfully spared him and
the flocks and herds, when ordered utter
ly to exterminate them. He seems to
have incurred an uncommon punishment
by infamous cruelties, 1 Sam. 15:33.

"Agagite, in Esther 3:1, 10; 8:3, 5, is
used to mark the nation whence Haman
sprung. Josephus explains the word by
Amalekite.

AG'ATE, a precious stone, said to take
its name from the river Achates in Sic
ily, where it abounded. Agates, which
are of several kinds, are likewise pro
cured in India, in various parts of Eu
rope, and at the Cape of Good Hope.
They are semi-transparent, and often .are
beautifully veined and clouded, and pre
sent in miniature the picture of many
natural objects. The agate was the sec-
16

ond stone in the third row of the high-
priest's breastplate, Ex. 28:19; 39:12.

AGRIP'PA, see HEROD III., IV.

A'GUR, an inspired Hebrew, author of
the thirtieth chapter of Proverbs, incor
porated with those of Solomon.

A'HAB, I., the sixth king of Israel,
succeeded his father Omri B. c. 918, and
reigned twenty-two years. His wife was
Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal king of
Tyre ; an ambitious and passionate idol
atress, through whose influence the wor
ship of Baal and Ash tore th was intro
duced in Israel. Ahab erected in Sama
ria a house of Baal, and set up images of
Baal and Ashtoreth ; idolatry and wick
edness became fearfully prevalent, and
the king "did more to provoke the Lord
to anger than all the kings that were be
fore him." In the midst of this great
apostasy, God visited the land with three
years of drought and famine ; and then,
at mount Carmel, reproved idolatry by
fire from heaven, and by the destruction
of four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal.
About six years later, Ben-hadad, king of
Syria, invaded Israel with a great army,
but was ignominiously defeated ; and still
more disastrously the year after, when
Ahab took him captive, but soon released
him, and thus incurred the displeasure
of God. In spite of the warnings and
mercies of Providence, Ahab went on in
sin ; and at length, after the murder of
Kaboth, his crimes and abominable idol
atries were such that God sent Elijah to
denounce judgments upon him and his
seed. These Avere in part deferred, how
ever, by his apparent humiliation. Soon
after, having gone with Jehoshaphat,
king of Judah, to regain Ramoth-gilead
from the Syrians, and joined battle with
them in defiance of Jehovah, he was
slain, and dos;s licked up his blood at the
pool of Samaria, 1 Kin. 16:29 to 22:40.

II. A false prophet, who seduced the
Israelites at Babylon, and was denounced
by Jeremiah, Jer. 29:21, 22.

AHASUE'RTIS, a royal title, common
to several Median and Persian kings nam
ed in Scripture. I. The father of Darius
the Mede, Dan. 9:1. The most proba
ble opinion is, that the name here desig
nates Astyages, the grandfather of Cyrus.
See below, and DARIUS I.

II. Mentioned Ezra 4:6, the son and
successor of Cyrus ; probably Cambyses,
who reigned seven and a half years from
B. c. 529.

AHA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

AIII

III. The husband of Esther, most
probably Xerxes. Commentators have
been much divided, and have understood
under this name all the Persian kings in
succession. But the other kings of Per
sia are all mentioned in Scripture by
their own names, or at least definitely
pointed out ; while Xerxes is not men
tioned, unless under this name. Besides,
recent researches show that the Hebrew
word for Ahasuerus is readily formed
from the Persian name of Xerxes, the
name Xerxes being only a Greek corrup
tion of the Persian. See ESTHER.

AHA'VA, a town in Chaldea, which
gave name to the stream on the banks of
which the exiled Jews assembled their
second caravan under Ezra, when re
turning to Jerusalem, Ezra 8 : 15, 21,
31. It may be the modern Hib on the
Euphrates, in the latitude of Bagdad.

A'HAZ, son of Jotham, and twelfth
king of Judah. He ascended the throne
at twenty years of age, and reigned six
teen years,' 2 Kin. 16:1, 2, 20. u. c. 738.
He was distinguished for his idolatry arid
contempt of the true God; and against
him many of the prophecies of Isaiah
are directed, Isa. 7. He made his own
children pass through the fire to idols;
he introduced the Syrian gods into Jeru
salem, altered the temple after the Syri
an model, and even closed it altogether.
Having thus forfeited the aid of Jeho
vah, he met various repulses in battle
with Pekah and Piezin ; the Edomites
revolted, and the Philistines harassed his
borders. He turned yet more away from
God in his distress, and sought aid from
Pul, king of Assyria. This fatal step
made him tributary to Pul, and to Tig-
lath-pileser his successor. Ahaz was re
duced to great extremities, in buying off
the Assyrians ; but became more infatu
ated still in idolatry, and dying in his
impiety at the age of thirty-six, was re
fused a burial with the kings his ances
tors, 2 Chr. 28.

AHAZIAH, I., son and successor of
Ahab, king of Israel, 1 Kin. 22:40, 51;
2 Kin. 1. He reigned two years, alone
and with his father, who associated him
in the kingdom the year before his
death, B. c. 894. Ahaziah imitated
Ahab's impiety, and worshipped Baal
and Astarte, whose rites had been intro
duced into Israel by Jezebel his mother.
During his reign the Moabites revolted.
Having joined king Jehoshaphat in a

commercial enterprise on the Red sea,
his impiety blasted the whole. After a
fall from the gallery of his house, he
sent to consult a god of the Philistines
as to his recovery. Elijah the prophet
foretold his speedy death — first to the
messengers, and again to Ahaziah him
self, after two companies of fifty had
been consumed by fire from heaven.

II. Otherwise Jehoahaz, or Azariah,
king of Judah, son of Jehoram and Ath-
aliah ; he succeeded his father B. c. 881,
2 Kin. 8 : 25 ; 2 Chr. 22 : 2. He was twen
ty-two years of age when he ascended
the throne, and reigned but one year at
Jerusalem. He followed the house of
Ahab, to which he was allied by his
mother, and did evil. He met his death
at the hand of Jehu, while in company
with Jorum, son of Ahab.

AHI'AH, son of Ahitub, and high-
priest in the reign of Saul, 1 Sarn. 14:3.
He was probably the brother of his suc
cessor Ahinielech, slain by Saul, 1 Sam.
22:9.

AHI'JAH, a prophet and chronicler of
the times of Solomon and Jeroboam,
1 Kin. 11:29; 2 Chr. 9:29. He is thought
to be the person who spoke in God's name
to Solomon while building the temple,

1 Kin. 6:11 ; and again after he fell into
sin, 1 Kin. 11:11. He notified Jeroboam
of the separation of Israel from Judah,
and of the foundation of his house — the
ruin of which he afterwards foretold, 1
Kin. 14:1-14.

AHI'KAM, sent by Josiah to Huldah
the prophetess, when the book of the
law was found in the temple, 2 Kin.
22: 12. He afterwards nobly befriended
the prophet Jeremiah, Jer. 26:24; 39:14.

AHIMAAZ, the son and successor of
Zadok, became high-priest in the reign of
Solomon. During the reign of David,
he revealed to him the counsels of Absa
lom and his advisers in rebellion, 2 Sam.
17:15-21 ; and conveyed to him also the
tidings of Absalom's defeat and death,

2 Sam. 18.

AHIM'ELECH, I., son of Ahitub, and
brother of Ahiah, whom he succeeded in
the high-priesthood. Some think, how
ever, that both names belong to the
same person. During his priesthood the
tabernacle was at Nob, where Ahimelech
dwelt, with many priests. Here he re
ceived David when fleeing from Saul, and
gave him the show-bread and Goliath's
sword. This act, as reported by Doeg
17

AHI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ALA

the Edomite, Saul viewed as treasonous ;
and by the hand of this idolatrous and
malignant foreigner, he put Ahimelech
and eighty-five other priests of Jehovah
to death, 1 Sam. 22 — a crime sufficient
of itself to forfeit the throne and the
favor of God.

II. Also called Abimelech, 1 Chr.
18:16, probably the same as Abiathar,
which see, 1 Chr. 24:3, G, 31.

AHIN'OAM, I., daughter of Ahimaaz
and wife of Saul, 1 Sam. 14:50.

II. A woman of Jezreel, wife of David
and mother of Amnon. She was taken
captive by the Amalekites, at Ziklag,

1 Sam. 30:5; but was recovered by Da
vid, and accompanied him to Hebron,

2 Sam. 2:2; 3:2.

AHI'O, a son of Abinadab, who went
before the ark of God on its way to Je
rusalem from his father's house ; thus
escaping the fate of Uzzah his brother,
2 Sam. 6:3-7.

AHITH'OPHEL, a native of Giloh,
originally one of David's most intimate
and valued friends ; but upon the defec
tion and rebellion of Absalom, he espous
ed the cause of that prince, and became
one of David's bitterest enemies. Being
disappointed that Absalom did not follow
his sagacious advice, and foreseeing the
issue of the rebellion, he hanged him
self, 2 Sam. 15: 12 ; ch. 17 ; Psa. 55: 12-14.
Ahithophel seems to have been the
grandfather of Bathsheba. 2 Sam. 23:34,
compared with 11:3.

AHI'TUB, I., grandson of Eli, and son
of Phinehas, in whose place he succeeded
to the high-priesthood on the death of
Eli, Phinehas having perished in battle,
B. c. 1141, ISam. 4:11.

II. Son of Amariah, and father of Za-
dok, 2 Sam. 8:17 ; 1 Chr. 6:8.

AHO'LAH, and AHOL'IBAH, two
symbolical names, adopted by Ezekicl,
23 : 4, to denote the two kingdoms of Ju-
dah and Samaria. They are represented
as sisters, and of Egyptian extraction.
Aholah stands for Samaria, and Ahol-
ibah for Jerusalem. The allegory is a
history of the Jewish church.

A'l, called also Hai, Gen. 12:8; Aija,
Neh. 11:31; and Aiath, Isa. 10:28. A
royal city of the Cariaanites, cast of Beth
el, near which Abraham once sojourned
and built an altar, Gen. 12:8; 13:3.
It is memorable for Joshua's defeat on
account of Achan, and his subsequent
victory, Josh. 7:2-5; 8 : 1-21). It was
18

rebuilt, and is mentioned by Isaiah. Its
ruins are spoken of by Eusebius and Je
rome, but the exact site cannot now be
fixed with certainty.

A'lN, fountain, spelt EN in the English
Bible, in compound words, as En-rogel.
It is the name of a city of Judah, after
wards assigned to Simeon, Josh. 15:32;
1 Chr. 4 : 32. Also of a place in the north
of Canaan, Num. 34:11.

AIR. The air or atmosphere surround
ing the earth is often denoted by the
word heaven ; so ' ' the fowls of heaven ' '
means the birds of the air.

To "beat the air," and to "speak in
the air," 1 Cor. 9:26; 14:9, are modes
of expression used in most languages,
signifying to speak or act without judg
ment or understanding, or to no pur
pose. "The powers of the air," Eph.
2:2, probably means devils.

AJALON, or Aijalon. I. A town in
the tribe of Dan, assigned to the Levites,
sons of Kohath, Josh. 21 :24. It was not
far from Timnath, and was taken by the
Philistines from Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28 : 18. It
lay in or near a valley, not far from the
valley of Gibeon, and is recognized in the
modern village of Yalo. The valley lies
towards the north, and is the place where
Joshua commanded the sun and moon to
stand still, and they obeyed him, Josh.
10:12.

II. A town in Benjamin, some three
miles east of Bethel. It was fortified by
Eehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:10.

III. In the tribe of Zebulun, the place
of Elon's burial, Judg. 12:12.

AKRAB'BIM, scorpions, a point in the
frontier line of the promised land, Judg.
1 : 36, and- in a region infested with ser
pents and scorpions, Deut. 8 : 15. It is
to be found probably in the mountains
near the Dead sea, on its south-west side.
In Josh. 15 : 3, it is translated Maaleh-
akrabbim, the ascent of Akrabbim.

ALABASTER, a sort of stone, of fine
texture, either the white gypsum, a sul
phate of lime, or the onyx-alabaster, a
hard carbonate of lime, having the color
of the human nail, and nearly allied to
marble. This material being very gener
ally used to fabricate vessels for holding
unguents and perfumed liquids, many
vessels were called alabaster though made
of a different substance, as gold, silver,
glass, etc. In Matt. 26 : 6, 7, we read
that Mary, sister of Lazarus, John 12 : 3,
poured an alabaster box of precious oint-

ALA

BIBLE DICTIONARY

ALE

inent on Christ's head. Mark says "she
brake the box," signifying probably, that
the seal upon the box, or upon the neck
of the vase or bottle, which kept the per
fume from evaporating, had never been
removed ; it was on this occasion first
opened. See SPIKENARD.

AL'AMOTH, a musical term, indicat
ing probably music for female voices,
Psa. 46, title; 1 Chr. 15:20.

ALEXAN'DER, I., the Great, the fa
mous son and successor of Philip, king
of Macedon. He is alluded to in Dan.
7:6 ; 8:4-7, under the figures of a leop
ard with four wings, and a one-horned
he-goat, representing the swiftness of his
conquests and his great strength. He
was appointed by God to destroy the
Persian empire and substitute the Gre
cian. In the statue seen by Nebuchad
nezzar in his dream, Dan. 2:39, the belly
of brass was the emblem of Alexander.
He succeeded his father B. c. 336, and
within twelve years overran Syria, Pal
estine, and Egypt, founded Alexandria,
conquered the Persians, and penetrated
far into the Indies. He died at the age
of thirty-two, from the effects of intem
perance, and left his vast empire to be
divided among his four generals.

II. Son of Simon the Cyrenian, Mark
15:21, apparently one of the more prom
inent early Christians.

III. One of the council who condemned
Peter and John, Acts 4: 6.

IV. A Jew of Ephcsus, who sought in
vain to quiet the popular commotion re
specting Paul, Acts 19:33.

V. A coppersmith, and apostate from
Christianity, 1 Tim. 1:20; 2 Tim. 4:14.

ALEXANDRIA, a celebrated city in
Lower Egypt, situated between the Med
iterranean sea and the lake Mareotis, not
far from the most westerly mouth of the
Nile. It was founded by Alexander the
Great, B. c. 332, and peopled by colo
nies of Greeks and Jews. Alexandria
rose rapidly to a state of prosperity, be
coming the centre of commercial inter
course between the East and the West,
and in process of time was, in point both
of magnitude and wealth, second only to
Rome itself. The ancient city was about
fifteen miles in circuit, peopled by 300,-
000 free citizens and as many slaves.
From the gate of the sea ran one mag
nificent street, 2,000 feet broad, through
the entire length of the city, to the gate
of Canopus, affording a view of the ship

ping in the port, whether north in the
Mediterranean, or south in the noble
basin of the Mareotic lake. Another
street of equal \vidth intersected this at
right angles, in a square half a league in
circumference.

Upon the death of Alexander, whose
body was deposited in this new city, Al
exandria became the regal capital of
Egypt, under the Ptolemies, and rose to
its highest splendor. During the reign
of the first three princes of this name, its
glory was at the highest. The most cel
ebrated philosophers from the East, as
well as from Greece and Rome, resorted
thither for instruction ; and eminent
men, in every department of knowledge,
were found within its walls. Ptolemy
Soter, the first of that line of kings, form
ed the museum, the library of 700,000 vol
umes, and several other splendid works.
At the death of Cleopatra, B. c. 26, Alex
andria passed into the hands of the Ro
mans ; and after having enjoyed the high
est fame for upwards of a thousand years,
it submitted to the arms of the caliph
Omar, A. D. 646.

The present Alexandria, or according
to the pronunciation of the inhabitants,
Skanderia, occupies only about the eighth
part of the site of the ancient city. The
splendid temples have been exchanged
for wretched mosques and miserable
churches, and the magnificent palaces
for mean and ill-built dwellings. The
city, which was of old so celebrated for
its commerce and navigation, is now
merely the port of Cairo, a place where
ships may touch, and where wares may
be exchanged. The modern city is built
with the ruins of the ancient. The
streets are so narrow, that the inhabit
ants can lay mats of reeds from one roof
to the opposite, to protect them from the
scorching sun. The population consists
of Turks, Arabs, Copts, Jews, and Arme
nians. Many Europeans have counting-
houses here, where the factors exchange
European for oriental merchandise.

The Greek or Alexandrine version of
the Scriptures was made here by learned
Jews, seventy-two in number, and hence
it is called the Septuagint, or version of
the Seventy. The Jews established them
selves in great numbers in this city very
soon after it was founded. Josephus says
that Alexander himself assigned to them
a particular quarter of the city, and al
lowed them equal rights and privileges
19

ALG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ALO

with the Greeks. Philo, who himself
lived there in the time of Christ, affirms
that, of live parts of the city, the Jews
inhabited two. According to his state
ments, also, there dwelt in his time, in
Alexandria and the other Egyptian cit
ies, not less than a million Jews ; but
this would seem exaggerated.

AL'GUM, the same as ALMUG, which
sec.

AL'LEGORY, a figurative mode of dis
course, which employs terms literally
belonging to one thing, in order to ex
press another. It is strictly a prolonged
metaphor. Such are Nathan's address
to David, 2 Sam. 12 : 1-14, Psa. 80, and
our Lord's parable of the sower, Luke
8:5-15. The expression, "which things
are an allegory," Gal. 4:24, means that
the events in the life of Isaac and Ish-
mael, mentioned in previous verses, have
been allegorically applied.

ALLELU'IA, see HALLELU'JAH.

AL'LON-BACHUTH', oak of weeping;
the spot where Rebekah's nurse was bur
ied, Gen. 35:8.

AL'MON-DIBLATHA'IM, one of the
encampments of the Israelites on their
way from mount Hor to the plains of
Moab ; location unknown, Num. 33:46.

ALMOND-TREE. This tree resembles
a peach-tree, but is larger. In Pales

tine, it blossoms in January, and in
March has fruit. Its blossoms are white.
Its Hebrew name signifies a watcher, and
to this there is an allusion in Jer. 1:11.
In Eccl. 12 : 5, the hoary head is beauti
fully compared with the almond-tree,
both on account of its snowy whiteness
and its winter blossoming.

AL'MUG, a kind of tree or wood, which
Hiram brought from Ophir for the use of
Solomon in making pillars for the tem
ple and his own house, and also musical
instruments, 1 Kin. 10:11 ; 2 Chr. 2:8.
The rabbins call it coral ; but it could not
be this. It was more probably the tree
which furnishes what is now commonly
called Brazil wood, which is also a native
of the East Indies, Siam, the Molucca
islands, and Japan, and has several spe
cies. Its wood is very durable, and is
used in fine cabinet work. It yields also
a dye of a beautiful red color, for which
it is much used. Its resemblance in color
to coral may have given occasion for the
name almug, which in rabbinic still sig
nifies coral ; and thus the meaning of
the name would be coral-wood.

AL'OES, or more properly, ALOE, an
East Indian tree, that grows about eight
or ten feet high, and yields a rich per
fume, Psa. 45:8 ; Prov. 7:17 ; Song 4: 14.
This tree or wood was called by the
Greeks Agallochon, and has been known
to moderns by the names of lign-aloe,
aloe-wood, paradise-wood, eagle-wood,
etc. Modern botanists distinguish two
kinds : the one grows in Cochin-China,
Siam, and China, is never exported, and
is of so great rarity in India, as to be
I worth its weight in gold. The tree is
! represented as large, with an erect trunk
! and lofty branches. The other or more
common species is called garo in the East
Indies, and is the wood of a tree grow
ing in the Moluccas, the Excoecaria Agal-
locha of Linnasus. The leaves are like
those of a pear-tree ; and it has a milky
juice, which, as the tree grows old, hard
ens into a fragrant resin. The trunk is
knotty, crooked, and usually hollow.
Aloe-wood is said by Herodotus to have
been used by the Egyptians for embalm
ing dead bodies, and Nicodemus brought
it, mingled with myrrh, to embalm the
! body of our Lord, John 19 : 39. This
perfume, it will be seen, is something
altogether different from the aloes of the
apothecaries, which is a bitter resin, ex
tracted from a low herb.

ALP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ALT

AL'PHA, see the letter A.

ALPH^E'US, I., father of James the
Less, Matt. 10:3, Luke 6:15, and hus
band of the Mary usually regarded as
sister to the mother of Christ, John
19:25. See MARY, I. and III. By com
paring John 19:25 with Luke 24:18 and
Matt. 10:3, it is evident that Alphteus is
the same as Cleophas ; Alphseus being his
Greek name, and Cleophas his Hebrew or
Syriac name.

II. Father of Matthew, or Levi, the
evangelist, Mark 2 : 14.

AL'TAR, a table-like structure on
which sacrifices and incense were offer
ed, built of various materials, usually of
stone, but sometimes of brass, etc. It
is evident that sacrifices were offered
long before the flood ; but the first men
tion of an altar in Scripture is when
Noah left the ark. Mention is made of
altars reared by Abraham, Isaac, Jacob,
and Moses. The latter was commanded
to build an altar of earth, Ex. 20 : 24.
If stone was employed, it must be rough
and unhewn, probably lest the practice
of sculpture should lead them to violate
the second commandment. It was not ,
to be furnished with steps, Deut. 27:2-6.

The altars in the Jewish tabernacle,
and in the temple at Jerusalem, were the
following : 1. The altar of burnt-offer
ings. 2. The altar of incense. 3. The
table of show -bread, for which see
BREAD.

1. THE ALTAR OF BURNT-OFFERINGS was
a kind of coffer of shittim-wood covered
with brass plates, about seven feet six
inches square, and four feet six inches in
height. At the four corners were four
horns, or elevations. It was portable,
and had rings and staves for bearing it,

Ex. 27, 38. It was placed in the court
before the tabernacle, towards the east.
The furniture of the altar was of brass,
and consisted of a pan, to receive the
ashes that fell through the grating ;
shovels ; basins, to contain the blood
with which the altar was sprinkled ; and
forks, to turn and remove the pieces of
flesh upon the coals. The fire was a per
petual one, kindled miraculously, and
carefully cherished. Upon this altar the
lamb of the daily morning and evening
sacrifice was offered, and the other stated
and voluntary blood-sacrifices and meat
and drink-offerings. To this also certain
fugitives were allowed to flee and find
protection. The altar in Solomon's tem
ple was larger, being about thirty feet
square and fifteen feet high, 2 Chr. 4:1.
It is said to have been covered with thick
plates of brass and filled with stones,
with an ascent on the east side. It is
often called ''the brazen altar."

2. THE ALTAR OF INCENSE was a small
table of shittim-wood, covered with
plates of gold ; it was eighteen inches
square, and three feet high, Ex. 30 ;
37 : 25, etc. At the four corners were four
horns, and all around its top was a little
border or crown. On each side were two
rings, into which staves might be insert
ed for the purpose of carrying it. It
stood in the Holy place ; not in the Ho
ly of Holies, but before it, between the
golden candlestick and the table of show-
bread, and the priests burned incense
upon it every morning and evening. So
Zacharias, Luke 1:9, 11. See TEMPLE.

ALTAR at Athens, inscribed ' ' to the
unknown God," Acts 17:23. It is cer
tain, both from Paul's assertion and the
21

AMA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

AMA

testimony of Greek writers, that altars
to an unknown god or gods existed at
Athens. But the attempt to ascertain
definitely whom the Athenians worship
ped under this appellation, must ever
remain fruitless for want of sufficient
data. The inscription afforded to Paul a
happy occasion of proclaiming the gos
pel ; and those who embraced it found
indeed that the Being whom they had
thus ignorantly worshipped was the one
only living and true God.

AM'ALEK, son of Eliphaz, and grand
son of Esau, Gen. 30 : 12. It is not cer
tain that any distinct mention is made
in the Bible of his posterity, people call
ed Amalekites being in existence long
before, Gen. 14 : 7 ; Num. 24 : 20.

AM'ALEKITES, a powerful people,
who dwelt in Arabia Petrasa, between
the Dead sea and the Red sea, perhaps
in moving troops. We cannot assign the
place of their habitation, except in gen
eral it is apparent that they dwelt south
of Palestine, between mount Seir and the
border of Egypt ; and it does not appear
that they possessed many cities, though
one is mentioned in 1 Sam. 15 : 5. They
lived generally in migrating parties, in
caves or in tents, like the Bedaween
Arabs of the present day. The Israelites
had scarcely passed the Red sea, when
the Amalekites attacked them in the
desert of Rephidim, and slew those who,
through fatigue or weakness, lagged be
hind ; and for this unprovoked assault
on the people of God, the doom of ex
termination was passed upon them, Ex.
17 : 8-16. They came again into conflict
with a part of the Israelites on the bor
der of the promised land, Num. 14 : 45 ;
and after 400 years, Saul attacked and
destroyed them at the command of the
Lord, 1 Sam. 15. A remnant, however,
escaped and subsisted afterwards ; David
defeated them on several occasions, 1
Sam. 27:8; 30:1; 2 Sam. 8: 12; and they
were finally blotted out by the Simeon-
ites, in the time of Hezekiah, 1. Chr.
4:43, thus fulfilling the prediction of
Balaam, Num. 24 : 20. Haman, the last
of the race mentioned in Scripture, per
ished like his fathers, in conflict with
the Jews. See the book of Esther.

AM' ANA, the southern part or sum
mit of Anti-Lebanon, adjacent to and
north of Hermon, from which the river
Amana or Abana poured down towards
Damascus, Song 4 : 8.
22

AMARIAH, I., son of Meraioth, a de
scendant of Aaron in the line of Elea-
zar. He was the father of Ahitub, (II.,)
and grandfather of Zadok, in whose per
son the high-priesthood was restored to
that line, 1 Chr.- 6:7.

II. High-priest at a later period, a son
of Azariah, and father of another Ahi
tub, 1 Chr. 6 : 11. In like manner, in
the same list there are three persons
named Azariah.

AM' ASA, I., David's nephew, the son
of Abigail, David's sister, and Jether an
Ishmaelite. His parentage may have led
David to show him less favor than his
other nephews, and this may have dis
posed him to join in the rebellion of Ab
salom. He was the general of Absalom's
army, and was defeated by his cousin
Joab, 2 Sam. 17, 18. David afterwards
offered him a pardon and the command
of his troops in the place of Joab, whose
overbearing conduct he could 110 longer
endure, 2 Sam. 10 : 13. But in the con
fusion of Sheba's rebellion, Amasa was
treacherously murdered by his powerful
rival, 2 Sam. 20 : 4-10. B. c. 1022.

II. A chief of Ephraim, who opposed
retaining as bondsmen the men of Judah
taken captive in a war with Pekah king
of Israel, 2 Chr. 28 : 12.

AMASAI, a Levite, who joined David
with thirty gallant men, while in the
desert flying from Saul, 1 Chr. 6 • 25 ;
12 : 16-18.

AMAZIAH, I., eighth king of Judah,
son of Joash, began to reign B. c. 835,
and reigned twenty -nine years in Jeru
salem. Pie did good in the sight of the
Lord, but not with a perfect heart. Hav
ing established himself in his throne and
slain the murderers of his father, he mus
tered a host of 300,000 men of Judah,
and hired 100,000 men of Israel, for a
war upon Edom. These hired forces he
reluctantly dismissed at the command of
God, who gave him the victory without
their aid. But this did not prevent him
from carrying home with him the idols
of Edom, and setting them up to be his
gods. For this defiance of Jehovah, he
was threatened with destruction by a
prophet of the Lord ; and soon after,
went headlong into war with Israel, in
which he was defeated and humbled.
Fifteen years after, he was slain by con
spirators, after flying to Lachish to es
cape them, 2 Kin. 14 : 1-20 ; 2 Chr. 25.

II. A priest of the golden calf at Beth-

.AMB

BIBLE DICTIONARY. AMM

el, who denounced the prophet Amos to
Jeroboam, and sought to banish him into
Judah for his fidelity, Amos 7 : 10-17.

AM'BER, is a yellow or straw-colored
gummy substance, originally a vegetable
production, but reckoned in the mineral
kingdom. It is found in lumps in the sea
and on the shores of Prussia, Sicily, Tur
key, etc. Externally it is rough ; it is
very transparent, and on being rubbed,
yields a fragrant odor. It was formerly
supposed to be medicinal, but is now em
ployed only in the manufacture of trin
kets, ornaments, etc.

The Hebrew word chasmil is translated
by the Septuagint and Vulgate elect-rum,
that is, amber, because the Hebrew de
notes a very brilliant amber-like metal,
composed of silver and gold, which was
much prized in antiquity, Ezek. 1:4,
27 ; 8:2. Others, as Bochart, refer here
to the mixture of gold and brass, of
which the ancients had several kinds,
some of which exhibited a high degree
of lustre. Something similar to this was
probably also the "fine brass," in Ezra
8 : 27 ; licv. 1 : 15.

AMEN is strictly an adjective, signi
fying firm, and by a metaphor, faithful.
So in KcV. 3 : 14, our Lord is called " the
Amen, the faithful and true Witness,"
where the last words explain the pre
ceding appellation. In its adverbial use
it means certainly, truly, surely. It is
used at the beginning of a sentence by
way of emphasis, frequently by our Sav
iour, and is there commonly translated
Verily. In John's gospel alone, it is
often used by him in this way double,
Verily, verily. At the end of a sentence it
is often used, singly or repeated, especial
ly at the end of hymns and prayers ; as,
"Amen and Amen," Psa. 41:13; 72:19;
89 : 52. The proper signification of it
here is, to confirm the words which have
preceded, assert the sincerity and invoke
the fulfilment of them : so it is, so be it,
let it be done. Hence, in oaths, after
the priest has repeated the words of the
covenant or imprecation, all those who
pronounce the Amen, bind themselves
by the oath, Num. 5 : 22 ; Deut. 27 : 15,
etc. ; Neh. 5:13 ; 8:6 ; 1 Chron. 16 : 36.
Compare Psa. 106 : 48.

AM'ETHYST, a precious stone of a
violet blue color, verging towards a blu
ish or reddish white. It is seldom uni
form in color, and is generally cloudy
and spotted with zigzag stripes. The

most beautiful specimens come from
Ceylon, the East Indies, Siberia, and
Saxony. It is very highly prized, Ex.
28:19; Eev. 21:20.

AMMIN'ADAB, I., a son of Aram, of
the tribe of Judah, and father of Naa-
shon. He was one of the ancestors of
Christ; and his daughter Elisheba was
the wife of Aaron, Ex. 6 : 23 ; Ruth
4 : 20 ; Matt. 1:4. " The chariots of Am-
minadib," Song 6:12, were very light
and swift, in allusion perhaps to some
noted charioteer of that day.

II. A son of Kohath, 1 Chr. 6:33.

AM'MONITES, the descendants of Am-
mon, or Ben-Ammi, a son of Lot. They
destroyed an ancient race of giants called
Zamzummim, and seized their country,
which lay east of Judea, Deut.' 2: 19-21.
Their territory extended from the Arnon
to the Jabbok, and from the Jordan a
considerable distance into Arabia. Their
capital city was Kabbah, (also called Fiab-
bath Ammon, and afterwards Philadel
phia, ) which stood on the Jabbok . Yet in
the time of Moses they had been driven
out of this region, towards the east, by
the Amorites, Num. 21:21-35; 32:33.
Moses was forbidden to assail them,
Deut. 2:19. They were gross idolaters;
their chief idol being Moloch, supposed
to be the same with Saturn, 1 Kin.
11 : 5-7 ; 2 Kin. 23 : 13. They oppressed
Israel in the time of Jephthah, and
were defeated by him with great slaugh
ter, Judg. 11. The children of Ammon
afterwards, at various times, troubled the
Israelites, for which the prophets threat
ened them with divine judgments, Jer.
49:1-6; Ezck. 25:2-10; and they were
at last totally subdued by Judas Macca
beus, 1 Mace. 5:6-44.

AM'MON, or NO-AMMON, or No, a city
of Egypt. The name of the city is prop
erly No-Ammon, that is, the seat or
dwelling of the god Ammon, Nah. 3:8,
in the Hebrew. Similar is its Greek
name Diospolis, the city of Jupiter- Ammon.
In Ez. 30:14, 15, 16, it is called simply
No ; and in Nah. 3:8 and Jer. 46:2/S, the
English version has also only No. In
the latter passage, "the multitude of
No" would be better " Ammon of No."
The name designates, beyond all reason
able doubt, the city of Thebes, the an
cient and renowned capital of Upper
Egypt. Homer describes her as

" The world's great empress on the Egyptian
plains,

23

A M N BIBLE DICTIONARY. A AI 0

LUXOR, FROM THE RIVER NILE.

That spreads her conquests o'er a thousand

states,
And pours her heroes through a hundred

gates."

The vast ruins of the temples of Luxor
and Carnac still proclaim the grandeur
and magnificence with which the wor
ship of Jupiter-Ammon was conducted.
The ruins of the ancient city of Thebes
are the wonder and delight of modern
travellers, for their extent, their vast-
ness, and their sad and solitary gran
deur. They are covered with ancient
hieroglyphics and historical sculptures,
among which one interesting scene is
thought to record the exploits of Shishak
against Jerusalem in the fifth year of
Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 14:25. See Wilkin
son, Robinson, and Olin. Also Mission
ary Herald, 1823, p. 347, and SHISHAK.

AM'NOX, the eldest son of David, by
Ahinoam of Jezreel. He is known only
by his guilt in violating his sister ; for
which Absalom, two years after, caused
•him to be assassinated, 2 Sam. 13.

A'MON, the fourteenth king of Judah,
son of Manasseh, began to reign B. c.
639, at the age of twenty-two, and reign
ed only two years at Jerusalem. He did
evil in the sight of the Lord, as his father
Manasseh had done, by forsaking Jeho
vah and worshipping idols. His servants
24

conspired against him, and slew him in
his own house ; but the people killed all
the conspirators, and established his son
Josiah on the throne. He was buried in
the garden of Uzzah, 2 Kin. 21:18-26 ;
2 Chr. 33:21-25.

AM'ORITES, a people descended from
Emer, the fourth son of Canaan, Gen.
10:16. They first peopled the mountains
west of the Dead sea, near Hebron ; but
afterwards extended their limits, and
took possession of the finest provinces of
Moab and Ammon, on the east between
the brooks Jabbok and Arnon, Num.
13:29 ; 21:21-31 ; Josh. 5:1 ; Judg. 11:13.
Moses took this country from their king,
Sihon. The lands which the Amorites
possessed on this side Jordan were given
to the tribe of Judah, and those beyond
the Jordan to the tribes of Reuben and
Gad. The name Amorite is often taken
in Scripture for Canaanite in general,
Gen. 15:16; Amos 2:9. See CAXAANITES.

By the expression, "Thy father was
an Amorite and thy mother a Hittite,"
Ezek. 16:3, God reminds the Jews that
they were naturally no more worthy of
divine favor than the worst of the hea
then Canaanites.

A'MOS, the fourth of the minor proph
ets, was a herdsman of Tekoah, a small
town of Judah, about twelve miles south

AMO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ANA

of Jerusalem. He prophesied, however,
concerning Israel, at Bethel, in the days
of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam
II., king of Israel, about u. c. 787, and
was thus a contemporary of Hosea, Joel,
and Isaiah. The first two chapters con
tain predictions against the surrounding
nations, enemies of the people of God.
But the ten tribes of Israel were the
chief subjects of his prophecies. Their
temporary prosperity under Jeroboam
led to gross idolatry, injustice, and cor
ruption ; for which sins he denounces the
judgments of God upon them : but he
closes with cheering words of consolation.
His holy boldness in reproving sin drew
on him the wrath of the priests, who la
bored to procure his banishment, Amos
7 : 10-17. In regard to style, Amos takes
a high rank among the prophets. He is
full of imagery, concise, and yet simple
and perspicuous.

II. One of the ancestors of our Lord,
Luke 3: 25.

A'MOZ, the father of Isaiah, 2 Kin.
19:2; Isa. 1:1.

AMPHIP'OLIS, a city of Macedonia,
situated riot far from the mouth of the
river Strymon, which flowed ' ' around the
city, ' ' and thus occasioned its name. The
village which now stands upon the site
of the ancient city is called Empoli or
Yamboli, a corruption of Amphipolis.
It was visited by Paul and Silas, Acts
17:1.

AM'RAM, the father of Aaron, Miri
am, and Moses. He died in Egypt, aged
one hundred and thirty-seven, Exod.
6:18, 20.

AM'RAPHEL, king of Shinar in the
time of Abraham. With three other
petty kings, he made war upon the
tribes around the Dead sea, and the cities
of the plain, Gen. 14:1.

A'NAH, the father of Aholibamah, one
of Esau's wives. While feeding his
father's asses in the desert, he is said to
have found the "mules," Gen. 36:24.
But the Hebrew word is supposed to
mean rather "warm springs ;" and such
springs are found on the eastern coast of
the Dead sea, which was not far from
the dwelling of the Seirites, to whom
Anah belonged. In this region was a
place afterwards celebrated among the
Greeks and Romans for its warm springs,
and called by them Callirrhoe.

A'NAK, plural AN' AKIM, famous giants
in Palestine, descended from Arba, found

er of the city Hebron. They spread them
selves over the south of Judah, the hill
country, and several cities of the Philis
tines. The Hebrew spies were terrified
at their sight, Num. 13 : 33 ; but in the
conquest of Canaan they were destroyed
or expelled, Josh. 11:22; 15:14; Judg.
1:20.

ANAM'MELECH, see ADRAMMELECH.

ANANI'AS, I., a Jew of Jerusalem,
the husband of Sapphira, who attempted
to join the Christians, and pretended to
give them the entire price of his lands,
but died instantly on being convicted of
falsehood by Peter, Acts 5 : 1-10.

II. A Christian of Damascus, who re
stored the sight of Paul, after his vision
of the Saviour, Acts 0 : 10-17 ; 22 : 12.

III. A high-priest of the Jews, the son
of Nebedasus. He was sent as a prisoner
to Rome by Quadratus, the governor of
Syria, 'and Jonathan was appointed in
his place ; but being discharged by the
emperor Claudius, he returned to Pal
estine, and Jonathan being murdered
through the treachery of Felix, Ananias
appears to 'have performed the functions
of the high-priest as a substitute, until
Ismael was appointed by Agrippa. It
was he before whom with the Sanhedrim
Paul was summoned, under Felix, and
who ordered an attendant to smite Paul
on the mouth. The apostle's prophetic
denunciation in reply seems to have
been fulfilled when, in the commence
ment of the siege of Jerusalem, the as
sassins burned the house of Ananias, and
afterwards discovered his place of retreat
in an aqueduct, and slew him, Acts
23:2; 24:1.

ANATH'EMA, that is, a curse, a ban,
signifies properly something set apart,
separated, devoted. It is understood
principally to denote the absolute, irre
vocable, and entire separation of a per
son from the communion of the faithful,
or from the number of the living, or
from the privileges of society ; or the
devoting of any man, animal, city or
thing, to be extirpated, destroyed, con
sumed, and, as it were, annihilated,
Lev. 27. Thus Jericho, Josh. 6 : 17-21,
and Achan were accursed, Josh. 7.

Another kind of anathema, very pe
culiarly expressed, occurs 1 Cor. 16 : 22 :
' ' If any man love not the Lord Jesus
Christ, let him be Anathema, Maran-
atha." This last word is made up of
two Syriac words, signifying, " The Lord
25

ANA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ANG

cometh," that is, the Lord will surely
come, and will execute this curse, by
condemning those who love him not.
At the same time, the opposite is also
implied, that is, the Lord cometh also
to reward those who love him. See
EXCOMMUNICATION.

AN'ATHOTH, one of the cities given
to the priests, in Benjamin ; identified
jby Robinson in Anata, some four miles
{north by east of Jerusalem, Josh. 21 : 18 ;
1 Chr. 6 : GO. It was the birthplace of
the prophet Jeremiah, Jer. 1:1; 32 : 7.
Its people, however, rejected his words,
and sought his life, Jer. 11 : 21.

AN'DKEW, one of the twelve apostles,
was of Bethsaida, and the brother of
Peter, John 1 : 40, 44. Being a disciple
of John the Baptist, he understood the
intimations of his master as to the Lamb
of God, and was the first of the apostles
to follow him, John 1 : 35-40, and come
to the knowledge of the Messiah. Com
pare Jas. 4 : 8. He was afterwards called
as an apostle, on the shore of the sea of
Galilee, Matt. 4 : 18 ; and thenceforth
followed Christ to the end, Mark 13 : 3 ;
John 6 : 7 ; 12 : 22. Of his later history
nothing is known with certainty. It
seems probable, however, that after
preaching the gospel in Greece, and per
haps Thrace and Scythia, he suffered
crucifixion at Patras in Achaia, on a
cross of peculiar form (X,) hence com
monly known as " St. Andrew's cross."

ANDRONI'CUS, a Jewish Christian,
and fellow-prisoner of Paul, Rom. 16 : 7,

A'NER, I., one of Abraham's allies in
the pursuit of Chedorlaomer and the
rescue of Lot, Gen. 14 : 13.

II. A Levitical city, in Manasseh, 1
Chr. 6 : 70.

AN'GEL. The original word, both in
Hebrew and Greek, means messenger,
and is so translated, Matt. 11 : 10 ; Luke
7 : 24, etc. It is often applied to an
ordinary messenger, Job 1 : 14 ; 1 Sam.
11:3; Luke 9:52; to prophets, Isa.
42 : 19 ; Hag. 1 : 13 ; to priests, Eccl.
5:6; Mai. 2:7; and even to inanimate
objects, Psa. 78:49; 104:4; 2 Cor.
12 : 7. Under the general sense of mes
senger, the term angel is properly ap
plied also to Christ, as the great Angel
or Messenger of the covenant, Mai. 3 : 1,
and to the ministers of his gospel, the
overseers or angels of the churches, Rev.
2:1,8, 12, etc. In 1 Cor. 11 : 10, the
best interpreters understand by the term
26

"angels" the holy angels, who were
present in an especial sense in the Chris
tian assemblies ; and from reverence to
them it was proper that the women
should have power (veils, as a sign of
their being in subjection to a higher
power) on their heads. See under VEIL.

But generally in the Bible the word is
applied to a race of intelligent beings, of
a higher order than man, who surround
the Deity, and whom he employs as his
messengers or agents in administering the
affairs of the world, and in promoting
the welfare of individuals, as well as of
the whole human race, Matt. 1 : 20 ;
22 : 30 ; Acts 7 : 30, etc. Whether pure
spirits, or having spiritual bodies, they
have no bodily organization like ours,
and are not distinguished in sex, Matt.
22 : 30. They were doubtless created
long before our present world was made,
Job 38: 7. The Bible represents them as
exceedingly numerous, Dan. 7 : 10 ; Matt.
26 : 53 ; Luke 2 : 13 ; Heb. 12 : 22, 23 ;
as remarkable for strength, Psa. 103 : 20 ;
2 Pet. 2:11; Rev. 5 : 2 ; 18 : 21 ; 19 : 17 ;
and for activity, Judg. 13 : 20 ; Isa. 6:2-6;
Dan. 9:21-23; Matt. 13:49; 26:53;
Acts 27 : 23 ; Rev. 8 : 13. They appeal
to be of divers orders, Isa. 6 : 2-6 ; Ezek.
10:1; Col. 1:16; Rev. 12:7. Their
name indicates their agency in the dis
pensations of Providence towards man,
and the Bible abounds in narratives of
events in which they have borne a visi
ble part. Yet in this employment they
act as the mere instruments of God, and
in fulfilment of his commands, Psa.
91 : 11 ; 103 : 20 ; Heb. 1 : 14. We are
not therefore to put trust in them, pay
them adoration, or pray in their name,
Rev. 19:10 ; 22:8, 9. Though Scripture
does not warrant us to believe that each
individual has his particular guardian
angel, it teaches very explicitly that the
angels minister to every Christian, Matt.
18: 10 ; Luke 16 : 22 ; Heb. 1:14. They
are intensely concerned in the salvation
of men, Luke 2:10-12 ; 15:7, 10; 1 Pet.
1 : 12 ; and will share with saints the
blessedness of heaven for ever, Heb.
12:22.

Those angels ' ' who kept not their first
estate, ' ' but fell and rebelled against God,
are called the angels of Satan or the
devil, Matt. 25 : 41 ; Rev. 12 : 9. These
are represented as being ' ' cast down to
hell, and reserved unto judgment," 2 Pet,
2 : 4. See SYNAGOGUE, ARCHANGEL.

ANG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ANO

ANGEL OF THE LORD, THE ANGEL-
JEHOVAH, the usual title of Christ in the*
Old Testament. Compare Gen. 16 r 7-13 ;
22-11-18; 31:11-13; 32:24-30; Ex.
3 : 2-6, 14 ; 23 : 20 ; Judg. 2 ; 13 : 16-22 ;
Acts 7 : 30-38. Christ thus appears in
the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the
Christian dispensation as the same Jeho
vah, revealing the Father to men, and
carrying forward the same great plan for
the redemption of his people, Isa. 63 : 9.

AN'GER, a violent emotion of a pain
ful nature, sometimes arising spontane
ously upon just occasion, but usually
characterized in the Bible as a great sin,
Matt. 5 : 22 ; Eph. 4:31; Col. 3 : 8. Even
when just, our anger should be mitigated
by a due consideration of the circum
stances of the offence and the state of
mind of the offender ; of the folly and
ill-results of this passion ; of the claims
of the gospel, and of our own need of
forgiveness from others, but especially
from God, Matt. 6 : 15. Anger is in
Scripture frequently attributed to God,
Psa. 7 : 11 ; 90 : 11 ; not that he is lia
ble to those violent emotions which this
passion produces, but figuratively speak
ing, that is, after the manner of men ;
and because he punishes the wicked with
the severity of a superior provoked to
anger.

AN'ISE, a well-known plant, resem
bling dill, carraway, etc., but more fra
grant. The- seeds are kept by apothe
caries. The plant mentioned in Matt.
23:23 was no doubt the dill, which

devoted to the service of God. She was
constant in attendance at the morning
and evening sacrifices at the temple ;
and there, at the age of eighty-four
years, was blessed with a sight of the
infant Saviour, and inspired to announce
the coming of the promised Messiah to
many who longed to sec him, Luke
2 : 36-38.

AN'NAS, a high-priest of the Jews,
Luke 3:2; John 18 : 13, 24 ; Acts 4 : 6.
He is mentioned in Luke as being high"
priest along with Caiaphas, his *on in-
law. . He was first appointed to that
office by Cyrenius, or Quiriuus, procon
sul of Syria, about A. r/. 'i or 8, but was
afterwards deprived of it. After various
changes, the office was given to Joseph,
also called Caiaphas, the son-in-law of
Annas, about A. D. 25, who continued
in office until A. D. 35 or 86. In the
passages of the New Testament above
cited, therefore, it is apparent that Caia
phas was the only actual and proper
high-priest ; but Annas being his father-
in-law, and having been formerly him
self high-priest, and being also perhaps
his substitute, had great influence and
authority, and could with propriety be
still termed high-priest along with Caia<
phas. It was before him that Christ was
first taken on the night of his seizure.
He also assisted in presiding over the
Sanhedrim which sat in judgment upon
Peter and John, Acts 4 : 6.

grows in Palestine, and was tithed by
the Jews.

AN'NA, a daughter of Phanuel, of the
tribe of Asher, early married, but left a
widow after seven years, and thenceforth

ANOINTING was a custom in general
use among the Hebrews and other ori
ental nations, and its omission was one
27

ANS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ANT

gign of mourning, Isa. 61 : 3. They
anointed the hair, head, and beard,
Psa. 104 : 15 ; 133 : 2. At their feasts
and rejoicings they anointed the
whole hody ; but sometimes only
the head or the feet, Psa. 23 : 5 ;
Matt. 6:17; John 12:3. It was
a customary mark of respect to
guests, Luke 7 : 38, 46. The use of
oil upon the skin was thought to
be conducive to health. Anoint
ing was then used, and is still, me
dicinally, Mark 6:13; Jas. 5:14; but
the miraculous cures thus wrought
by the apostles furnish no warrant
for the ceremony just before death
called "extreme unction." The
anointing of dead bodies was also
practised, to preserve them from
corruption, Mark 14 : 8 ; 16 : 1 ;
Luke 23 : 56. They anointed kings
and high-priests at their inaugura
tion, Ex. 29:7, 29, Lev. 4:3, Judg.
9:8, 1 Sam. 9:16, livings 19:15,
16, as also the sacred vessels of the tab
ernacle and temple, Ex. 30:26. This
anointing of sacred persons and objects
signified their being set apart and conse
crated to the service of God ; and the
costly and fragrant mixture appointed for
this purpose was forbidden for all others,
Ex, 30 : 23-33 ; Ezek. 23 : 41.

The custom of anointing with oil or
perfume was also common among the
Greeks and Ptomans ; especially the
anointing of guests at feasts and other
entertainments .

AN'SWER. Besides the common use
of this word in the sense of to reply, it is
very often used in the Bible, following
the Hebrew and Greek idioms, in the
sense of to speak; meaning simply that
one begins or resumes his discourse,
Zech. 3:4; 6:4; Matt. 11 : 25 ; 12 : 38 ;
Luke 7 : 40. It also means, to sing in
choruses or responses, 1 Sam. 18 : 7 ; and
to give account of one's self in judgment,
Gen. 30 : 33 ; Job 9 : 3.

ANT, a small insect, famous for its
industry and economy, for its social hab
its and skill in building. Some species
build habitations truly immense com
pared with themselves, and able to con
tain a dozen men. Their roofs are imper
vious to rain, and they contain numer
ous stories, galleries, etc., the result of
skilful and incessant labor. Ants lav
ish the utmost care and pains upon their
young, both in the egg and the crysalis
28

state. The termites or white ants are
large and very destructive. Most vari
eties of ants are known to choose animal
or saccharine food ; and no species has
yet been found laying up stores of grain
for winter use, for while the frost con
tinues they all lie torpid. The language
of Solomon, Prov. 6:6, commends them
for toiling as soon and as long as the
season permits and rewards their labor,
and bids us make the same diligent use
of life and opportunities, Prov. 30 : 24,
25. The inferior animals are in many re
spects wiser than sinful man, Job 12:7, 8.

AN'TELOPE, see under HOE.

AN'TICHPJST strictly means one
opposed to Christ. In this sense, John
says there were already in his time many
antichrists, many having the spirit of an
tichrist ; unbelievers, heretics, and per
secutors, 1 John 2:18; 4:3. They were
characterized by the denial of the Father
and the Son, and of Christ's coming in
the flesh, 1 John 2 : 22 ; 4:3. But the
apostles and early Christians seem to have
looked forward to some one great anti
christ, who should precede the second
coming of our Lord, and whom Paul
calls "the man of sin, the son of per
dition," 2 Thess. 2:3. To this passage
John alludes, 1 John 2 : 18. Able inter
preters agree that antichrist denotes an
organized body of men, perpetuated from
age to age, opposed to Christ, and which
he will destroy, Rev. 11 ; 13 ; 17.

ANT BIBLE DICTIONARY

ANTIOCH IN SYRIA, ON THK ORONTES.

AN'TIOCH, the name of two cities
mentioned in the New Testament. The
first was situated on the river Orontes,
twenty miles from its mouth, and was
the metropolis of all Syria. It was
founded by Sclcucus Nicator, and called
by him after the name of his father An-
tiochus. This city is celebrated by Cice
ro, as being opulent and abounding in
men of taste and letters. It was at one
time a place of great wealth and refine
ment, and ranked as the third city in
the Roman empire. Its situation, amid
innumerable groves and small streams,
midway between Alexandria and Con
stantinople, rendered it a place of great
beauty and salubrity, as well as commer
cial importance. It was also a place of
great resort for the Jews, and afterwards
for Christians, to all of whom ixivitations
and encouragements were held out by
Scleucus Nicator. The distinctive name
of "Christians" was here first applied to
the followers of Jesus, Acts 11 : 19, 26 ;
13 : 1 ; Gal. 2:11. Antioch was highly
favored by Vespasian and Titus, and be
came celebrated for luxury and vice.
Few cities have suffered greater disasters.
Many times it has been nearly ruined by
earthquakes, one of which, in 1822, de
stroyed one-fourth of its population, then
about twenty thousand. It is now called
Antakia.

The other city, also founded by Seleu-

cus Nicator, was called Antioch of Pisid-
ia, because it was attached to that prov
ince, although situated in Phrygia, Acts
13:14; 14:19, 21; 2 Tim. 3:11.

AN'TIPAS, I. See HEROD ANTIPAS.

II. A faithful martyr, in Pergamos,
Rev. 2 : 13.

ANTIP'ATRIS, the name of a city of
Palestine, situated seven or eight milcw
from the coast, in a fertile and well
watered plain between Crcsarea and Je
rusalem, on the site of the former city
Caphar-Saba. It was founded by Herod
the Great, and called Antipatris, in hon
or of his father Antipater. This place
was visited by Paul, Acts 23 : 31. An
Arab village, called Kefr Saba, now
occupies its site.

ANTO'NIA, a square fortress on the
east side of Jerusalem, north of the tem
ple area, with which it had a covered
communication. There was a tower at
each corner, and it was isolated by high
walls and trenches. It was rebuilt by
Herod the Great, and named after Mark
Antony. Josephus often speaks of it.
It was ' ' the castle ' ' from which soldiers
came down to rescue Paul from the Jews
in the temple; and from its stairs he
addressed the multitude, Acts 21 : 31-40.

APE, an animal rudely resembling the
human race. The tribe may be famil
iarly distinguished as monkeys, apes,
and baboons. Solomon imported them
29

APII

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

APO

from Ophir, 1 Kin. 10 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 21.
They were at one time worshipped in
Egypt; and still are adored in some
parts of India, where one traveller de
scribes a magnificent temple dedicated
to the monkey. There may be an allu

sion to large apes or baboons, literally
"hairy ones/' m Lev. 17 : 7 : Isa. 13 : 21 ;
34 : 14.

APHAR'SACHITES, etc., Ezra 4:9;
5:6; named among the heathen subjects
of the king of Assyria, transplanted into
Samaria. The Apharsites, also named
in Ezra 4 : 9, are regarded by Luther as
Persians.

the book of Revelation. This book be
longs, in its character, to the prophetical
writings, and stands in intimate relation
with the prophecies of the Old Testa
ment, and more especially with the writ
ings of the later prophets, as Ezekiel,
Zechariah, and particularly Daniel, in-
asmucn as it is almost entirely symbol
ical. This circumstance has surrounded
the interpretation of this book with diffi
culties, which no interpreter has yet been
able fully to overcome. As to the au
thor, the weight of testimony through
out all the history of the church is in
favor of John, the beloved apostle. As
to the time of its composition, most
commentators suppose it to have been
written after the destruction of Jerusa
lem, about A. D. 96 ; while others assign
it an earlier date.

It is an expanded illustration of the
first great promise, "The seed of the
woman shall bruise the head of the
serpent." Its figures and symbols are
august and impressive. It is full of pro
phetic grandeur, and awful in its hiero
glyphics and mystic symbols : seven seals
opened, seven trumpets sounded, seven
vials poured out ; mighty antagonists
and hostile powers, full of malignity
against Christianity, and for a season
oppressing it, but at length defeated and
annihilated ; the darkened heaven, tem
pestuous sea, and convulsed earth fight
ing against them, while the issue of the
long combat is the universal reign of
peace and truth and righteousness — the
whole scene being relieved at intervals
by a choral burst of praise to God the
Creator, and Christ the Redeemer and
j Governor. Thus its general scope is

A'PHEK, strength, I., a city in Leb- | intelligible to all readers, or it could not

anon, assigned to the tribe of Asher,
Josh. 13:4; 19:30; but not subdued,
Judg. 1 : 31. Its site may be still found
in mount Lebanon, called Aphka.

II. A city of the tribe of Issachar, in
the valley of Jezreel, noted in the wars
with the Philistines, 1 Sam. 4 : 1 ; 29 : 1.

III. A city rive miles east of the sea
of Galilee, the walls of which fell upon
twenty-seven thousand Syrians under
Benhadad, after his defeat by the Israel
ites, IKin. 20:26-34.

APOC'ALYPSE signifies revelation,
but is particularly referred to the reve-

yield either hope or comfort. It is also
full of Christ. It exhibits his glory as
Redeemer and Governor, and describes
that deep and universal homage and
praise which the "Lamb that was slain "
is for ever receiving before the throne.
Either Christ is God. or the saints and
angels are guilty of idolatry.

"To explain this book perfectly,"
says Bishop Newton, "is not the work
of one man. or of one age ; probably it
never will be clearly understood till it is
all fulfilled."

APOC'RYPHA signifies properly hid-

lations which John had in the isle of j den, concealed ; and as applied to books,
Patmos, whither he was banished by it means those which assume a claim to
Domitian. Hence it is another name lor a sacred character, but are really unin-
30

APO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

APO

spired, and have not been publicly admit
ted into the canon. These are of two
classes: namely,

1. Those which were in existence in
the time of Christ, but were not admit
ted by the Jews into the canon of the
Old Testament, because they had no He
brew original and were regarded as not
divinely inspired. The most important
of these are collected in the Apocrypha
often bound up with the English Bible ;
but in the Septuagint and Vulgate they
stand as canonical.

These apocryphal writings are ten in
number : namely, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus,
Wisdom of Solomon, Tobit, Judith, two
books of the Maccabees, Song of the
Three Children, Susannah, and Bell and
the Dragon. Their style proves that
they were a part of the Jewish-Greek
literature of Alexandria, within three
hundred years before Christ ; and as the
Septuagint Greek version of the Hebrew
Bible came from the same quarter, it
was often accompanied by these unin
spired Greek writings, and they thus
gained a general circulation. Josephus
and Philo, of the first century, exclude
them from the canon. The Talmud con
tains no trace of them ; and from the
various lists of the Old Testament Scrip
tures in the early centuries, it is clear
that then as now they formed no part of
the Hebrew canon. None of them are
quoted or endorsed by Christ or the apos
tles ; they were not acknowledged by
the Christian fathers ; and their own
contents condemn them, abounding with
errors and absurdities. Some of them,
however, are of value for the historical
information they furnish, for their moral
and prudential maxims, and for the illus
trations they afford of ancient life.

2. Those which were written after the
time of Christ, but were not admitted
by the churches into the canon of the
New Testament, as not being divinely
inspired. These are mostly of a legen
dary character. They have all been col
lected by Fabricius in his Codex Apoc.
New Testament.

^ APOLLO'NIA, a city of Macedonia,
situated between Amphipolis and Thes-
salonica, about a day's journey on foot
from the former place, Acts 17 : 1.

APOL'LOS, a Jew of Alexandria, a
learned and eloquent man, who through
the Scriptures and the ministry of John
the Baptist became a Christian. He

visited Ephesus about A. D. 54, and pub
licly proclaimed his faith in Christ;
whereupon he was further instructed in
gospel truth. Passing thence into Acha-
ia, he preached with great power and
success, especially among the Jews, Acts
18 : 24-28. At Corinth, he for a time
watered what Paul had planted, Acts
19 : 1 ; 1 Cor. 3:6. His character was
not unlike that of Paul ; they were
equally grieved at the dissensions of the
Corinthians, and at those personal par
tialities which led many away from
Christ, 1 Cor. 3 : 4-22 ; 16 : 12 ; and they
cooperated to the end in serving him,
Titus 3 : 13. Jerome is of opinion that
Apollos afterwards returned to Corinth
from Crete.

APOL'LYON, see ABADDON.

APOS'TLE, a messenger or envoy.
The term is applied to Jesus Christ, who
was God's envoy to save the world, Heb.
3:1; though, more commonly, the title
is given to persons who were envoys
commissioned by the Saviour himself.

The apostles of Jesus Christ were his
chief disciples, whom he invested with
authority, filled with his Spirit, entrust
ed particularly with his doctrines and
services, and chose to raise the edifice of
his church. They were twelve in num
ber, answering to the twelve tribes.
Matt. 19:28, and were plain, unlearned
men, chosen from the common people.
After their calling and charge, Matt.
10:5-42, they attended their divine
Master, witnessing his works, imbibing
his spirit, and gradually learning the
facts and doctrines of the gospel. After
his resurrection, he sent them into all
the world, commissioned to preach, to
baptize, to work miracles, etc. See
John 15:27; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8; 2 Cor.
12:12; 1 Thess. 2:13. The names of
the twelve are, Simon Peter ; Andrew,
1 his brother ; James, the son of Zebedee,
called also "the greater;" John, his
brother ; Philip ; Bartholomew ; Thom
as ; Matthew, or Levi ; Simon the Ca-
naanite ; Lebbeus, surnamed Thaddeus,
also called Judas or Jiide ; James, " the
less, ' ' the son of Alphacus ; and Judas
Iscariot, Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3:16;
Luke 6:14. The last betrayed his Mas
ter, and then hanged himself, and Mat
thias was chosen in his place, Acts
1:15-26. In the Acts of the Apostles
are recorded the self-sacrificing toils and
sufferings of these Christlike men, who
31

APP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ARA

did that which was "right in the sight
of God ' ' from love to their Lord ; and
gave themselves wholly to their work,
with a zeal, love, and faith Christ de
lighted to honor— teaching us that apos
tolic graces alone can secure apostolic
successes.

APPHI'A, Phile. 2, supposed by some
to have been the wife of Philemon.

APPLE-TREES,
mentioned in Song
2:3; 8:5; Joel 1:12.
Many suppose the
citron-tree to be here
meant. The rich
color, fragrant odor
and handsome ap
pearance of this
tree, both in flower
and in fruit, agree
well with the above
passages. Thoughts
of wise men, well
expressed, are like
"apples of gold in
pictures of silver,"
that is, like ripe
and golden fruit in CITRON.

finely wrought sil
ver baskets, Prov. 25 : 11.

APPII-FO'RUM, market-ptace ofAppius,
a village or market-town, founded by
Appius Claudius on the great road (via
Appia) which he constructed from Home
to Capua. It is most probably to be
found in the present Casarillo di Santa
Maria, situated forty miles from Home,
in the borders of the Pontine marshes,
where are the remains of an ancient town.
ThBee Taverns was a village about ten
miles nearer Rome, Acts 28 : 15.

AQ'UILA, a Jew born in Pontus, a
tent-maker by occupation, who with his
wife Priscilla joined the Christian church
at Rome. When the Jews were banished
from that city by the emperor Claudius,
Aquila and his wife retired to Corinth.
They afterwards became the companions
of Paul in his labors, and are mentioned
by him with much commendation, Acts
18 : 2, 3, 24-26 ; Rom. 16 : 3, 4 ; 1 Cor.
16 : 19 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 19.

AR, called also Rabbah and Rabbath-
Moab, the capital of Moab, Num. 21 : 28 ;
Dent. 2 ; Isa. 15 : 1. Its site, still called
Rabbah, is found upon a hill some fifteen
miles east of the Dead sea, and south of
the Arnon, midway between it and Kir
Moab.

32

ARA'BIA is a country of Western Asia,
lying south and east of Judea. It extends
1,500 miles from north to south, and
1,200 from east to west. On the north
it is bounded by part of Syria, on the
east by the Persian gulf and the Eu
phrates, on the south by the Arabian sea
and the straits of Babelmandel, and on
[ the west by the Red sea, Egypt, and Pal
estine. Arabia is distinguished by ge
ographers into three parts — Deserta, Pe-
trsea, and Felix.

ARABIA DESER'TA, the desert, a vast
steppe, or elevated expanse of sand, with
occasional hills and a sparse vegetation.
It has the mountains of Gilead on the
west, and the river Euphrates on the
east, and extends far to the south. It
comprehends the countiy of the Iture-
ans, the Ishmaelites, the people of Ke-
dar, and others, who led a wandering
life, having no cities, houses, or fixed hab
itations, but wholly dwelling in tents;
in modern Arabic, such are called Beda-
wm. When Paul says he "went into
Arabia and returned again to Damas
cus," he meant doubtless the northern
part of Arabia Deserta, which lay adja
cent to the territories of Damascus, Gal,
1:17.

ARABIA PETR/E'A lies south of the Holy
Land, and had Petra for its capital. See
SELA. This region contained the south
ern Edomites, the Amalekites, the Hi-
vites, etc., people at present known un
der the general name of Arabs. In this
country was Kadesh-barnea, Gerar, Beer-
sheba, Paran, Arad, Hasmona, Oboth,
Dedan, etc., also the peninsula of mount
Sinai and the land of Midian. This por-
^tion of Arabia, though smaller than the
"others, is rich in historical associations.
The patriarch Job was familiar with its
scenery. At Horeb, Moses saw the burn
ing bush, and Elijah heard the "still
small voice." In this " great and terri
ble wilderness," from mount Sinai to
the promised land, the Hebrews spent
their forty years of wanderings.

ARABIA FE'LIX, the happy, lies still far
ther south and east, being bounded east
by the Persian gulf, south by the ocean
between Africa and India, and west by
the Red sea. As this region did not im
mediately adjoin the Holy Land, it is not
so frequently mentioned as the former
ones. The queen of Sheba, who visited
Solomon, 1 Kings 10:1, was probably
queen of part of Arabia Felix. This

AHA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

AHA

A SCENE IN ARABIA.

country abounded with riches, and par
ticularly with spices, and is now called
Hedjaz, Yemen, etc. It is much cele
brated in modern times by reason of the
cities of Mecca and Medina being situ
ated in it.

There are, according to native histo
rians, two races of Arabs : those who de
rive their descent from the primitive in
habitants of the land, Joktan, etc., and
those who claim Ishmael as their ances
tor. Southern Arabia was settled in
part by Cush and his sons, descendants
of Ham, who also peopled the adjoining
coast of Africa, and in part by descend-
aiits of Shem, particularly Joktan, Gen.
10:25, 26. Ishmael, Gen. 25:13-15,
and the six sons of Abraham by Ketu-
rah, Gen. 25 : 2, together with the seed
of Esau and of Lot, occupied the parts of
Arabia nearer Judea. The changes of
forty centuries render it impossible to

distinguish either of these parent sources
in the numerous Arab tribes descended
from them. These tribes have traditions
and peculiarities of their own, and inces
sant feuds ; yet as a whole they are but
one people, distinct from all others. The
only general division is into those who
dwell in cities, as in Southern Arabia,
and those who live in the fields and des
erts. The latter are migratory, dwelling
in tents and removing according to the
convenience of water and pasturage, and
are often robbers. Each tribe is divided
up into little communities, of which a
sheikh or patriarch is the head. Such are
the Bedaween.

In ancient times the Arabs were idol
aters and star-worshippers. They are
now nominally Mohammedans, but tlieii
religion sits but lightly on them. Iso
lated from other nations, and with slight
exceptions free from all foreign control
83

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ARA

they preserve their ancient manners with
singular fidelity, and the study of these
throws much light upon Bible narratives.
Their language also is still spoken with
great purity ; and as it is near akin to
the Hebrew, it furnishes invaluable aid
in the study of the Old Testament.

A'RAD, a Canaanitish city on the ex
treme south of Judea, the inhabitants of
which drove back the Hebrews as they
attempted to enter the promised land
from Kadesh, Num. 21 : 1 ; it was after
wards subdued, Josh. 10 : 41 ; 12 : 14 ;
Judg. 1 : 1G. Kobinson found its site on
a hill about fifteen miles south of Hebron.

A'RAM, I., the name of three men in
the Bible : a sou of Shem, Gen. 10 : 22,
a grandson of Nahor, Gen. 22:21, and
an ancestor of our Lord, Ruth 4 : 19 ; 1
Chr. 2 : 10 ; Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33.

II. Nearly synonymous with Syria ;
the Hebrew name of the whole region
north-east of Palestine, extending from
the Tigris on the east nearly to the Med
iterranean on the west, and to the Tau

rus range on the north. It was named
after Aram the son of Shem. Thus de
nned, it includes also Mesopotamia,
which the Hebrews named Aram-naha-
raim, Aram of the two rivers, Gen. 24 : 10,
or Padan-aram, the plain of Aram, Gen.
25 : 20 ; 48 : 7. Various cities in the west
ern part of Aram gave their own names
to tiie regions around them : as Damas
cus, (Aram-Dammesek,) 2 Sam. 8:6;
Maachah, near Bashan, 1 Chr. 19 : 6 ;
Geshur, Josh. 12 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 15:8; Zo-
bah, and Beth-rehob, 2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8.
Several of these were powerful states,
and often waged war against Israel. Ba-
vid subdued them and made them trib
utaries, and Solomon preserved this su
premacy. After him it was lost, except
perhaps under Jeroboam II. See SYRIA,
PADAN-ARAM. The Aram;jcan language,
nearly resembling the Hebrew, gradual
ly supplanted the latter as a spoken lan
guage, and was in use in Judca at the
time of Christ. It is still used by Syrian
Christians around Mosul.

MOUNT ARARAT, IN ARMENIA.

AR'ARAT, the name of a province in
th§ centre of Armenia, between the river
Araxes and the lakes Van and Ooroo-
34

miah. 2 Kings 19:37, Isaiah 37:38, and
sometimes used to denote the whole
country, Jer. 51:27. On the mountains

AHA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ARE

of Ararat the ark rested, Gen. 8:4. In
1831, Messrs. Smith and Dwight, Amer
ican missionaries, visited Armenia, and
traversed the province of Ararat. Mr.
Smith describes the mountains as fol
lows :

.' ' We passed very near the base of that
noble mountain, which is called by the
Armenians Masis, and by Europeans gen
erally Ararat ; and for more than twenty
days had it constantly in sight, except
when obscured by clouds. It consists of
two peaks, one considerably higher than
the other, and is connected with a chain
of mountains running off to the north
west and west, which, though high, are
not of sufficient elevation to detract at
all from the lonely dignity of this stu
pendous mass. From Nakhchewan, at
the distance of at least 100 miles to the
south-east, it appeared like an immense
isolated cone, of extreme regularity, ris
ing out of the valley of the Araxes. Its
height is said to be 16,000 feet. The
eternal snows upon its summit occasion
ally form vast avalanches, which precip
itate themselves down its sides with a
sound not unlike that of an earthquake.
When we saw it, it was white to its very
base with snow. And certainly not
among the mountains of Ararat or of
Armenia generally, nor those of any part
of the world where I have been, have I
ever seen one whose majesty could plead
half so powerfully its claims to the honor
of having once been the stepping-stone
between the old world and the new. I
gave myself up to the feeling, that on
its summit were once congregated all the
inhabitants of the earth, and that, while
in the valley of the Araxes, I was pay
ing a visit to the second cradle of the
human race."

Mount Ararat was visited in 1829 by
Prof. Parrot, who after several attempts
reached the summit, more than 17,200
feet above the level of the sea. It bears
traces of volcanic action, and in 1840
was shaken by a disastrous earthquake.

ARAU'NAH, a Jebusite, residing on
mount Moriah after the Jebusites were
dispossessed by David, 2 Sam. 5:6;
24 : 18. In 1 Chr. 21 : 18, he is called
ORNAN. The divine choice of his land
for the temple site, 2 Chr. 3:1, and his
readiness to give it freely for this pur
pose, suggest the probability that he was
a convert to the true religion.

AR'BA, an ancestor of the Anakim,

and founder of Hebron, to which he gave
its ancient name, Josh. 15 : 13.

ARCHAN'GEL. This word is only twice
used in the Bible, 1 Thess. 4 : 1C ; Jude
9. In this last passage it is applied to
Michael, who, in Dan. 10 : 13, 21 ; 12 : 1,
is described as having a special charge of
the Jewish nation, and in Rev. 12 : 7-9
as the leader of an angelic army. So
exalted are the position and offices as
cribed to Michael, that many think the
Messiah is meant.

AUCHELA'US, a son of Herod the
Great, by his Samaritan wife Malthace.
He was educated with his brother Anti-
pas at Rome, and after his father's death
was placed over Judea, Idumea, and Sa
maria, (the eities Gaza, Gadara, and Hip
po excepted,) with the title of cthnarch or
tetrarch ; whence he is said to reign, Matt.
2 : 22. This passage implies that he in
herited the tyrannical and cruel disposi
tion of his father ; and history informs
us that after enjoying his power for ten
years, he was accused before the emperor
on account of his cruelties, and banished
to Vienne on the Rhone, in Gaul, where
he died.

ARCHIP'PUS, saluted by Paul as his
"fellow-soldier," Phile. 2, and exhorted
to take heed to his ministry at Colosse,
and fulfil it, Col. 4 : 17.

ARCTU'RUS signifies, properly, the
Bear's Tail, and denotes a star in the
tail of the Great Bear, or constellation
Ursa Major. The "sons" of Arcturus
are probably the smaller stars adjacent,
Job 9 : 9 ; 38 : 32.

AREOPAGUS, the hill of Mars, the seat
of the ancient and venerable supreme
court of Athens, called the-Areopagites,
Acts 17 : 19-34. It was composed en
tirely of ex-archons, of grave and blame
less character, and their wise and just
decisions made it famous far beyond
the bounds of Greece. Their numbers
and authority varied greatly from age
to age. They held their sessions by
night. They took cognizance of murders,
impieties, and immoralities ; punished
vices of all kinds, idleness included ; re
warded or assisted the virtuous ; and
Avere peculiarly attentive to blasphemies
against the gods, and to the performance
of the sacred mysteries. The case of
Paul, therefore, would naturally come
before them, for he sought to subvert
their whole system of idolatry, and es
tablish Christianity in its place. The
35

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ARI

Bible narrative, however, rather de
scribes an informal popular movement.
Having heard Paul discoursing from day
to day in the market-place, the philo
sophic and inquisitive Athenians took
him one day up into the adjacent hill,
for a more full and quiet exposition of
his doctrine. The stone seats of the Are-

RUINS OF THE AREOPAGUS AND ACROPOLIS.

opagus lay open to the sky ; in the court
stood Epicureans, Stoics, etc. ; around
them spread the city, full of idolaters
and their temples ; and a little south
east rose the steep height of the Acropo
lis, on whose level summit were crowded
more and richer idolatrous structures
than on any other equal space in the
world. Amid this scene, Paul exhibit
ed the sin and folly of idol-worship with
such boldness and power, that none could
refute him, and some were converted.

AR'ETAS, the name of several kings
of north-western Arabia. The only one
mentioned in Scripture gave his daugh
ter in marriage to Herod Antipas ; but
she being repudiated by Herod, Aretas
made war upon him and destroyed his
army. In consequence of this, the em
peror Tiberius directed Vitellius, then
proconsul of Syria, to make war upon
the Arabian king, and bring him alive
or dead to Rome. But while Vitellius
was in the midst of preparation for the
war, he received intelligence of the death
of Tiberius, A. D. 37 ; on -which he im
mediately recalled his troops, dismissed
them into winter quarters, and then left
the province. Aretas, taking advantage
36

of this supineness, seems to have made
an incursion and got possession of Da
mascus, over which he appointed a gov
ernor or ethnarch, who, A. D. 39, at the
instigation of the Jews, attempted to put
Paul in prison, 2 Cor. 11 : 32. Compare
Acts 9 : 24, 25.

AR'GOB, a city in Bashan and Manas-
seh east of the Jordan ; also the region
around it. This was very fertile, and
contained at one time sixty walled
towns, which were taken by Jair the
1 son of Manasseh, and called after him,

Deut. 3 : 4, 13, 14 ; 1 Kin. 4 : 13.
± ARIEL, the lion of God, one of Ezra' s
chief men, Ezra 8 : 16. This word is
used, in 2 Sam. 23 : 20, 1 Chr. 11 : 22,
as a descriptive or perhaps a family
name of two lion-like men of Moab.
In another sense, Ezekiel applies it to
the altar of God, Ezek. 43:15, and
Isaiah to Jerusalem, as the hearth on
which both the burnt-offerings and the
enemies of God should be consumed,
Isa. 29 : 1, 2, 7. See also Gen. 49 : 9.
ARIMATHEA, orRA'MAii,(dual, Ra-
mathaim,) a city whence came Joseph
the counsellor, in whose new tomb the
body of Jesus was laid, Matt. 27:57 ;
John 19 : 38. We learn from Euscbius
and Jerome that this city was near Lyd-
da, a town twenty -four miles north-west
of Jerusalem. It has generally been lo
cated at the modern Ramleh, a town
near Lydda, of 3,000 inhabitants, in
which the route from Egypt to Syria
crosses that from Jerusalem to Joppa.
But its site is rather to be sought a few
miles east of Lydda, in the hills which
skirt the plain of Sharon. The first book
of Maccabees, 11:34, speaks of it as
transferred, together with Lydda, from
Samaria to Judea, which may account
for Luke's calling it "a city of the
Jews," Luke 23:51. It has been sup
posed to be the same place as the Ramah
of mount Ephraim, the birthplace and
residence of Samuel. This was called
also Ramathaim-Zophim, 1 Sam. 1:1,
19, from which name the form Arima-
thea is readily derived. See RAMAH.

A'RIOCH, I., king of Ellasar, and ally
of Chedorlaomer, Gen. 14:1.

II. A captain of Nebuchadnezzar's
guard, Dan. 2 : 14.

ARISTAR'CHUS, a native of Thessalo-
nica, a faithful fellow-laborer with Paul,
Acts 20 : 4 ; 27 : 2 ; Phile. 24. His life
was endangered in th/J riot at Ephesus,

ARK

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ARK

excited by the silversmiths, Acts 19 : 29 ;
but having escaped, he continued with
Paul, and was a prisoner with him at
Rome, Col. 4 : 10.

ARK OF NOAH, the vessel in which
the family of Noah was preserved during
the deluge, when all the rest of our race
perished for their sins. The ark is called
in Hebrew, in the Septuagint, and by Jo-
sephus, a chest; and the same word is
used in the history of the infant Moses,
Ex. 2:3. So far as this name affords any
evidence, it goes to show that the ark of
Noah was not a regular sailing-vessel,
but merely intended to float at large
upon the waters. We may therefore re
gard it as a large, oblong, floating house,
with a roof either flat or only slightly in
clined. It was construct
ed with three stories, and
had a door in the side.
There is no mention of
windows in the side, but
"above, ' ' probably in the
roof, where Noah was com
manded to make them of
a cubit in height, Gen.
5:16; 8:13.

The dimensions of the
ark, taking the cubit as
eighteen inches, were 450
ft. in length, 75 in breadth
and 45 in height. It was
built of gopher- wood, and
made water-proof with
bitumen , and was no doubt
large enough to accom
modate the eight persons
of Noah's family and the
animals to be saved in it —
namely, of all birds and
clean beasts seven each, and of unclean
beasts two each, male and female. Many
questions have been raised, and discussed
at great length by sceptics and others, re
specting the form and dimensions of the
ark ; the number of animals saved in it —
whether including all species then exist
ing in the world, except such as live in
water or lie dormant, or only the species
living in the parts of the world then peo
pled by man ; and as to the possibility of
their being all lodged in the ark, and their
food daring the year, etc. Some of these
questions the Bible clearly settles. Oth
ers it is vain to discuss, since we have no
means of deciding them. Certain it is,
that while the Bible eulogizes the faith
and obedience of Noah, it shows that his

salvation was a miracle of Providence.
It was by miracle that he was forewarn
ed, and directed to prepare for the flood;
and the same miraculous power accom
plished all that Noah was unable to do in
designing, building, and filling the ark,
and preserving and guiding it through
the deluge. It has been commonly sup
posed that the warning came to Noah 120
years before the flood. Compare Gen. 5 : 32
with 7:6, and Gen. 6:3 with 1 Pet. 3:20.
Traditions of the ark are found in most
nations all over the globe. See DELUGE.
ARK OF THE COVENANT, the sacred
chest or coffer in which the tables of the
law were deposited, written by the finger
of God, and witnessing to his covenant
with his people, Ex. 25:22; 34:29. It

was of shittim-wood, covered within and
without with plates of gold, nearly four
feet in length, and two feet three inches
in width and' height. On the top of it,
all around, ran a kind of gold crown. It
had four rings of gold, two on each side,
through which staves were put, by which
it Avas carried. These also were overlaid
with the finest gold, and were not to be
removed from the rings, Ex. 25:10-22.
The lid of the ark, all of gold, was called
the mercy -seat ; and upon its opposite ends
were two golden cherubim, fronting each
other and the mercy-seat, which they
covered with their outspread wings, Ex.
37 : 1-9. Here God specially dwelt, 2
Kin. 19:15, 1 Chr. 13:6, and shone forth,
perhaps by some sensible manifestations,
37

ARK

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ARM

Lev. 16:2 ; Psa. 80:1. Here he received
the homage of his people, and dispensed
his living oracles, Num. 7 :8(J. The great
yearly sacrifice of expiation was here of
fered by the high-priesf, Heb. 9:7, in the
Holy of Holies. Hence there was no ob
ject held more sacred by the Jews than
"the ark of God." During their jour
neys in the wilderness, it was borne by
the priests under a purple canopy and
with great reverence before the host of
Israel, Num. 4:5, 6. Before it the Jor
dan was divided, and behind it the wa
ters flowed on again, Josh. 3, 4. The
walls of Jericho fell down before it,
Josh. 6:4-12.

After this, the ark continued some
time at Gilgal, whence it was removed
to Shiloh, Josh. 4:19; 10 : 43 ; 18 : 1.
Hence the Israelites took it to their
camp ; but when they gave battle to the
Philistines, it was taken by the enemy,

1 Sam. 4. The Philistines, oppressed by
the hand of God, returned the ark, and
it was lodged at Kirjath-jearim, 1 Sam.
7:1. It was afterwards, in the reign of
Saul, at Nob. David conveyed it from
Kirjath-jearim to the house of Obed-
Edom, and from thence to his palace on
Zion, 2 Sam. 6 ; and lastly, Solomon
brought it into the temple at Jerusalem,

2 Chr. 5:2. It remained in the temple,
with all suitable respect, till the times
of the later idolatrous kings of Judah,
who profaned the Most Holy place by
their idols, when the priests appear to
have removed the ark from the temple.
At least, Josiah commanded them to
bring it back to the sanctuary, and for
bade them to carry it about, as they had
hitherto done, 2 Chr. 35:3. The ark ap
pears to have been destroyed at the cap
tivity, or perhaps concealed by pious
Jews in some hiding-place afterwards
un discoverable, as we hear nothing more
of it ; and the want of it made the sec
ond temple less glorious than the first.

Besides the tables of the covenant,
placed by Moses in this sacred coffer. God
appointed the blossoming rod of Aaron
to be lodged there, Num. 17 : 10 ; Heb.
9:4 ; a golden vase of manna gathered in
the wilderness, Ex. 16:33, 34, and a copy
of the book of the law, Deut. 31:26.

AR'KITES, descendants of Canaan, of
the Zidonian branch, who settled a town
called Arka, at the north-west foot of
mount Lebanon, Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr.
1 : 15. The ruins of Arka have been
38

found by Burckhardt and others about
fourteen miles north-east of Tripolis.

ARMAGED'DON, mountain of Mcgiddo,
a place mentioned Rev. 16:16. Megiddo
is a city in the great plain at the foot of
mount Carmel, which had been the scene
of much slaughter. Under this charac
ter it is referred to in the above text as
the place in which God will collect to
gether his enemies for destruction.

ARME'NIA, a large country of Asia,
having Media on the east, Cappadocia on
the west, Colchis and Iberia on the north,
Mesopotamia on the south, and the Eu
phrates and Syria on the southwest. It
is an elevated table-land, with a cool and
salubrious climate. Lying between the
Caucasus and the Taurus range, with
mount Ararat towering in its central
province, it gives rise to three notable
rivers, the Euphrates, Tigris, and Araxes.
It is only named in Scripture as the
place of refuge of two Assyrian parricides,
2 Kin. 19:37. The modern Armenian
church resembles strongly the Greek
church, and is sadly debased and corrupt.
See ARARAT, MINNI, and TOGARMAH.

ARMS and ARMOR. The Hebrews
used in war offensive arms of the same
kinds as were employed by other people
of their time and of the East — swords,
lances, spears, darts, javelins, bows, ar-

ARM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ARO

rows, and slings. For defensive armor,
they used helmets, cuirasses, bucklers,
armor for the thighs, etc. See WAR.

In the accompanying engravings ^ are
represented specimens of the various
weapons anciently used ; also of the sev

eral parts of the armor for defence, and
the manner in which they were worn: 1.
the cuirass, or defence of the body — this
is called in Scripture the coat of mail, ha
bergeon, and breastplate ; it appears to
have been made of leather or some pliant
material, sometimes covered with metal
lic-scales, and capable of taking the form
of the parts of the body it protected ; 2. the
helmet, usually of metal, with its flowing
crest ; 3. the shield, target, or buckler,
either of wood covered with tough hides,

or o^metal ; 4. the leg-pieces, or greaves,
of thick leather or brass : also the bow

and arrow; the battleaxe ; the spear, dart,
and javelin or short spear ; and the sword
with its sheath, the ancient sword being
short, straight, and twoedged.

Each Jewish tribe had its own banner.
Under ABOMINATION is a cut represent
ing the ensigns of the Roman legions,
which the Jews regarded as idolatrous,
not only because they had been conse
crated to idols, and by heathen priests,
but as they had images on them, and
were objects of adoration. Exod. 20:4.
AR'NON, a river rising in the moun
tains east of the Dead sea, into which it
Hows. It is now called Wady Modjeb,
and anciently divided the territories of
the Moabites in turn from those of the
Ammonites, Amoritcs, and Rcubenites,
Num. 21:13; Josh. 13:16. It flows in
a deep and wild ravine of the same
name. Buickhardt, after reaching the
ruins of Aroer, which stand on the edge
of the precipice at the foot of which the
Arnon flows, says, "From hence a foot
path leads down to the river. The view
which the Modjeb presents is very strik
ing. From the bottom, where the river
runs through a narrow stripe of verdant
level about forty yards across, the steep
and barren banks arise to a great height,
covered with immense blocks of stone
which have rolled down from the upper
strata ; so that, when viewed from above,
the valley looks like a deep chasm, form
ed by some tremendous convulsion of
the earth, into which there seems to be
no possibility of descending to the bot
tom. The distance from the edge of one
precipice to that of the opposite one, is
about two miles in a straight line."

He was thirty-fi ve minutes in descend
ing to the river bed. Here the heat of
midsummer is extreme, and the river
becomes almost dried up ; but in the
rainy season there is an impetuous tor
rent.

AR'OER, I., an ancient city on the
north side of the Arnon, in the south
ern border of the tribe of Reuben, Deut.
2 : 36 ; 4 : 48 ; Josh. 13:9. It was in the
territory of the Arnorites, Josh. 12:2,
but seems to have fallen at a later day
into the hands of Moab, Jer. 48: 19. See
ARNON.

II. A town in the tribe of Gad, proba-
ably eastof Rabbath-Ammon, Josh. 13:25,
and perhaps on the Jabbok, 2 Sam. 24:5.
It is mentioned in Judg. 11:33.

III. A town of Judah, to which David

39

ARF

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ASA

sent presents, 1 Sam. 30: 28 , 1 Chr. 11 :44.
Rcbinson found traces of it about sixteen
miles south by west from Hebron.

AH' PAD, a Syrian city, associated with
Hamath, 2 Kin. 18:34; 19; Isa. 10:9;
36:19, and with Damascus, Jer. 49:23.
Its site is unknown.

ARPHAX'AD, a son of Shem, two
years after the flood, Gen. 10:22 ; 11:10.
Seven generations followed him before
Abraham, while he lived till after the
settlement of Abraham in the land of
promise and the rescue of Lot from the
four kings. He died A. M. 2096, aged
four hundred and thirty-eight.

AR'ROW, used by the Jews both in
hunting and in war ; sometimes merely
a sharpened reed, sometimes feathered,
barbed, and even poisoned, Job 6 : 4. The
bow was of various forms and materials,
and many could be used only by the
strongest men, Psa. 18:34. Arrows were
used to convey fire to an enemy's house,
and for divination, Ezek. 21:21. The
word is applied symbolically to children,
Psa. 127 : 4, 5 ; to the lightning, Psa.
18 : 14 ; Hab. 3:11; to sudden calamities,
Job 6 : 4 ; Psa. 38 : 2 ; 91 : 5 ; Ezek. 5: 15 ;
and to the deceitful and bitter words of
an evil tongue, Psa. 64:3 ; 120:4.

ARTAXER'XES, great king, the name
or title of several kings of Persia. I. It
is given in Ezra 4:7-24, to Smcrdis the
Magian, who usurped the throne after
the death of Cambyses, B. c. 522, pre
tending to be Smerdis, the son of Cyrus,
whom Cambyses had put to death. His
usurped power was used, at the instiga
tion of Rehum, etc., to stop the rebuild
ing of the temple. He was murdered,
after a reign of eight months, and was
succeeded by Darius son of Ilystaspes.

II. The king of this name mentioned
in Ezra 7, is most probably Artaxerxes
Longimanus, the son and successor of
Xerxes, who ascended the throne B. c.
464, and died B. c. 425, after a mild reign
of thirty-nine years. In the seventh year
of his reign, Ezra led a second company
of the Jewish exiles back to Jerusalem.
In the twentieth year of Artaxerxes Lon
gimanus, Nehemiah was sent to Jerusa
lem as governor, Nch. 2:1 ; 5:14, etc.

AR'TEMAS, apparently a faithful min
ister, cooperating with Paul, Titus 3:12,
who thought him worthy to take the
place of Titus at Crete, while the latter
spent the winter with the apostle at Ni-
copolis.

40

AR'VAD, a Phoenician city, on a small
rocky island at the mouth of the river
Eleutherus, twenty-two miles north of
Tripolis. It is now called Ruad, and is
but a ruin. The Arvadites also occupied
the adjacent coast. They were descend
ants of Canaan, Gen. 10: 18 ; 1 Chr. 1:16;
and were noted mariners. Ezek. 27:8, 11.

A'SA, the third king of Judah after
Solomon, son and successor of Abijamf
1 Kin. 15:8. He began to reign B. c.
951, and reigned forty-one years at Jeru
salem. The first part of his reign was
comparatively peaceful and prosperous.
He restored the pure worship of God ;
expelled those who, from sacrilegious
superstition, prostituted themselves in
honor of their false gods ; purified Jeru
salem from the infamous practices attend
ing the worship of idols ; and deprived
his mother of her office and dignity of
queen, because she erected an idol to
Astarte. In the eleventh year of his
reign, God gave him the victory over
the vast army of the Cushite king Ze-
rah ; and the prophet Azariah encour
aged him to go on in his work of reform.
And yet, when Baasha king of Israel
opposed this very work, he sought aid
not from God, but from heathen Syria.
In the latter part of his life, he became
diseased in his feet ; and Scripture re
proaches him with having had recourse
to the physicians, rather than to the
Lord, 2 Chr. 10:12. Yet his reign was,
on the whole, one of the happiest which
Jud .ill enjoyed, and the Bible repeatedly
commends his piety as an example. 1
Kin. 22:43; 2 Chr. 20:32; 21:12. His
funeral rites were celebrated with special
magnificence. There was ill-will and
strife between Asa and Baasha all their
days, as between Rehoboam and Israel,
IKin. 15:6, 16.

ASAHEL, son of David's sister Zeru-
iah, and brother of Joab ; one of David's
thirty heroes, and extremely swift of
foot ; killed by Abner, at the battle of
Gibcon, 2 Sam. 2:18, 23.

A'SAPH, I., assembler, a celebrated mu
sician in David's time, and one of the
leaders of the temple music. 1 Chr. 16:5;
25:1, 2. This- service appears to have
been hereditary in his family, Neh. 7 : 44 ;
11:22. He is also called a seer, 2 Chr.
29 : 30 ; and his name is prefixed to twelve
Psalms, (50, 73-83,) but whether they
were written by him, or for him or his
family to sing, is unknown. See M*usic.

ASC

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ASH

II. A recorder of king Hezekiah, 2
Kin. 18:18; Isa. 36:3.

III. Keeper of forests under Artaxer-
xes, Neh. 2:8.

ASCEN'SION, the visible ascent of
Christ to heaven. When our Saviour
had repeatedly conversed with his apos
tles during forty days, after his resurrec
tion, and afforded them infallible proofs
of its reality, he led them out to the
mount of Olives, and was raised up to
heaven in their sight, there to continue
till he shall come again at the last day
to judge the quick and the dead, Acts
1:9, 11. The ascension was demonstrat
ed by the descent of the Holy Ghost,
John 16:7-14; Acts 2. It was Christ's
real human nature that ascended ; and
he thus triumphed gloriously over death
and hell, as head of his body the church.
While he blessed his disciples he was
parted from them, and multitudes of the
angelic hosts accompanied and welcomed
him, Psa. 24:9 ; 68:17. The consequen
ces resulting from his ascension are : the
fulfilment of types and prophecies con
cerning it ; his appearance as a priest in
the presence of God for us ; his more
open and full assumption of his kingly
office ; his receiving gifts for men ; his
opening the way to heaven for his peo
ple, Heb. 10:19, 20; and assuring his
saints of their ascension to heaven after
the resurrection of the dead, John 14 : 1, 2.

AS'ENATH, daughter of Potipherah,
priest or prince of On ; given in marriage
by Pharaoh to Joseph, as adding honor
and strength to his high office . She was
the mother of Ephraim and Manasseh,
Gen. 41:45; 46:20.

ASH'DOD, one of the five chief cities
of the Philistines, assigned to the tribe
of Judah, but never conquered by them,
Josh. 13:3; 15:47; 1 Sam. 5:1; 6:17;
Neh. 4:7. Here stood the temple of
Dagon ; and hither the ark was first
brought, after the fatal battle at Ebene-
zer, 1 Sam. 5:1. It was called by the
Greeks Azotus, and belonged to Judea
in the time of Christ. Here Philip
preached the gospel, Acts 8:40. At the
present day, it is a miserable village,
still called Esdud.

ASH'ER, the eighth son of Jacob and
second of Zilpah, Gen. 30 : 13 ; 35 : 26.
On entering Canaan his tribe was the
fifth in order, numbering fifty-three
thousand four hundred. The portion of
Asher lay along the seaboard, having

Lebanon and Zidon on the north, Cannel
and the tribe of Issachar on the south, and
Zebulun and Naphtali on the east. It was
fruitful in grain, wine, oil, and minerals,
Gen. 49:20; Deut. 33:24, 25. How
much of the Phoenician coast was includ
ed is uncertain, Josh. 19:25, 28 ; but the
Asherites were imable to expel the Ca-
naanites, and dwelt in part among them,
Judg. 1:31, 32. They are honorably men
tioned in the history of David, 1 Chr.
12:36, and of Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 30:11.

ASH'ES. To repent in sackcloth and
ashes, or to lie down among ashes, was
an external sign of self-affliction for sin,
or of grief under misfortune. We find
it adopted by Job, 2:8; by many Jews
when in great fear, Esth. 4:3; and by
the king of Nineveh, Jonah 3:6. The
ashes of a red heifer were used in cere
monial purification, Num. 19.

ASH'IMA, a deity adored by the men
of Hamath, who were settled in Sama
ria, 2 Kin. 17:30.

ASH'KENAZ, a son of Gomer and
grandson of Japheth, Gen. 10:3. The
region peopled by his descendants -is
named in Jer. 51:27 with Minni and
Ararat, provinces of Armenia. It prob
ably lay towards the Black sea.

ASH'PENAZ, chief of the eunuchs of
king Nebuchadnezzar, who had the
charge of Daniel and his young compan
ions, and was led to show them favor at
his own peril, Dan. 1:3-18.

ASHTORETH, FROM A TYRIAN COIN.

ASH'TORETH, plural ASH'TAROTH,
called by the Greeks Astarte, was a god
dess of the Phoenicians, 2 Kin. 23:13,
whose worship was also introduced
among the Israelites and Philistines, 1
Kin. 11:5, 33; 1 Sam. 7:3; 31:10. She
is commonly named in connection with
Baal, Judg. 2:13; 10:6; 1 Sam. 7:4;
12:10. Another Hebrew name for the
41

AST

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ASS

same goddess is Asherah, the liappy, the
fortunate ; or more simply, fortune. This
last name is commonly rendered in the
English version ' ' grove ; ' ' but eminent
Hebrew scholars think this meaning is
unsupported either by the etymology or
the context. Both these Hebrew names
of Astarte, when used in the plural,
often signify images or statues of Astar
te ; which are said to be set up, broken
down, destroyed, etc. In connection
with the worship of Astarte there was
much of dissolute licentiousness ; and
the public prostitutes of both sexes were
regarded as consecrated to her. See
2 Kin. 23:7. Compare Lev. 19:29; Deut.
23:18.

As Baal or Bel denotes, in the astro
logical mythology of the East, the male
star of fortune, the planet Jupiter ; so
Ashtorcth signifies the female star of
fortune, the planet Venus. As to the
opinion that Baal designates .the sun,
and Ashtoreth the moon, see under BAAL.
Compare Jer. 7:18; 11:13; 44:17, 18;
Ezek. 1G.

ASHTAROTH-KARNAIM, two-horned As-
tartes, Gen. 14:5, or simply Ashtaroth,
Deut. 1:4, a city of Og, king of Bashaii,
beyond Jordan. The name is doubtless
derived from the goddess Ashtoreth or
Astarte, whose images were adored there
under the figure of a female with a cres
cent, or horns. It was in the limits of
the half tribe of Manasseh, Josh. 13:31 ;
and was a Levitical city, 1 Chr. 6 : 71.
It is also called Beeshterah, Josh. 21:27.

ASIA, one of the great divisions of the
eastern continent, lying east of Europe.
The Asia spoken of in the Bible is Asia
Minor, a peninsula which lies between
the Euxine or Black sea and the eastern
part of the Mediterranean, and whicii
formerly included the provinces of Phry-
gia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Caria, Lycia,
Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia,
Cappadocia, Galatia, Lycaonia, and Pi-
sidia. On the western coast were an
ciently the countries of ^Eolia, Ionia, and
Doris, the names of which were after- I
wards retained, although the countries j
were included in the pi'ovinces of Mysia, \
Lydia, and Caria. Many Jews were |
scattered over these regions, as appears
from the history in Acts, and from Jose-
phus. The writers of the New Testa
ment comprehend, under the name of
Asia, either (1) the whole of Asia Minor,
Acts 19:26, 27 ; 20:4, 16, 18 ; or (2) only |
42

proconsular Asia, that is, the region of
Ionia, of whicii Ephesus was the capital,
and which Strabo also calls Asia, Acts
2:9; 6:9; 16:6; 19:10, 22. Cicero
speaks of proconsular Asia as containing
the provinces of Phrygia, Mysia, Caria,
and Lydia.

AS'KELON, a city in the land of the
Philistines, between Ashdod and Gaza,
on the coast of the Mediterranean. After
the death of Joshua, the tribe of Judah
took Askelon ; but it subsequently be
came one of the five governments belong
ing to the Philistines, Judg. 1 : 18 ; 1
Sam. 6 : 17. Dr. Pdchardson thus de
scribes its present state: "Askelon was
one of the proudest satrapies of the Phil
istines ; now there is not an inhabitant
within its walls ; and the prophecy of
Zechariah is fulfilled : ' The king shall
perish from Gaza, and Askelon shall not
be inhabited,' " Zech. 9:5.

ASNAP'PEK, the Assyrian king or
satrap, under whose direction the terri
tory of the ten tribes was peopled by
emigrants from beyond the Euphrates,
2 Kin. 17 : 24 ; Ezra 4 : 10. Some identify
him with Esar-haddon, and some with
Shalmaneser. Ezra styles him "great
and noble;" but no other trace of him
is left.

ASP, HebreAv Pethen, a kind of ser
pent, whose poison is of such rapid oper
ation, that it kills almost the instant it
penetrates, without a possibility of rem
edy. It is said to be very small, not
more than a foot in length. Forskal
supposes it to be the Baetan, or Coluber
Lebetina, of Linnaeus ; but the true asp
of the ancients seems to be unknown.
It is frequently mentioned by ancient
writers ; but in such an indefinite man
ner, that it is impossible to ascertain the
species with precision. It is mentioned
in Deut. 32 : 33 ; Job 20 : 14, 16 ; Psa.
58:4; 91:13; Isa. 11:8; Jer. 8:17; Rom.
8:13. A traveller in the desert south of
Judah describes it as still infested with
serpents ; and adds as an instance, "One
day we saw in our path an asp, a foot
long, coiled up in the attitude of spring
ing. Our Arabs killed it, saying it was
exceedingly venomous. ' '

ASS, an animal well known for do
mestic uses ; and frequently mentioned
in Scripture. People of the first quality
in Palestine rode on asses. Deborah, in
her song, describes the nobles of the
land as those who ' ' ride on white asses,"

ASS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ASS

Judg. 5:10. Compare Judg. 10:4; 12:14.
The oriental asses are not to be compared
with those of northern countries ; but
are far more stately, active, and lively.
Indeed, they were anciently, as still,
highly prized ; and were also preferred
for riding, especially the she-asses, on
account of their sure-footedness. Hence
we so often find mention of she-asses
alone.

The Wild Ass is a well-known oriental
animal, often mentioned in Scripture,
and is a much handsomer and more
dignified animal than the common ass.
These animals were anciently found in
Palestine, Syria, Arabia Deserta, Meso
potamia, Phrygia, and Lycaonia; but
they rarely occur in those regions at the
present time, and seem to be almost
entirely confined to Tartary, some parts
of Persia and India, and Africa. Their
manners greatly resemble those of the
wild horse. They assemble in troops
under the conduct of a leader or senti
nel, and are extremely shy and vigi
lant. They will, however, stop in the
midst of their course, and even suffer
the approach of man for an instant, and
then dart off with the utmost rapidity.
They have been at all times celebrated
for their swiftness. Their voice resem
bles that of the common ass, but is shrill
er. Mr. Moricr says, "We gave chase
to two wild asses, which had so much
more speed than our horses, that when
they had got at some distance, they
stood still and looked behind at us,
snorting with their noses in the air, as
if in contempt of our endeavors to catch
them."

AS'SOS, a seaport in Mysia, opposite

to the island of Lesbos on the north.
Here Paul took ship for Mityleue, Acts
20:13. It is now a poor village, called
Beiram.

ASSYR'IA, a celebrated country and
empire, had its name from Ashur, or As-
sur, the second son of Shem, who settled
in that region, Gen. 10:22. In the Bi
ble the name Assyria is employed in three
different significations : namely,

1. Assyria ancient and proper lay east
of the Tigris, between Armenia, Susi-
ana, and Media, and appears to have
comprehended the six provinces at
tributed to it by Ptolemy, namely, Ar-
rapachis, Adiabene, Arbelis, (nowEr-
bil,) Calachene, (Heb. Halah? 2 Kin.
17 ': 6,) Apollonias, and Sittacene. It
is the region which mostly comprises
the modern Kurdistan and the pash-
ali.t of Mosul. Of these provinces,
Adiabene was the most fertile and im
portant ; in it was situated Nineveh
the capital ; and the term Assyria, in
its most narrow sense, seems some
times to have meant only this prov-
ince.

2. Most generally, Assyria means
the Kingdom of Assyria, including Baby
lonia and Mesopotamia, and extending to
the Euphrates, which is therefore used
by Isaiah as an image of this empire, Isa.
7:20 ; 8:7. In one instance, the idea of
the empire predominates so as to exclude
that of Assyria proper, namely, Gen.
2:14, where the Hiddekel or Tigris is
said to flow eastward of Assyria.

3. After the overthrow of the Assyrian
state, the name continued to be applied
to those countries which had been for
merly under its dominion, namely, (a)
To Babylonia, 2 Kin. 23:29; Jer. 2:18.
(6) To Persia, Ezra 6 : 22, where Darius is
also called king of Assyria.

The early history of Assyria is involv
ed in obscurity. We know from the sa
cred narrative that it was a powerful na
tion. Israel was subjugated by one of
its monarchs in the period of the Judges,
and during the reign of the kings the
Assyrian power was an object of perpet
ual dread. Pul, king of Assyria, invaded
Israel in the reign of Menahem. Tig-
lath-pileser assisted Ahaz against a con
federate army formed of the Syrian forces
in league with those of the ten tribes.
Shalmanezer invaded Israel, conquered
Hoshea, and made him a vassal, bound
to pay a yearly tribute. Hoshea wish-
43

AST

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ATI!

ing however to throw off the yoke, at
tempted to form a league with Egypt,
and refused the tribute. On ascertain
ing this secret design of the Israelitish
prince, Shalmanezer again invaded Is
rael, reduced Samaria, loaded its king
with fetters, and transported the people
of the land into Media, and put an end
to the separate kingdom of the ten tribes.
The three tribes located east of Jordan
had already been deported into Media by
Tiglath-pileser, when he ravaged Israel
to save Aha/ and the kingdom of Jtidah.
Sennacherib of Assyria came into Judah
with a powerful army in the reign of
Hezekiah, but was miraculously defeat
ed. Esarhaddon, his son and successor,
ravaged Judah in the days of Manasseh,
and carried the conquered sovereign in
chains to Babylon. After this period the
empire of Assyria suddenly waned, and
its last monarch was the effeminate Sar-
danapalus, Num. 24:22. Its capital was
one of the most renowned of the eastern
world. See NINEVEH. But the kingdom
fell at length into the hands of the
Medes, the monarchy was divided be
tween them and the Babylonians, and
the very name of Assyria was thence
forth forgotten.

ASTROL'OGERS, men who pretended
to foretell future events by means of as
tronomical observations. It was fancied
that the stars and planets had an influ
ence, for good or for evil, on human af
fairs, and that certain aspects and rela
tive positions of the heavenly bodies were
full of meaning to those who had skill to
interpret them, Dan. 2:2. These super
stitions were prevalent among the Chal
deans, Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoenicians,
and Arabians, and were closely connect
ed with the worship of the sun, moon,
and stars. Deut. 4 : 19 ; 17 : 3 ; 2 Kin.
23:5, 12 ; Jer. 19:13 ; Ezek. 8:16 ; Zeph.
1 : 5. They were thus idolatrous in their
spirit, robbed God of his glory, and were
highly offensive in his sight.

ASTRON'OMY, the science which
treats of the heavenly bodies, was much
studied in Asia in ancient times. The
Chaldeans excelled in it. The Hebrews
do not appear to have made great profi
ciency in it, though their climate and
mode of life invited to the contempla
tion of the heavens. Revelation had
taught them who created and governed
all the worlds, Gen. 1, and the infinite
presence of the one living and true God
44

filled the universe, to their minds, with
a glory unknown to others, Psa. 19 ; Isa.
40:26; Amos 5:8. The Bible does not
aim to teach the science of astronomy,
but speaks of the sun, moon, and stars
in the familiar language of mankind in
all ages. The following heavenly bod
ies are alluded to particularly in Scrip
ture : Venus, the morning star, Isa.
14:12; Rev. 2:28; Orion, and the Plei
ades, Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8; the
Great Bear, called "Arcturus," Job 9:9 :
38:32; Draco, "the crooked serpent,"
Job 26:13; and Gemini, "the twins,"
2 Kin. 23 : 5 ; Acts 28 : 1 1. The planets
Jupiter and Venus were worshipped un
der various names, as Baal and Ashto-
reth, Gad and Meni, Isa. 65:11. Mer
cury is named as Nebo, in Isa. 46 : 1 ',
Saturn as Chiun. in Amos 5 : 26 ; and
Mars as Nergal, in 2 Kin. 17:30. See
IDOLATRY and STARS.

ASUP'PIM, collections. The "house of
Asuppim" was probably a storehouse
in connection with the temple, 1 Chr.
26:15.

A'TAD, a Canaanite, at whose thresh
ing-floor a solemn mourning was held
over the remains of Jacob, on their way
from Egypt to Hebron, Gen. 50:10, 11.
See ABEL-MIZRAIM.

ATAROTH. Several places of this
name occur in Scripture : one in the
tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2 : 54 ; one or two
in Ephraim, Josh. 16 : 2, 5, 7 ; 18 : 13 ;
and one or two in Gad, Num. 32 : 3, 34, 35.
Robinson found traces of one of those in
Ephraim, on a high hill about six miles
north by west from Bethel.

ATHALI'AH, a granddaughter of Om-
ri, 2 Chr. 22:2, and daughter of Ahab
and Jezebel, 2 Kin. 11:1. Strangely
enough, she was chosen as the wife of
Jehoram, son of the pious Jehoshaphat
king of Judah. Her pernicious influence
drew into idolatry and crime both her
husband and her son Ahaziah, 2 Chr.
21 : 6 ; 22 : 3. After their premature
death, she usurped the throne, and
sought to secure herself in it by the
murder of all the seed royal. Only Jo-
ash her grandson, then an infant, was
saved by his aunt Jehosheba. Six years
afterwards he was brought from his place
of refuge, and crowned by the bold and
faithful high-priest Jehoiada, who at the
same time caused the blood-stained Ath-
aliah to be put to death, 2 Kin. 11 ; 2
Chr. 23.

ATH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ATH

THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS.

ATH'ENS, the city of Minerva, the chief
city of Attica in Greece, situated on the
Saronic gulf, forty-six miles east of Cor
inth, and about live miles from the coast.
The city was in a plain extending to the
sea on the south-west, where it had three
ports, the passage to which was defended
by long and broad walls. Several rocky
hills rose in the plain, the largest of
which was the citadel, or Acropolis.
Around this the city was built, most of
the buildings spreading towards the sea.
The summit of the hill was nearly level,
about eight-hundred feet long and four
hundred wide. The only way to the
Acropolis was through the Propyleea, a
magnificent gateway on the western side,
adorned with two temples decorated with
the finest pieces of sculpture and paint
ing. These splendid portals crowned an
ascent by marble steps to the summit of
the hill, on which were erected the tem
ples of the guardian divinities of Athens.
On the left was the temple of Pallas
Athene, (Minerva,) regarded as the pro
tectress of the city. Under the same
roof was the temple of Neptune. In the
area, on a high pedestal, stood a bronze
statue of Minerva seventy feet high. On
the right arose the Parthenon, the glory
of Athens, the noblest triumph of Gre
cian architecture. From whatever quar
ter the traveller arrived, the first thing
he saw was the Parthenon rearing its

lofty head above the city and the cita
del. Its ruins, still sublime in decay,
are the first object that attracts the eye
of a stranger. It was of the Doric order
of architecture, built of beautiful white
marble, and was about one hundred feet
wide, two hundred and twenty-six feet
deep, and seventy feet high. There was
a double portico of columns at the two
fronts, and a single row along each side.
There was an architrave, or frieze, along
the exterior of the nave, beautifully
sculptured, with the representation of a
procession in honor of Minerva. Within
the temple was a statue of Minerva, by
Phidias, celebrated for its exquisite beau
ty. It was made of gold and ivory, and
was nearly forty feet high. The goddess
was represented erect, covered with her
aegis, holding in one hand a lance, and
in the other a figure of victory. At the
foot of the Acropolis, on one side was the
Odeum, or music-hall, and the theatre
of Bacchus : on the other side was the
Prytaneum, where the chief magistrates
and most meritorious citizens were en
tertained at a table furnished at the pub
lic expense. A small valley lay between
the Acropolis and the hill on which the
Areopagus held its sessions ; it also sep
arated the Areopagus from the Pnyx, a
small rocky hill on which the general
assemblies of the people were held. Here
the spot is yet pointed out from which
45

ATO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAA

the eminent orators addressed the peo
ple. It is cut in the natural rock. In
this vicinity also was the agora, or mar
ket-place, Acts 17 : 17, an open square sur
rounded by beautiful structures ; while
on every side altars, shrines, and tem
ples were seen, some of them exceedingly
magnificent. This beautiful city was also
celebrated for the military talents and
the learning, eloquence, and politeness
of its inhabitants. It was the very flower
of ancient civilization ; its schools of phi
losophy were the most illustrious in the
world, and its painters, sculptors, and
architects have never been surpassed.
Yet no city was so ' ' wholly given to
idolatry." The apostle Paul visited it
about the year A. D. 52, and though alone
among its' proud philosophers, preached
Jesus and the resurrection to them with
fidelity and success, Acts 17 : 15-34. See
AREOPAGUS. At present Athens is com
paratively in ruins, and has a population
of about 28,000 addicted to the supersti
tions of the Greek church.

ATONE'MENT is the satisfaction of
fered to divine justice for the sins of
mankind by the death of Jesus Christ ;
by virtue of which all true penitents be
lieving in Christ are reconciled to God,
are freed from the penalty of their sins,
and entitled to eternal life. The atone
ment by Jesus Christ is the great distin
guishing peculiarity of the gospel, and
is presented in a great variety of terms
and illustrations in both the Old Testa
ment and the New. See REDEMPTION,
SACRIFICES. The English word atone
ment originally denoted the reconcilia
tion of parties previously at variance.
It is used in the Old Testament to trans
late a Hebrew word which means a cov
ering ; implying that by a Divine pro
pitiation the sinner is covered from the
just anger of God. This is actually ef
fected by the death of Christ ; while the
ceremonial offerings of the Jewish church
only secured from impending temporal
judgments, and typified the blood of Je
sus Christ which ' ' cleanseth us from all
sin."

ATONEMENT, DAY OF. See EXPIATION.

ATTA'LIA, a seaport in Pamphylia, at
the mouth of the river Catarrhactes, vis
ited by Paul and Barnabas on their way
from Perga to Antioch, Acts 14 : 25.
There is still a village there of a similar
name, with extensive ruins in the vicin-
ity.

46

AUGUS'TUS, venerable, the first peace
fully acknowledged emperor of Rome,
began to reign B. c. 19. Augustus was
the emperor who appointed the enrol
ment, Luke 2:1, which obliged Joseph
and the Virgin to go to Bethlehem, the
place where the Messiah was to be born.
He died A. D. 14.

A'VEN, see HELIOPOLIS.

AVEN'GER or BLOOD. See BLOOD,
REFUGE.

A' VIM, or A'VITES, descendants of Ca>
naan, Gen. 10:17, who occupied a por
tion of the coast of Palestine from Gaza
towards the river of Egypt, but were ex
pelled and almost destroyed by invading
Philistines or Caphtorim, before the time
of Moses, Deut. 2:23. Some yet remain
ed in the time of Joshua, Josh. 13 : 3.
They are conjectured to have been the
same people with the Hivites, of whom
traces were found in various parts of Ca
naan, Gen. 34:2; Josh. 9:7; 11:3.

AZARI'AH, a king of Judah, 2 Kin.
15:1-7. In 2Chr. 26, and elsewhere, he
is called Uzziah. He began to reign at
sixteen years of age, B. c. 806. The first
part of his reign was prosperous and
happy ; but afterwards, presuming to
offer incense in the temple, he was smit
ten with leprosy, and continued a leper
till his death, 2 Chr. 26 : 16-23. This
name was very common among the Jews,
and was borne by many briefly referred
to in Scripture.

AZE'KAH, a town in the tribe of Ju
dah, about fifteen miles south-west of
Jerusalem ; mentioned in the narratives
of Joshua and Saul, Josh. 10: 10 ; 1 Sam.
17 : 1 ; taken by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer.
34 : 7, but afterwards repeopled by the
Jews, Neh. 11:30.

AZ'ZAH, the same as GAZA.

AZO'TUS. See ASIIDOD.

.

BA'AL, lord, I., in the Old Testament
denotes an idol of the Phoenicians, and
particularly of the Tynans, whose wor
ship was also introduced with great so
lemnities among the Hebrews, and espe
cially at Samaria, along with that of As-
tarte, Judg. 6:25-32; 2 Kin. 10:18, 28.
See ASIITORETH. The plural, Baalim, sig
nifies images or statues of Baal, Judg.
2:11; 10.10. Of the extent to which
the worship of this idol was domesticated

BAA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAA

HEAD OF BAAL, FROM A TVRIAN COIN.

among the Phoenicians and Carthagin
ians, we have an evidence in the proper
names of persons ; as, among the former,
Ethbaal, Jerubbaal ; and among the lat
ter, Hannibal, Asdrubal, etc. Among
the Babylonians, the same idol was wor
shipped under the name of BEL, which is
only another form of the word Baal, Isa.
46:1; Jer. 50:2; 51:44. The worship
of Baal was established in Babylon in the
famous tower of Babel, the uppermost
room of which served at the same time as
an observatory, and as the repository of a
collection of astronomical observations.
That in the astronomical, or rather,
astrological mythology of the East, we
are to look for the origin of this worship
in the adoration of the heavenly bodies,
is conceded by all critics. The more
common opinion has been, that Baal, or
Bel, is the sun ; and that, under this
name, this luminary received divine hon
ors. But the Greek and Eoman writers
give to the Babylonian Bel the name of
Jupiter Belus, meaning the planet Jupi
ter, which was regarded, along with the
planet Venus, as the guardian and giver
of all good fortune; and formed, with
Venus, the most fortunate of all constel
lations, under which alone fortunate
sovereigns could be born. This planet,
therefore, many suppose to have been
the object of worship under the name of
Baal , as also the planet Venus under that
of Astarte. Not that the sun was not an
object of idolatrous worship among these
nations, but in that case he is represent
ed under his own name ; as 2 Kin. 23 : 11.

The temples and altars of Baal were
generally on eminences. Manasseh placed
in the two courts of the temple at Jeru
salem altars to all the host of heaven,
and in particular to Astarte, 2 Kin. 21 : 5,
7. Jeremiah threatens the Jews who had
sacrificed to Baal on the house-top, Jer.
32 : 29 ; and Josiah destroyed the altars
which Ahaz had erected on the terrace
of his palace, 2 Kin. 23:12.

Human victims were offered to Baal,
as they were also to the sun. Jeremiah
reproaches the inhabitants of Judah and
Jerusalem with ' ' building the high plac
es of Baal, to burn their sons with fire
for burnt-offerings unto Baal," Jer. 19 : 5 ;
an expression which appears to be deci
sive as to the actual slaying by fire of the
unhappy victims to Baal. See MOLOCH.

The children of Israel were prone to
serve Baal. See Num. 25:3 ; Judg. 2:13 ;
3 7. Under Samuel they put away their
idols, 1 Sam. 7:4. This continued under
David and Solomon ; but under Ahab,
whose wife Jezebel was a daughter of
the Zidonian king Ethbaal, the worship
of Baal was restored with great pomp,
IKin. 16:31.

Joined with other words, Baal signi
fies also other false gods. Baal-Berith, or
the "lord of the covenant," was a god
of the Shechemites, Judg. 8 : 33 ; 9:4.
Baal-Peor, or "the lord of Peor," was a
filthy idol of the Moabites, Num. 25:3,
5; Hos. 9:10. Baal-Zebub, "lord of
flies," was a god of the Philistines at
Ekron. See BEELZEBUB.

II. The word BAAL also occurs in many
compound names of places, not always
having any reference to the idol.

BA'ALAH, a town in the tribe of Sime
on, Josh. 15:29 ; 19:3 : called also Bilhah,
1 Chr. 4 : 29. The same as Kirjathjearim.

BA'ALATH, a town in the tribe of
Gad, Josh. 19:44. This lay not far from
Bethhoron. It is uncertain whether it
is the same as the Baalath rebuilt by
Solomon, 1 Kin. 9:18: 2 Chr. 8:6.

BAAL-GAD', a city in the valley of
Lebanon, at the foot of Hejmon ; the
northernmost point to which the wars
of Joshua reached, Josh. 11:17; 12:7;
13:5. It was perhaps the same as Baal-
hermon. Some have supposed it was
Baalbek ; but this lay further north.

BAAL-HA'ZOR, where Absalom kept
his flocks, 2 Sam. 13:23, was near Ephra-
im, a city of Judah, some eight miles
east of Jerusalem.

47

BAA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAB

BA'ALIS, king of the Ammonites in
the time of the captivity. He caused the
assassination of Gedaliah, then governor
of Judah, Jer. 40:14 ; 41:1-10.

BAAL-ME'ON, in Reuben beyond the
Jordan, Num. 32:38; called also Beth-
meon, Jer. 48:23, and Beth-baal-meon,
Josh. 13:17. Its ruins are found two
miles southeastof Heshbon. Ezekiel,25 : 9,
speaks of it as then a Moabitish town.

BAAL-PERA'ZIM, place of breaches, a
name given by David to the scene of a
battle with the Philistines, 2 Sam. 5:20 ;
1 Chr. 14:11 ; Isa. 28:21. It was in the
valley of Rephaim, not far south-west of
Jerusalem .

BAAL-ZEPH'ON, a town in Egypt,
probably near the modern Suez. Its lo
cation is unknown, as are the details of
the route of the Hebrews on leaving
Egypt, They encamped ' ' over against ' '
and "before" Baal-zephon before cross
ing the Red sea, Ex. 14:2 ; Num. 33:7.

BA'ANAH and RECHAB, sons of Run-
mon, in the service of Ish-bosheth the
son of Saul. Thinking to obtain a re
ward from David, they secretly slew their
master while reposing at noon, and car
ried his head to David at Hebron. They
suffered, however, the punishment suit
able for those whose "feet are swift to
shed blood," 2 Sam. 4:1-12.

BA'ASHA, son of Ahijah, and com
mander of the armies of Nadab, king of
Israel. He killed his master treacher
ously at the siege of Gibbethon. and
usurped the kingdom, B. c. 953, which
he possessed twenty-three years. He
exterminated the whole race of Jerobo
am, as had been predicted, 1 Kin. 14:7-
14 ; but by his bad conduct and idolatry
incurred God's indignation, 1 Kin. 15 ;
16: 1-7, 12. God sent him a warning by
the mouth of Jehu the prophet ; which
was fulfilled in the extermination of his
family two years after his own death.

BIRS NIMROTTD.

BA'BEL, confusion, the name of a lofty
tower, begun to be built by the" descend
ants of Noah among whom Nimrod was
a leader, about one hundred and twenty
years after the flood ; so called because
God there confounded the language of
those who were employed in the under
taking, Gen. 10:10; 11:9. Their object
in building the city and tower, was to
concentrate the population and the do
minion at that spot ; and as this was con-
48

trary to the divine purpose of replenish
ing the earth with inhabitants, and be
trayed an ungodly and perhaps idolatrous
disposition, God frustrated their designs
by miraculously giving to different por
tions of the people different languages,
or different modes of pronunciation and
divergent dialects of the original lan
guage of man, thus causing them to dis
perse over the globe. Compare Acts
2:1-11. The tower was apparently left

BAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAB

incomplete, but the foundation of the
city was probably laid, and a portion no
doubt of the builders continued to dwell
there. Tho place became afterwards the
celebrated city of Babylon. It has been
supposed that the tower of Babel was
afterwards finished, and called the tower
of Belus, within the city of Babylon.
Herodotus visited this tower, and de
scribes it as a square pyramid, measuring
half a mile in circumference at the base ;
from this rose eight towers one above
another gradually decreasing to the sum
mit, which was reached by a broad road
winding up around the outside. This
tower was used for astronomical purposes,
but was chiefly devoted to the worship
of Bel, whose temple contained immense
treasures, including several statues of
massive gold, one of which was forty feet
in height. Here were deposited the sa
cred golden vessels brought from Jerusa
lem, 2Chr. 36:7; Jer. 51:44. Its ruins
are supposed to be the present Birs Nim-
roud, six miles south-west of Hilleh, the
modern Babylon: an immense mound of
coarse sun-dried bricks, laid with bit
umen. It is a ruinous heap, shattered
by violence, furrowed by storms, and
strown with fragments of brick, pottery,
etc., fused and vitrified by some intense
heat. It is 190 feet high, and on the top
rises an irregular tower 90 feet in cir
cumference and 35 feet high, built of a
line brick — with which the whole mound
appears to have been faced. The tower
is rent asunder and mutilated at the top,
and scathed as if by lightning — a monu
ment, some have thought, of the just
wrath of God. See NEBUCHADNEZZAR.

BAB'YLON, I., a celebrated city situ
ated on the Euphrates, the original foun
dation of which is described under the
word Babel. With this coincide many
ancient traditions, while some speak of
Semiramis as the founder, and others of
Nebuchadnezzar. These accounts may
all be reconciled, by supposing that Sem
iramis rebuilt the ancient city, and that
Nebuchadnezzar afterwards greatly en
larged and adorned it.

Babylon lay in a vast and fertile plain
watered by the Euphrates, which flowed
through the city. Its walls are described
as 60 miles in circumference, 300 feet
high, and 75 feet wide, Jer. 51:44-58.
A deep trench ran parallel with the
walls. In each of the four sides were 25
brazen gates, from which roads crossed
3

to the opposite gates. On the squares
thus formed, countless houses and gar
dens were made. Nebuchadnezzar's pal
ace was in an inclosure six miles in cir
cumference. Within this were also "the
hanging gardens, ' ' an immense artificial
mound 400 feet high, sustained by arch
es upon arches, terraced off for trees and
flowers, the water for which was drawn
from the river by machinery concealed
in the mound, Dan. 4:29, 30.

Under'Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon reach
ed the summit of her greatness arid splen
dor. She was renowned for learning,
especially in astronomy, and for skill in
various arts, as the making of carpets
and cloths, of perfumes, jewelry, etc.
Her location gave her to a great extent
the control of the traffic, by the Euphra
tes and by caravans, between Central
Asia and Arabia and Egypt. She was
"a city of merchants," Isa. 43:14;
Ezek. 17:4 ; and into her lap flowed, ei
ther through conquest or commerce, the
wealth of almost all known lands. Just
ly therefore might the prophets call her
"the great," Dan. 4:20; "the praise
of the whole earth," Jer. 51:41; "the
beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," Isa.
13:19; "the lady of kingdoms," Isa.
47:5; but also "the tender and deli
cate," and "given to pleasures," Isa.
47 : 1, 8. In consequence of the opu
lence and luxury of the inhabitants, cor
ruptness and licentiousness of manners
and morals were carried to a frightful
extreme. Bel, Nebo, Nergal, Merodach,
Succoth-benoth, and other idols, were
there worshipped with rites in which
impurity was made a matter of religion.
Well might we expect Jehovah to bring
down vengeance on her crimes. Indeed,
the woes denounced against Babylon by
the prophets constitute some of the
most awfully splendid and sublime por
tions of the whole Bible, Isa. 13:1-22;
14:22 ; 21:9 ; 47 ; Jer. 25; 50; 51, etc.

The city did not long remain the cap
ital of the world. Under the reign of
Nebuchadnezzar's grandson, Nabomii-
dus, the Belshazzar of the Scriptures, it
was besieged and taken by Cyrus. The
accounts of Greek historians harmonize
here with that of the Bible : that Cyrus
made his successful assault on a night
when the whole city, relying on the
strength of the walls, had given them
selves up to the riot and debauchery of
a grand public festival, and the king and
49

BAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAB

his nobles were revelling at a splendid
entertainment. Cyrus had previously
caused a canal, which ran west of the
city, and carried off the superfluous wa
ter of the Euphrates into the lake of Ni-
tocris, to be cleared out, in order to turn
the river into it ; which, by this means,
was rendered so shallow, that his soldiers
were able to penetrate along its bed into
the city, Dan. 5. 538 B. c. From this
time its importance declined, for Cyrus
made Susa the capital of his kingdom.
It revolted against Darius Hystaspis, who
again subdued it, broke down all its
gates, and reduced its walls to the height
of fifty cubits. According to Strabo,
Xerxes destroyed the tower of Belus.
Under the Persians, and under Alexan
der's successors, Babylon continued to
decline, especially after Seleucus Nicator
had founded Seleucia, and made it his
residence. A great portion of the inhab
itants of Babylon removed thither ; and
in Strabo's time, that is, under Augus
tus, Babylon had become so desolate,
that it might be called a vast desert.
There was a town on its site until the
fourth pentury, and many Jews dwelt
there, 1 Pet. 5:13. But from this time
onward, Babylon ceases almost to be
mentioned ; even its ruins have not been
discovered until within the last two cen
turies ; and it is only within the present
century that these ruins have been traced
and described. * These consist of numer
ous mounds, usually of brick, deeply fur
rowed and decayed by time, strown with
fragments of brick, bitumen, pottery, etc.
One of these is described above. See BA
BEL. Another, four miles north-west of
Hilleh, and called by the natives Kasr, is
thought to mark the site of the hanging
gardens. These ruins are 2,400 feet long,
and 1,800 broad. Another near by, call
ed Mujellibah, is of similar dimensions.
From these mounds thousands of bricks
have been dug, bearing arrow-headed
inscriptions as ancient as the time of
Nebuchadnezzar, whose name often oc
curs. The aspect of the whole region is
dreary and forlorn. It is infested by
noxious animals, and perhaps in no place
under heaven is the contrast between
ancient magnificence and present deso
lation greater than here. The awful
prophecy of Isaiah, uttered more than a
century before, has been most literally
fulfilled, Isa. 13 : 14.

The name of Babylon is used symbol -
50

A BABYLOMAN BRICK.

ically in Rev. 14:8 ; 16 ; 17 ; 18, to mark
the idolatry, superstition, lewdness, lux
ury, and persecution of the people of
God, which characterized heathen Rome
and modern Antichrist. Some thus in
terpret 1 Pet. 5:13.

II. There was also a Babylon in Egypt,
a city not far from Heliopolis. Some sup
pose this to be the Babylon mentioned
1 Pet. 5:13 ; but this is not probable.

BABYLO'NIA, the province of which
Babylon was the capital ; now the Bab
ylonian or Arabian I?-ak, which consti
tutes the pashaKc of Bagdad. This cele
brated province included the tract -of
country lying on the river Euphrates,
bounded north by Mesopotamia and As
syria, and south by the Persian gulf.
This gulf was indeed its only definite
and natural boundary ; for towards the
north, towards the east or Persia, and
towards the west or desert Arabia, its
limits were quite indefinite. Both in
ancient and modern times, important
tracts on the eastern bank of the Tigris,
and on the western bank of the Euphra
tes, and still more on both banks of their
united stream*, were reckoned to Baby
lonia, or Irak el-Arab.

The most ancient name of the country
isShinar, Gen. 10:10; Dan. 1:2. After
wards Babel, Babylon, and Babylonia
became its common appellation, with

BAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAL

which, at a later period, Chaldea, or the
land of the Chaldeans, was used as sy
nonymous, after this people had got the
whole into their possession.

Babylonia is an extensive plain, inter
rupted by no hill or mountain, consist
ing of a fatty, brownish soil, and subject
to the annual inundations of the Tigris
and Euphrates, more especially of the
latter, whose banks are lower than those
of the Tigris. The Euphrates commonly
rises about twelve feet above its ordinary
level, and continues at this height from
the end of April till June". These inun
dations of course compelled the earliest
tillers of the soil to provide means for
drawing off the superabundant water,
and so distributing it over the whole sur
face, that those tracts which were in
themselves less watered might receive
the requisite irrigation. From this
cause, the whole of Babylonia came to
be divided up by a multitude of larger
and smaller canals ; in part passing en
tirely through from one river to the
other ; in part also losing themselves in
the interior, and serving only the pur
poses of irrigation. These canals seem
to be the "rivers of Babylon" spoken
of in Psa. 137:1. Besides this multitude
of canals, which have long since vanished
without trace, Babylonia contained sev
eral large lakes, partly the work of art
and partly formed by the inundations of
the two rivers. Babylonia, therefore, was
a land abounding in water ; and Jeremi
ah might therefore well say of it, that it
"dwelt upon many waters," Jer. 51:13.

The Babylonians belonged to the She-
mitic branch of the descendants of Noah,
and their language had an affinity with
the Arabic and Hebrew, nearly resem
bling what is now called Chaldee. The
Babylonian empire was founded by Nim-
rod twenty centuries before Christ, and
then embraced the cities Babel, Erech,
Accad, and Calneh, Gen. 10:10. After
the building of Nineveh by Ninus, 1237
B. c. , that city became the seat of power,
and continued so until about 606 B. c.,
when the Assyrian empire gave way to
the Chaldean, and Babylon reached its
highest point in fame and power. Upon
the return of the Jews from captivity,
many still remained in Babylonia, and
to their posterity the gospel was early
conveyed. Peter is supposed by many
to have written his first epistle there,
1 Pet. 5:13. The Jews had thriving syn

agogues in Babylonia, and one of their
Talmuds was there composed. See CHAL
DEANS.

BA'CA, tears, or weeping, Psa. 84:6. It
is not necessary to understand here that
there was really a valley so called. The
psalmist, at a distance from Jerusalem,
is speaking of the happiness of those who
are permitted to make the usual pilgrim
ages to that city in order to worship
Jehovah in the temple : they love the
ways which lead thither ; yea, though
they must pass through rough and dreary
paths, even a ^ale of tears, yet such are
their hope and joy of heart, that all this
is to them as a well-watered country, a
land crowned with the blessings of the
early rain.

BAD'GER, a small inoffensive animal,
of the bear genus, which remains torpid
all winter. It is an inhabitant of cold
countries, and is not found in Palestine.
Hence many think the "badgers' skins "
mentioned Exod. 25 : 5 ; 20 : 14 ; Ezek.
16 : 10, and elsewhere, as being used for
covering the tabernacle and for shoes,
were the skins not of this animal, but
of a species of seal found in the Red sea.
Burckhardt remarks that he "saw parts
of the skin of a large fish, killed on the
coast, which was an inch in thickness,
and is employed by the Arabs instead of
leather for sandals." Others think it
was an animal of the antelope species,
the skins of which the Jews had obtained
in Egypt.

BAG, Deut. 25:13; Luke 12:33. East
ern money was often sealed up in bags
containing a certain sum, for which they
passed current while the seal remained
unbroken, 2 Kin. 12:10.

BAHU'RIM, a town of Benjamin, near
Jerusalem, on the road to the Jordan. It
is several times mentioned in the history
of David, 2 Sam. 3:16; 16:5; 17:18.

BA'JITH, the site of a temple in Moab,
where the king offered vain supplications
against the Assyrians, Isa. 15:2.

BA'LAAM, a celebrated diviner, of the
city Pethor, on the Euphrates, Num.
22:5. Balak, king of Moab, having seen
the multitudes of Israel, and fearing they
would attack his country, sent for Ba
laam, who was famous for his supposed
supernatural powers, to come and curse
them. Balaam, though eager for gain,
was led to ask counsel of God, who for
bade his going. Balak afterwards sent
other deputies, whom Balaam finally ac-
51

BAL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAP

companied without the approval of God,
who sent an angel to meet and warn him
in the way. Here occurred the miracle
of Balaam's ass, Num. 22 : 22, 35. But
instead of cursing, he was constrained by
the Spirit of God to bless the children of
Israel. This he did a second and a third
time, to the extreme mortification of Ba-
lak, who dismissed him in great anger.
Balaam subsequently foretold what Is
rael should in future times do to the
nations round about ; and after having
advised Balak to engage Israel in idola
try and whoredom, that they might of
fend God and be forsaken by him, quitted
his territories for his own land. This
bad counsel was pursued ; the young
women of Moab inveigled the Hebrews
to the impure and idolatrous worship of
Baal-Peor, for which 24,000 Israelites
were slain, Num. 25:1-9; 31:16; 2 Pet.
2:15; Jude 11 ; Rev. 2:14.

Balaam was probably a descendant of
Shem, and possessed many just ideas of
the true God. He calls Him " the LORD
my God," Num. 22:18 ; and yet he seems
to have been only an enchanter and
false prophet, like many in the times of
the kings of Israel, until he came in col
lision with the people of God. In this
transaction he was made a bearer, against
his own will, of the sublime messages of
Jehovah ; yet his heart remained un
changed, and he died not "the death of
the righteous," Num. 31:8 ; Josh. 13:22.

BA'LAK, king of Moab, when the Is
raelites were drawing near the promised
land. He was filled with terror lest they
should attack and destroy him, as they
had Sihon and Og, and implored the
soothsayer Balaam to come and curse
them. His fears and his devices were
both in vain, Deut. 2 : 9. See BALAAM.
He found he had nothing to fear from Is
rael if at peace with them, and nothing
to hope if at war with them.

BALD'NESS was either natural or ar
tificial. It was customary among east
ern nations to cut off the hair of the
head, or to shave the head, as a token
of mourning, on the death of a relative,
Job 1:20; Jer. 16:6. This was forbid
den to the Israelites, in consequence of
its being a heathen custom, Deut. 14:1.
Natural baldness was treated with con
tempt, because it exposed a man to the
suspicion of leprosy. The children at
Bethel cried after Elisha, "Go up, thou
bald-head," 2 Kin. 2:23. While they
52

indicated by this epithet great contempt
for him as a prophet of the Lord, they
probably scoffed at the same time at the
miracle of Elijah's ascension.

BALM, or more properly, BALSAM, the
gum or inspissated juice which exudes
from the balsam-tree, the Opobalsamum,
which was anciently frequent in Judea,
and particularly in Gilead ; hence called
the balm or balsam of Gilead, Jer. 8:22 ;
46:11. It was reckoned very valuable
in the cure of external wounds. The
true balsam-tree is an evergreen, a na
tive of Southern Arabia and Abyssinia,
and is about fourteen feet high. It yields
its gum in very small quantities. At the
present day, this is collected chiefly in
Arabia, between Mecca and Medina,* and
is therefore sometimes called the balm of
Mecca. Its odor is exquisitely fragrant
and pungent. It is very costly, and is
still in the highest esteem among the
Turks and other oriental nations, both
as a medicine and as a cosmetic for beau
tifying the complexion, Gen. 37:25 ; Jer.
51:8; Ezek. 27:17.

BAMAH, plur. BAMOTH, Ugh places,
Ezek. 20:29. Bamoth-baal was a station
of the Hebrews, in the border of Moab,
Num. 21:20 ; 22:41 ; afterwards assigned
to the tribe of Ileuben, Josh. 13:17.
Baal was worshipped there, and it was
perhaps the "high places" referred to
in Isa. 15:2. See HIGH PLACES.

BAP'TISM is the holy ordinance by
which persons are admitted as members
of the Christian community. It is ad-

BAP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAR

ministered in the name of the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; and is a
visible and public profession of faith in
Christ and his salvation, of vital union
with him, of the obligation to live a new
life according to his precepts and in his
service, arid of the expectation of sharing
in his glerious and heavenly immortali
ty. It is not by any means to be regard
ed as a regenerating ordinance, though
significant of regeneration. It was es
tablished in the Christian church by
Christ and his apostles, and is binding
on his followers to the end of time. The
use of water in this ordinance is ground
ed in part on its qualities as the great
element of purification, and on the rites
of the ancient dispensation, in which
' ' water and blood ' ' were the divinely
appointed symbols of moral renovation
and atonement.

BAPTISM "WITH THE HOLY GHOST AND
WITH FIRE," Matt. 3:11; Luke 3:16.
Christ is speaking in these places of the
wheat and the chaff — the men who re
ceive him and those who reject him. The
former class shall be abundantly endued
with the teachings and consolations of
the Holy Spirit, but "the chaff he will
burn with fire unquenchable." Many
here understand "fire" in the widest
sense of purification : the purification of
Christ's people by the destruction of the
ungodly from among them, and their
purification from sin by the discipline to
which he subjects them. " He shall sit
as a refiner's fire."

BARAB'BAS, a noted robber in Christ's
time, who was imprisoned and awaiting
death for the crimes of sedition and mur
der. It was a custom of the Koman gov
ernment, for the sake of conciliating the
Jews, to release one Jewish prisoner,
whom they might choose, at the yearly
Passover. Pilate desired thus to release
Jesus, but the Jews demanded Barabbas,
Matt. 27:16-26.

BA'RAK, the son of Abinoam, of Ke-
desh in the tribe of Naphtali. God sum
moned him, by means of Deborah the
prophetess, to release Israel from the
yoke of Jabin king of Canaan. Having
first secured the attendance of the proph
etess, he gathered 10,000 men, and sta
tioned them on mount Tabor, perhaps to
avoid the enemies' 900 chariots of iron,
Judg. 4:3. God fought for Israel in
the battle which ensued, and the song
of Deborah and Barak, Judg. 5, chroni

cles their victory. The name of Barak
is enrolled among those illustrious for
faith, Heb. 12:82.

BARBARIAN. According to the
Greek idiom, all other nations, however
! learned and polite they might be, were
I ' ' barbarians. ' ' Hence Paul comprehends
i all mankind under the names of ' ' Greeks
and barbarians," Rom. 1:14. Luke calls
the inhabitants of the island of Malta,
"barbarians," Acts 28 : 2, 4. Indeed,
' ' barbarian ' ' is used in Scripture for ev
ery stranger or foreigner who does not
speak the native language of the writer,
Psa. 114:1, and includes no implication
whatever of savage nature or manners in
those respecting whom it is used.
BAR-JE'SUS. . See ELYMAS.
BAR'LEY was sown in Palestine in au
tumn, and reaped in the spring, that ig,
at the Passover. The Hebrews frequent
ly used barley bread, 2 Sam. 17 : 28 ; 2
Kin. 4:42; John 6:9. Barley also was
much used as food for cattle, 1 Kin. 4:28.
BAR'NABAS, son of consolation, or Jo-
SES, a disciple of Jesus, and a companion
of the apostle Paul. He was a Levite,
and a native of the isle of Cyprus, and is
said to have sold all his property, and
laid the price of it at the apostles' feet,
Acts 4:36, 37. When Paul came to Je
rusalem, three years after his conver
sion, about A. D. 38, Barnabas introduced
him to the other apostles, Acts 9:26, 27.
Five years afterwards, the church at Je
rusalem, being informed of the progress
of the gospel at Antioch, sent Barnabas
thither, who beheld with great joy the
wonders of the grace of God, Acts 11 :20-
24. He afterwards went to Tarsus, to
seek Paul and bring him to Antioch,
where they dwelt together two years, and
great numbers were converted. They
left Antioch A. D. 45, to convey alms
from this church to that at Jerusalem,
and soon returned, bringing with them
John Mark, Acts 11:28-30; 12:25.
While they were at Antioch, the Holy
Ghost directed that they should be set
apart for those labors to which he had
appointed them, the planting of new
I churches among the Gentiles. They vis-
j ited Cyprus and some cities of Asia Mi-
' nor, Acts 13:2-14, and after three years
returned to Antioch. In A. D. 50, he
and Paul were appointed delegates from
the Syrian churches to consult the apos
tles and elders at Jerusalem respecting
certain questions raised by Jewish zeal-
53

BAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAR

ots ; and having obtained the judgment
of the brethren at Jerusalem, they re
turned with it, accompanied by Silas and
Barnabas. At Antioch he was led into
dissimulation by Peter, and was, in con
sequence, reproved by Paul. While pre
paring for a second missionary tour, Paul
and Barnabas having a dispute relative
to Mark, Barnabas' nephew, they sepa
rated, Paul going to Asia, and Barnabas
with Mark to Cyprus, Acts 13-15 ; Gal.
2:13. Nothing is known of his subse
quent histoiy. There is a spurious gos
pel, in Arabic, ascribed to him ; and an
epistle, treating mainly of the connec
tion of the Mosaic dispensation with the
gospel, but evidently written by some
other hand. The name of Barnabas
stands high in the annals of the early
church. When he gave all his estates
to Christ, he gave himself also, as his
life of generous self-devotion and mis
sionary toil clearly shows. He was a
beloved fellow-laborer with Paul, some
what as Melancthon was with Luther,
and a true "son of consolation" to the
church.

BARRENNESS was an affliction pe
culiarly lamented throughout the East,
Gen. 16:1; 30:1-23; 1 Sam. 1:6, 19;
Isa. 47:9; 49:21; Luke 1:25, especially
by the Jewish women, who remembered
the promised Messiah, Gen. 3 : 15, and
hoped for the honor of his parentage.
The strength of this feeling is evinced by
the extraordinary and often unjustifiable
measures it led them to adopt, Gen.
16 : 2 ; 19 : 31 ; 38 : 14 ; Deut. 25 : 5-10.
Professed Christians are charged with
barrenness, if they are destitute of the
fruits of the Spirit, and do not abound
in good works, Luke 13:6-9 ; 2 Pet. 1:8.

BAR'SABAS, I. Joseph Barsabas, sur-
named The Just, was one of Christ's early
disciples, and probably among the sev
enty. He was one of the two candidates
nominated to fill the vacancy left by Ju
das Iscariot in the apostleship, Acts 1.

II. Judas Barsabas was "a prophet,"
and a distinguished member of the Jeru
salem church. He was deputed, with
Silas, to accompany Paul and Barnabas
in a mission of importance to the Gentile
converts in the Syrian churches, Acts
15:22-33.

BARTHOL'OMEW, one of the twelve
apostles, Matt. 10:3; Mark 3: 18; Luke
6:14; Acts 1:13. He is named in con
nection with Philip, and seems to have
54

been the same person whom John calls
Nathanael, John 1 : 45-51, and mentions
among the other apostles, John 21 : 2.
Nathanael may have been his real name,
and Bar-tholomew, that is, son of Tolmai,
his patronymic and best known name.
See APOSTLE and NATHANAEL.

BARTIME'US, son of Timeus, a blind
man, to whom Christ gave sight, by
the wayside near Jericho, Matt. 20:29-
34 ; Mark 10 : 46-52 ; Luke 18 : 35-43.
There were two healed, according to
Matthew ; but Mark and Luke only men
tion Bartimeus, who bore his father's
name, as though of a well known fam
ily. There is an apparent disagreement
as to the time of the occurrence, which
has led some to suppose there were two
cases at different times, one as Christ
entered Jericho and the other as he left
it. We may rather suppose that Bar
timeus heard the approach of Christ,
Luke 18:35, and learned who he was on
the first day ; and encouraged by the
mercy of the Saviour to Zaccheus, and
being joined by another blind man, call
ed to him for help as he again passed by
on his way to Jerusalem. The touch
ing narrative of his steadfast faith, and
Christ's ready compassion, should en
courage all to go boldly unto Jesus.

BA'RUCH, I., the son of Neriah, of a
distinguished family in the tribe of Ju-
dah. He was the faithful friend of Jer
emiah. About COS B c. he wrote down,
from the lips of Jeremiah, all the divine
messages to that prophet, and subse
quently read them to the people, and
again to certain princes. These last took
the book, and soon made known its con
tents to king Jehoiakim, who impiously
destroyed it. Baruch wrote it down a
second time as before, with some addi
tions, Jer. 36. He is supposed by some
to have accompanied his brother Seraiah
to Babylon, with the predictions of Jer
emiah respecting that city, Jer. 51:59-
64. He afterwards shared the persecu
tions of the prophet, was imprisoned with
him, and forced to go to Egypt with the
rebellious Jews, Jer. 43. After the death
of Jeremiah, the rabbins say, he returned
to Babylon. An apocryphal book is as-
scribed to him.

II. Another Baruch is mentioned
among the friends of Nehemiah, Neh.
3:20; 10:6; 11:5.

BARZILLAI, I., of Meholah in Sim
eon ; father of Adriel, who married Me-

BAS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BAY

rab the daughter of Saul, 1 Sain. 18:19 ;
2 Sam. 21:8.

II. An aged and wealthy Gileadite, a
friend of David when he was in exile
during Absalom's rebellion. He sent a
liberal supply of provisions, beds, and
other conveniences for the use of the
king's followers, 2 Sam. 17:27; 19:32.
On David's return, Barzillai accompa
nied him as far as Jordan, but declined,
in consequence of his great age, to pro
ceed to Jerusalem, and receive the favors
the king had intended for him. David,
in his final charge to Solomon, enjoined
upon him to show kindness to Barzillai' s
family, and to make them members of
the royal household, 1 Kin. 2:7.

III. A priest who married a daughter
of the above, Ezra 2:61 ; Neh. 7:63.

BA$'HAN, fat, fruitful, Num. 21:33, a
rich hilly district lying east of the Jor
dan, and between the mountains of Her-
mon on the north, and those of Gilead
and Ammon on the south. The country
takes its name from its soft and sandy
soil. It is celebrated in Scripture for
its stately oaks, its fine breed of cattle,
and its rich pasturage: "Rams of the
breed of Bashan," Deut. 32:14; "Rams, I
bulls, goats, all of them failings of Ba- i
shan," Ezek. 39:18. The oaks of Ba
shan are mentioned in connection with
the cedars of Lebanon, Isa. 2:13. Mod
ern travellers describe the country as
still abounding with verdant and fertile
meadows, valleys traversed by refreshing
streams, hills crowned with forests, and
pastures offering an abundance to the
flocks that wander through them. In
the time of Joshua, Argob, one of its
chief districts, contained sixty walled
towns, Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8; 21:27.
Bashan was assigned, after the conquest
of Og and his people, Josh. 12:4, to the
half tribe of Manasseh. David drew sup- i
plies from this region, 1 Kin. 4:13. It
was conquered by Hazael, but Joash re
covered it, 2 Kin. 10:33 ; 13:25. From
Bashan came the Greek name Batamea,
in modern Arabic El-Bottein. But this
latter only included its southern part.
The ancient Bashan covered the Roman
provinces named Gaulonitis, Trachonitis,
Auranitis, Batancea, and Iturasa.

BATH, or EPHAH, a Hebrew measure,
containing seven gallons, four pints, liq
uid measure ; or three pecks, three pints,
dry measure.

BATH'-SHEBA. the wife of Uriah, and

probably granddaughter of AHITHOPHEL,
which see. David first committed adul
tery with her, then caused her husband
to be slain, and afterwards took her to
wife. These sins displeased Jehovah,
who sent the prophet Nathan to David,
with the parable of the ewe lamb, 2 Sam.
12:1. David bitterly repented, but was
yet punished, 2 Sam. 11 ; 12. Bath-sheba
was the mother of Solomon, whose suc
cession to the throne she took pains to
secure, 1 Kin. 1:15. She is afterwards
mentioned in the history of Adonijah,
1 Kin. 2:13, in the title of Psa. 51, and
among the ancestors of Christ, Matt. 1 : 6.

BATTERING-KAM AND TOWER.

BATTERING-RAM, a military engine
for battering walls. A long and solid
beam, armed at one end with a metallic
ram's-head, was suspended by the mid
dle, and swung violently and repeatedly
against the walls of a city or castle, till
a breach was made. It was sometimes
in the lower part of a wooden tower built
upon wheels, and was worked by more
than a hundred men ; while the upper
part of the tower was filled with archers
and slingers, Ezek. 4:2 ; 21:22.

BAT'TLEMENT, a balustrade around
the roofs of ancient houses, which were
flat, and were much resorted to for fresh
air, amusement, or retirement by day,
and for sleep at night. The Mosaic law
required a battlement for each house,
Deut. 22:8.

BAY-TREE. The bay-tree is the Lau
rel of North Africa and the south of Eu
rope ; an evergreen tree, a wreath from
which has been from time immemorial
the symbolical crown of poets and war-
55

BDE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BEA

riors. The word rendered "bay-tree"
in Psa. 37 : 35, seems to mean simply a
native tree, green and vigorous.

BDEL'LIUM is commonly supposed to
mean the aromatic gum of a tree grow
ing near the Persian gulf, etc. It is
transparent, and bitter to the taste, yet
very fragrant while burning. But the
substance so called, whatever it was, is
mentioned in connection with gold and
gems ; while a gum is certainly not so
remarkable a gift of nature as to deserve
this classification, or as that the produc
tion of it should confer on Havilah a pe
culiar celebrity, Gen. 2:12. Hence the
opinion of the Jewish writers is not to
be contemned, namely, that pearls are to
be here understood, of which great quan
tities are found on the shores of the Per
sian gulf and in India, and which might
not inaptly be compared with manna, as
in Num. 11:7.

ORIENTAL HEADS, WITH BEARDS.

insult it by word or act was the grossest
indignity ; to take it respectfully in the
right hand and kiss it, was a mode of
expressing high esteem and love permit-

THE SYRIAN BEAR.

BEAK. That bears were common in
Palestine appears from several passages
in the Old Testament, 1 Sam. 17:34, 36,
37 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 8 ; 2 Kin. 2 : 24. The spe
cies known in Syria resembles the com
mon brown bear ; it is still met in the
recesses of Lebanon. To a sullen and
ferocious disposition, the bear joins im
mense strength, considerable sagacity,
and the power of climbing trees. Her
ferocity, especially when her young are
injured, is proverbial. See 2 Sam. 17:8 ;
Prov. 17:12; Isa. 11:7; Hos. 13:8.

BEARD. The Hebrews regarded a
thin, scanty beard as a great deformity ;
while a long, full, flowing beard was es
teemed the noblest ornament of person
al beauty and dignity. A man's honor
was lodged, as it were, in his beard. To |
56

ted only to the nearest friends. It was
cherished with great care, Psa. 133 : 2 ;
Dan. 10:3. To neglect, tear, or cut it,
indicated the deepest grief, Ezra 9:3;
Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37; while to
be deprived of it was a mark of servility
and infamy. Many would prefer death
to such a mutilation. These facts ex
plain many passages of Scripture : as the
gross insult offered to David's ambassa
dors, 2 Sam. 10:4-14 ; the zealous indig
nation of Nehemiah, Neh. 13 : 25 ; the
mode in which the feigned insanity of
David was expressed, 1. Sam. 21 : 13, and
the grief of Mephibosheth, 2 Sam. 19 : 24 ;
the treachery of Joab, 2 Sam. 20:9, and
perhaps of Judas ; also several passages
in the prophets, Isa. 7:20; 50:6 ; Ezek.
5:1-5. See SHAVING.

BEASTS. This word, used in contra
distinction to man, denotes all animals
besides, Psa. 36 : 6 ; sometimes it means
quadrupeds, and not creeping things,

BED

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BEE

Lev. 11 : 2-7 ; and sometimes domestic
cattle, in distinction from wild creatures,
Gen. 1:25. They were all brought to
Adam to be named. Few are mentioned
in the Bible but such as lived in Pales
tine and the countries adjacent. Beasts
suffer with man under the penalties of
the fall, Gen. 3 : 14 ; Ex. 9 : 6 ; 13 : 15 ;
Ezek. 38 ' 20 ; Hos. 4 : 3. Yet various
merciful provisions for them were made
in the Jewish law, Ex. 20: 10 ; 23 : 11, 12 ;
Lev. 22:28; 25:7. Animals were class
ed in the law as clean or unclean, with
a primary reference to animal sacrifices,
Gen. 7:2; Lev. 11. See CLEAN.

The word beasts is figuratively used
to symbolize various kings and nations,

Psa. 74:14 ; Isa. 27:1 ; Ezek. 29:3 ; Dan.
7, 8 ; Rev. 12 ; 13. It also describes the
character of violent and brutal men, Psa.
22 : 12, 16 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 32 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 12. The
Hebrew word commonly rendered beast
signifies living creatures. In Ezekiel's vis
ion, Ezek. 1, this is applied to human
beings or their symbols. In the book
of Revelation two distinct words are
employed symbolically, both rendered
" beast " in our version. One is applied
to persecuting earthly powers, Rev. 11:7;
13 : 1, etc. ; the other to superhuman
beings or their symbols, Rev. 4:6, etc.
This latter might be appropriately ren
dered, " living creature," as the corre
sponding Hebrew word is in Ezekiel.

AN EASTERN DIVAN, OR BED.

BED, in the East, is, and was ancient
ly, a divan, or broad low step around the
sides of a room, like a low sofa, which
answered the purpose of a sofa by day
for reclining, and of a bed by night for
sleeping, Ex. 8:3; 2 Sam. 4:5-7. Some
times it was raised several steps above
the floor, 2 Kin. 1:4; Psa. 132:4. It was
covered very differently, and with more
or less ornament, according to the rank
of the owner of the house. The poor had
but a simple mattress or sheep-skin ; or
a cloak or blanket, which also answered
to wrap themselves in by day, Ex. 22:2"' ;
Deut. 24:13. Hence it was easy for the
3* •

persons whom Jesus healed, to take up
their bed and walk, Mark 4:21. Bed
steads, however, were not unknown,
though unlike those of modern times.
See Deut. 3:11; 1 Sam. 19 : 15 ; Amos
6:4. The Jews only laid off their san
dals and outer garments at night.

BEEL'ZEBUB, " the prince of the dev
ils," Matt. 12:24. This name is derived
from Baal-zebub, an idol deity among
the Ekronites, signifying lord of flies,
fly-baal, fly-god, whose office was to pro
tect his worshippers from the torment of
the gnats and flies with which that re
gion was infested, 2 Kin. 1:2, 3, 16. It
57

BEE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BELI

is also sometimes written Beel-zebul,
which signifies probably the dung-god.
The Jews seem to have applied this -ip-
pellation to Satan, as being the author
of all the pollutions and abominations of
idol-worship.

BE'ER, a well, I., a station of the He
brews in Moab, whe're God gave them
water, Num. 21:16-18; Isa. 15:8.

II. A town in Judah, according to
Eusebius and Jerome a few miles west
of Jerusalem, near Beth-shemesh. Jo-
tham took refuge there from his brother
Abimelech, Judg. 9:21.

BE'ER-LAHAI'-ROI, well of him living,
and seeing me, on the south-west border of
Canaan, where Hagar was visited by an
angel, Gen. 16:14.

BEE'ROTH, wells, a city of Benjamin,
near Gibeon, Josh. 9:17 ; 2 Sam. 4:2, 3.
It is now El-Bireh, a village of 700 in
habitants, on a ridge seven miles north
of Jerusalem.

BE'ER-SHE'BA, the ivell of the oath, Gen.
21: 31; 26: 31, 33, a city twenty-eight miles
south-west of Hebron, at the southern ex
tremity of the Holy Land. Dan lay at the
northern extremity ; so that the phrase,
"from Dan to Beersheba," means, the
whole length of the land, Judg. 20 : 1.
At Beersheba, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob
often dwelt, Gen. 21:31; 22:19; 26:23;
28: 10 ; 46 : 1. The town that afterwards
rose here was first assigned to Judah, and
then to Simeon, Josh. 15:28 ; 19:2. Here
Samuel established his sons as judges,
1 Sam. 8 : 2. Elijah rested here on his way
to Horeb, 1 Kin. 19:3. It was a seat of
idolatry in the time of Uzziah, Amos
5:5; 8:14. After the captivity, it was
repeopled by the Jews, Nch. 11:27, 30,
and continued a large village many cen
turies after the coming of Christ. Dr.
Robinson found its site at Bir-es-Seba,
on the border of the great desert south of
Canaan — the ruins of a small straggling
city, and two deep stone wells of excellent
water, surrounded by stone troughs, and
bearing the marks of great antiquity.

BEESH'TERAH, a Levitical city, in
Manasseh beyond the Jordan, Josh.
21 : 27. It is also called Ashtaroth, 1 Chr.
6:71, and is perhaps a contraction of
Beth-Ashtaroth.

BEE'TLE, in Lev. 11:22, a species of
locust.

BEEVES, cattle, including the larger
antelopes, Lev. 22:19. It is the old plu
ral of beef. See CATTLE.
58

HIPPOPOTAMUS, OR BEHEMOTH.

BEHE'MOTH, a huge amphibious ani
mal, described in Job 40 : 15-24. Com
mentators are now generally agreed that
it is the hippopotamus, or river-horse,
which is found only in the Nile and other
great rivers of Africa. This is a very
large, powerful, and unwieldy animal,
which lives in the water, but comes out
upon the banks to feed on grass, grain,
green herbs, and branches of trees. The
appearance of the hippopotamus when
on the land is altogether uncouth, the
body being extremely large, flat, and
round, the head enormously large in pro
portion, and the legs as disproportionate
ly short. The length of a male has been
known to be seventeen feet, the height
seven feet, and the circumference fifteen ;
the head three feet and a half, and the
girt nine feet ; the mouth in width about
two feet. The general color of the ani
mal is brownish ; the ears small and
pointed ; the eyes small and black ; the
lips very thick and broad ; the nostrils
small. The armament of teeth in its
mouth is truly formidable ; more partic
ularly the tusks of the lower jaw, which
are of a curved form, somewhat cylindri
cal: these are so strong and hard that
they will strike fire with steel, are some
times more than two feet in length, and
weigh upwards of six pounds each. The
other teeth are much smaller. The tail
is short and thick ; and the whole body
is protected by a thick and tough hide,
which swords and arrows cannot pene
trate, thickly covered with short hair.

Mr. Riippell gives the following graph
ic account of a combat on the upper Nile.

' ' One of the hippopotami which we
killed was a very old male, and seemed
to have reached his utmost growth. He
measured, from the snout to the end of
the tail, about fifteen feet ; and his tusks,
from the root to the point, along the ex-

BEK

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

BEN

ternal curve, twenty-eight inches. We
had a battle with him four hours long,
and that too in the night. Indeed, he
came very near destroying our large
bark ; and with it, perhaps, all our lives.
The moment he saw the hunters in the
small canoe, as they were about to fasten
the long rope to the buoy in order to
draw him in, he threw himself with one
rush upon it, dragged it with him under
water, and shattered it to pieces. Out of
twenty-five musket balls, which were
fired into the monster's head at the dis
tance of five feet, only one penetrated the
hide and the bones near the nose ; so
that, every time he breathed, he snorted
a stream of blood upon the bark. All the
other balls remained sticking in the
thickness of the hide. We had at last to
employ a small cannon ; but it was only
after five of its balls, fired at the distance
of a few feet, had mangled most shock
ingly the head and body of the monster,
that he died. This gigantic hippopota
mus dragged our large bark at his will,
in every direction of the stream."

BE'KAH, a half-shekel; in weight,
five pennyweights ; in money, about
twenty-live cents. This sum each Isra
elite over twenty years old was to pay as
a poll-tax for the temple service, Ex.
80:13.

BEL, the chief idol of the Babyloni
ans. See BAAL.

BE'LA, Gen. 14:2. See ZOAR.

BE'LIAL, worthlessness, always so used
in a moral sense. A man or son of Be
lial is a wicked, worthless man ; one re
solved to endure no subjection ; a rebel ;
a -disobedient, uncontrollable fellow,
Judg. 19 : 22 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 12. In later
writings, Belial is put for the power or
lord of evil, Satan, 2 Cor. 6:15.

BELSHAZ'ZAR, the last king of the
Chaldees at Babylon, B. c. 588, who
made an impious feast, at \vhich he and
his courtiers drank out of the sacred ves
sels which had been carried away from
the temple at Jerusalem by Nebuchad
nezzar his grandfather. He was terrified
by the apparition of the hand which
m-ote upon the wall ; and in the same
night was slain, and the city taken by
the Medes, under Darius and Cyrus, Dan.
6. See BABYLON, MENE.

BELTESHAZ'ZAR. prince of Bel, the
Chaldean name given to Daniel at the
court of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1:7;
4:8.

BENAI'AH, son of Jehoiada, and com-
mander of David's body-guards. Several
instances of his rare bravery are record
ed, 2 Sam. 8:18 ; 23:20-23. He adhered
to Solomon when some favored the pre
tensions of Adonijah, slew Joab at the
command of Solomon, and was made
general of the army in his stead, 1 Kin.
1:36; 2:29-3<>.

BEN-HADAD, I., a king of Dama
scene Syria, hired by Asa king of Judah
to make war upon Baasha king of Isra
el, 1 Kin. 15:18-22. He ravaged a large
part of Naphtali.

II. Son and successor of the preceding-,
In two successive years he raised large
armies, and made war upon Ahab king
of Israel. He was utterly routeed by
the aid of Jehovah, God of the hills and
the plains also, 1 Kin. 20 Ahab spared
him, contrary to the command of God,
and gave him conditions of peace. Thes;e
do not seem to have been fulfilled ; for
three years after, Ahab renewed the war
and was slain, 1 Kin. 22. After abo:it
nine years, Ben-hadad again invaded Is
rael, and the prophet Elisha was instru
mental in frustrating his plans, 2 Kin.
6:8-23. But once more renewing the
war, he laid siege to Samaria, and re
duced it to extremities by famine. God
sent a sudden panic upon his army by
night, and they lied precipitately, 2 Kin.
6 : 17 ; 7:6; Prov. 28 : 1. Shortly .be
fore his death, Ben-hadad, being sick,
sent Hazael to ask the prophet Elisha,
then at Damascus, what the issue would
be. The prophet answered that the dis
ease was not mortal, and yet he would
surely die ; a paradox which Hazael soon
after solved, by stifling his master in
bed, 2 Kin. 8:7-15.

III. Son of the Hazael just named.
His father had greatly afflicted and op
pressed Israel ; but he lost all that his
father had gained, being thrice defeated
by king Jehoash, 2 Kin. 13.

BENJAMIN, the youngest son of Ja
cob and Rachel, Gen. 35:16-18. Rachel
died immediately after he was born, and
with her last breath named him Ben-oni,
the son of my sorrow ; but Jacob called
him Benjamin, son of my right hand.
He was a great comfort to his father,
who saw in him the beloved wife he
had buried, and Joseph whose loss he
mourned. He could hardly be persuad
ed to let him go with his brethren to
Egypt, Gen. 42 ; 43. The tribe of Ben-
59

BER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BET

jarain was small at first, and was almost
exterminated in the days of the Judges,
Judg. 20, but afterwards greatly increas
ed, 2 Chr. 14:8 ; 17:17. It was valiant,
Gen. 49:27, and "beloved of the Lord,"
dwelling safely by him, Deut. 33:12;
for its territory adjoined Judah and the
Holy City on the north. At the revolt
of the ten tribes, Benjamin adhered to
the cause of Judah ; and the two tribes
ivere ever afterwards closely united,
1 Kin. 11 : 13 ; 12 : 20 ; Ezra 4 : 1 ; 10 : 9.
King Saul and Saul of Tarsus were both
Benjamites, Phil. 3:5.

BE'RA, king of Sodom in the days of
Abraham, Gen. 14.

BERA'CHAH, blessing, a beautiful val
ley between Tekoa and Etham, where
Jehoshaphat and all Judah held a thanks
giving for their miraculous victory over
the Moabites and Ammonites, 2 Chr.
20:26.

BEREA, a city of Macedonia, not far
from Pella towards the south-west, and
near mount Bormius. It was afterwards
called Irenopolis, and is now called by
the Turks, Boor ; by others, Cara Veria.
Paul preached the gospel here with suc
cess; the ingenuous Bereans examined
his doctrine by the Old Testament scrip
tures, and many believed, Acts 17:10,
14; 20:4.

BERNI'CE, or BERENI'CE, eldest daugh
ter' of king Herod Agrippa I., and sister
to the younger Agrippa, Acts 25:13, 23 ;
23:30. She was first married to her
uncle Herod, king of Chalcis ; and after
his death, in order to avoid the merited
suspicion of incest with her brother
Agrippa, she became the wife of Pole-
mon, king of Cilicia. This connection
being soon dissolved, she returned to
her brother, and afterwards became mis
tress of Vespasian and Titus.

BERO'THAH, BEROTPIAI, a Syrian
town, conquered by David, 2 Sam. 8:8 ;
1 Chr. 18:8; Ezek. 47 : 16. Some find it
in the modern Bcyrout ; but aside from
the similarity of the name, the indica
tions point to an inland site, nearer Ha-
math or Damascus.

BER' YL, the name of a precious stone
of a sea-green color, found principally in
India, Dan. 10:6; Rev. 21:20.

BE'SOM, a broom or brush for sweep
ing. Before ' ' the besom of destruction/ '
the hosts of God's enemies are like the
dust of the floor, Isa. 14:23.

BiySOR, a brook flowing into the Med-
GO

it'erranean five miles south of Gaza. A
part of David's troops in pursuit of Ama-
lekites halted there, 1 Sam. 30:9-21. The
stream dries up in spring.

BE'TAH, or TIB'HATH, a city of Syria-
Zobah, taken by David, 2 Sam. 8:8;
1 Chr. 18 : 8 ; perhaps the modern Tai-
beh, between Aleppo and Tadmor.

BETH, house, forms a part of many
compound names of places, and some
times means the place or dwelling ; and at
others the temple. This word becomes Beti
in modern Arabic.

BETH-AB'ARA, place of the ford, a town
on the east bank of the Jordan, where
John baptized, John 1:28. It was per
haps the same asBeth-barah, Judg. 7 : 24 ;
but the true site is unknown. Many of
the, best Greek manuscripts and recent
editions have Bethany, also unknown,
instead of Beth-abara.

BETHANY, a village on the eastern
slope of mount Olivet, about two miles
east-south-east of Jerusalem, and on the
road to Jericho. It was often visited by
Christ, Matt. 21 : 17 ; Mark 11:1, 12 ;
Luke 19:29. Here Martha and Mary
dwelt, and Lazarus was raised from the
dead, John 11. Here Mary anointed the
Lord against the day of his burying, John
12 ; and from the midst of his disciples,
near this village which he loved, he as
cended to heaven, Matt. 24:50. Its
modern name, Aziriyeh, is derived from
Lazarus. It is a poor village of some
twenty families.

BETH-AR'BEL, probably Arbela, now
Irbid. One place of this name lay twen
ty-five miles south-east of the sea of Gal
ilee. Another was in Galilee, near Mag-
dala. Here were some large and almost
inaccessible fortified caverns, in the sides
of precipices, Hos. 10:14.

BETH- A YEN, a place and desert near
Bethel on the east, Josh. 7:2; 18:12;
1 Sam. 13:5 ; 14:23. It seems to be re
proachfully used at times for Bethel itself,
ifter the golden calves were there set up,
Hos. 4:15; 10 : 5 : Beth-el meaning the
house of God : and Beth-aven, the hqnse
of sin, or of an idol.

BETH-CAR', in Dan, near Mizpeh ;
noted for the defeat of the Philistines,
and the Eben-Ezer set up by Samuel,
ISam. 7:11.

BETH'EL, house of God, the name of a
city west of Hai, on the confines of the
:ribes of Ephraim and Benjamin, Gen.
12:8; 28:10-22, and occupying the spot

BET

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BET

where Jacob slept and had his memora
ble dream, the name he then gave it
superseding the old name Luz, Judg.
1 :23. Thirty years after, he again pitch
ed his tent there, Gen. 35:1-15. It was
captured by Joshua, and given to Benja
min, Josh. 12:9; 18:22. The Ephraim-
ites, however, expelled the Canaanites,
Judg. 1:22-26. Here the ark of the
covenant, and probably the tabernacle,
long remained, Judg. 20 : 26 ; 1 Sam.
10:3. Samuel held his court here in
turn, 1 Sam. 7:16. After Solomon, it
became a seat of gross idolatry ; Jerobo
am choosing it as the place for one of his
golden calves, from the sacredness pre
viously attached to it, 1 Kin. 12 : 29.
The prophets were charged with mes
sages against Bethel, 1 Kin. 13 : 1, 2 ;
Jer. 48 : 13 ; Amos 3 : 14 ; 7 : 10. The first
of these was fulfilled by Josiah, 2 Kin.
23 : 13 ; and the others in the later deso
lation of Bethel, where nothing but ruins
can now be found. Its site was identi
fied by Dr. Robinson, in the place now
called Beitin. It is twelve miles from Je
rusalem towards Shechem, on the south
ern side of a hill, with a narrow and fer
tile valley on the east, and the long-
travelled road on the west. At the bot
tom of the hill are the remains of a vast
stone reservoir, of an ancient Hebrew
age. See BETIIAVEN.

BETHES'DA, house of mercy, the name
of a pool or fountain near the temple in
Jerusalem, with an open building over
or near it, for the accommodation of the
sick who came to try the healing effica
cy of the water, John 5:2. Tradition
locates this pool in what is now a large
dry reservoir, along the outside of the
north wall of the temple area. Robin
son, however, shows the probability that
this is but a portion of the trench, which
separated mount Moriah from the adja
cent hill on the north. He suggests that
the true Bethcsda may perhaps be ' ' The
Fountain of the Virgin," so called, in the
lower part of the valley of Jehoshaphat,
eight hundred and fifty feet south of the
temple area. This. pool is of great an
tiquity, and seems to be fed from ancient
reservoirs under the temple. Two flights
of steps, sixteen and thirteen in number,
with a platform of twelve feet between
them, lead down to the pool ; this is fif
teen feet long, and five or six feet wide.
Its waters rise and fall at irregular in
tervals, and flow down by a subterrane

ous channel to the pool of Siloam. It is
supposed to be the ''king's pool" of
Neh. 2 : 14. Bethesda, even if known and
accessible to us, has lost its healing pow
er ; but the fountain Christ has opened
for sin, guilt, and death, is nigh to all and
of never failing virtue. See SILOAM.

BETH-HAC'CEREM, conjectured to be
the Frank mountain, between Tekoa and
Bethlehem, Neh. 3:14; Jer. 6:1. This
is a solitary conical hill, on which the
crusaders had a strong fortress.

BETH-HOG'LAH, a town of Benjamin,
on the border of Judah, Josh. 15:6 ; 18:19,
21. Robinson traced this name at a place
three miles from the mouth of the Jordan,
on the way to Jericho ; here was a fine
grove, watered by a sweet and limpid foun
tain the best in the valley of the Jordan.

BETH-HO'RON, now Beit-ur, the name
common to two neighboring towns in the
north-west corner of Benjamin, still dis
tinguished as the Upper and the Lower.
These lay on two ridges, with valleys on
each side ; Beth-horon the Nether being
separated from the Upper by a small val
ley, and a rocky and rough pass up the
ridge on which Upper Beth-horon stood.
The latter was nearest to Jerusalem,
about twelve miles from it ; and both
were on the usual route to the seacoast.
Down this pass Joshua drove the Amo-
rites, and here Paul passed by night on
his way to Antipatris, Josh. 10 : 1-11 ;
Acts 23: 31, 32.

BETH-JESH'IMOTH, a city of Reuben,
taken from the Moabitcs, Num. 33:49;
Josh. 12 : 3 ; 13 : 20 ; but retaken by them
after the captivity, Ezek. 25:9. It lay
not far cast of the mouth of the Jordan.

BETH'LEHEM, house of bread, I., a cel
ebrated city, the birthplace of David and
of Christ. It was in the tribe of Judah,
six miles south by west of Jerusalem, and
probably received its appellation from
the fertility of the circumjacent country.
This also gave it its ancient name Eph-
rath, fruitful, Gen. 48:7; Mic. 5:2. It
was beautifully situated on an oblong
ridge, twenty-seven hundred feet above
the level of the sea, and affording a fine
view in every direction. The hills around
it were terraced, and clothed with vines,
fig-trees, and almonds ; and the valleys
around it bore rich crops of grain. It
was fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:6,
but was comparatively an unimportant
place, Mic. 5:1, and is not mentioned by
Joshua or Nehemiah among the cities of
61

BET BIBLE DICTIONARY. 6ET

BETHLEHEM, AS IT NOW IS.

Judah. Its memory is delightfully asso
ciated with the names of Boaz and Ruth ;
it is celebrated as the birthplace and city
of David, 1 Sam. 17:12, 15 ; 20:6 ; 2 Sam.
23 : 14-17 ; but above all, it is hallowed as
the place where the Redeemer was born.
Over that lovely spot the guiding star
hovered ; there the eastern sages wor
shipped the King of kings, and there
where David watched his flock and prais
ed God, wrere heard the songs of the an
gelic host at the Saviour's birth, Luke
2 : 8. Bethlehem is now called Beit-lahm,
and contains about three thousand in
habitants, almost exclusively nominal
Christians. Half a mile north is the spot
pointed out by tradition as Rachel's
tomb, Gen. 35 : 16-20 ; and about two
miles south-west are the great reservoirs
described under SOLOMON'S POOLS.

II. An unknown place in Zebulun,
Josh. 19:15; Judg. 12:10, in distinction
from which the city of David was often
called Bethlehem- Judah.

BETH-NIM'RAH, Num. 32:3, 36;
Jo«h. 13:27, andNiMRiM, Isa. 15:6 ; Jer.
48:34; a town in Gad, a little east of
the Jordan, on a water-course leading,
from near Ramoth-Gilead, south-west
into that river.

62

BETH-PE'OR, a town of Moab, in the
limits assigned to Reuben, and conquered
from the Amorites, Josh. 13:20. It was
infamous for the worship of Baal-peor.
In the adjacent valley Moses rehearsed
the law to Israel, and was buried Deut
4:44-46; 34 r 6.

BETH'PHAGE, place of figs, a little vil
lage at the eastern foot of the mount of
Olives, near to Bethany, Matt. 21:1;
Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29.

BETHSAI'DA, place of fishing, I., a city
in Galilee, on the western shore of the
lake of Gennesareth, a little north of
Capernaum ; it was the birthplace of the
apostles Philip, Andrew, and Peter, and
was often visited by our Lord, Matt.
11.: 21; Mark 6: 45; 8:22.

II. A city in Gaulonitis, north of the
same lake, and east of the Jordan. Near
this place Christ fed the five thousand
It lay on a gentle hill near the Jordan,
separated from the isea of Galilee by a
plain three miles wide, of surpassing
fertility, Luke 9 : 10. Compare Matt.
14:13-22 ; Mark 6:31-45. This town was
enlarged by Philip, tetrarch of that re
gion, Luke 3:1, and called Julias in
honor of Julia, the daughter of Augus
tus. It is now little but ruins.

BET

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BIB

BETH-SHEAN, or BETH-SHAN, more
generally known by the name of Scy-
thopolis, was situated two miles west of
the Jordan, at the extremity of the val
ley of Jezreel, an arm of the great plain
of Esdrselon, running down from it to
the valley of the Jordan in a south-east
erly direction. It stood on the brow,
just where the former valley drops down
by a rather steep descent to the level of
the latter. Bethshean was assigned to
Manasseh, though not at once subdued,
Josh. 17:11, 16; Judg. 1:27. The dead
body of Saul was fastened to its walls,
ISam. 31:10, 12 ; 2 Sam. 21:12; 1 Kin.
4 : 12. The place is now called Beisan,
and is about twenty-four miles south of
Tiberias. The present village contains
seventy or eighty houses, the inhabit
ants of which are in a miserable condi
tion, owing to the depredations of the
Bedaween. The ruins of the ancient city
are of considerable extent, along the
banks of the rivulet which ran by it, and
on the side of the valley ; and bespeak
it to have been nearly three miles in cir
cuit.

BETH-SHE'MESH, house of the sun, I., a
city of Judah given to the priests, Josh.
21:10; 1 Chr. 6:59; 1 Sam. 6:15. It
lay fifteen miles west of Jerusalem, near
the border of Dan and of the Philistines,
Josh. 15:10; 1 Sam. 6:12. Probably the
same as Irshemesh, Josh. 19:41. It is
memorable for a battle between Judah
and Israel, in which Amaziah was de
feated, 2 Kin. 14 : 12-14 ; and for the
return of the ark from among the Phil
istines, and the punishment of those
who then profaned it, 1 Sam. 6. There
is reason to suppose the numbers in ver.
19 should be translated "threescore and
ten men, even fifty out of one thousand,"
or one in two hundred of the men of the
city.

II. A celebrated city in Egypt, Jer.
43 : 13. See HELIOPOLIS.

BETHU'EL, son of Abraham's uncle
Nahor, and father of Rebekah, Gen.
22:22, 23; 24:50.

BETH-ZUR', a city in the hill country
of Judah, near Hebron, Josh. 15:58. It
was fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:7,
and assisted in rebuilding Jerusalem,
Neh. 3:16. Josephus calls it one of the
strongest fortresses in Judea ; but its site
has not yet been identified.

BETROTH'ING, the engagement of a
man and woman to marry each other at

a future time. Parents anciently often
betrothed their daughters without their
consent, and even while very young,
as is still the case in oriental countries.
Sometimes a regular written contract
was made, in which the bridegroom
bound himself to give a certain sum as
a portion to his bride. The marriage
was not completed until the bride was
at least twelve years old ; yet the be
trothal could be dissolved only by divorce
or death, Matt. 1 : 18-25 ; Luke 2 : 27.
God speaks of betrothing his people to
himself, in bonds of tender affection,
and pledging his word that all his gra
cious promises will be fulfilled to them,
Jer. 2:2; Hos. 2:19, 20. Of this, min
isters are the instruments, through the
preaching of the gospel, 2 Cor. 11 : 2.
Hence the following word,

BEU'LAH, married, a term applied to
the Israel of God, in Isa. 62:4, to signify
his intimate and vital union with them.

BEZALEEL, an artificer, endued by
God with special skill for constructing
and adorning the tabernacle, Ex. 31:2;
35:30.

BE'ZEK, a city of the Canaanites, of
which Adoni-zedek was king. The ac
count of its capture by Judah is in Judg.
1:1-8. Here Saul reviewed his forces,
before going to raise the siege of Jabesh-
gilead, 1 Sam. 11:8.

BE'ZER, a city of refuge, in the plain
country of Reuben beyond Jordan. Its
exact site is not known, Deut. 4 : 43 ;
Josh. 20:8; 21:36.

BIBLE. This word signifies the Book,
by way of distinction, the Book of all
books. It is also called Scripture, or the
Scriptures, that is, the writings. It
comprises the Old and New Testaments,
or more properly, Covenants, Ex. 24:7;
Matt. 26:28. The former was written
mostly in Hebrew, and was the Bible of
the ancient Jewish church ; a few chap
ters of Daniel and Ezra only were writ
ten in Chaldee. The latter was wholly
written in Greek, which was the lan
guage most generally understood in Ju
dea and the adjacent countries first vis
ited by the gospel. The entire Bible is
the rule of faith to all Christians, and
not the New Testament alone ; though
this is of especial value as unfolding the
history and doctrines of our divine Re
deemer and of his holy institutions. The
fact that God gave the inspired writings
to men in the languages most familiar
63

BIB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BIB

to the mass of the people who received
them, proves that he intended they
should be read not by the learned alone,
but by all the people, and in their own
spoken language.

The Old Testament contains thirty-
nine books. Josephus and the church
fathers mention a division into twenty-
two books, corresponding with the twen
ty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet.
But we have no sufficient evidence that
such a division obtained among the Jews
themselves. They arranged the books
of the Old Testament in three divisions,
called, the Law, the Prophets, and the
Writings, that is, the Holy Writings.
The Law embraces the five books of
Moses. These are divided into conven
ient sections to be read through once a
year in their synagogues. The second
division, the Prophets, is subdivided into
the former prophets, namely, the histor
ical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel,
and Kings ; and the later, that is, the
prophets proper, with the exception of
the book of Daniel. The later prophets
are once more distributed into the great
er — Isaiah, Jeremiah, (not including
Lamentations,) and Ezekiel ; and the
less — the twelve minor prophets. Selec
tions from both the earlier and the later
prophets are read in the synagogues
along with the sections of the Law ; but
these do not embrace the whole of the
prophets, and the arrangement of them
differs among different divisions of the
Jews. The Holy Writings (Hagiogra-
pha) embrace all the remaining books
of the Old Testament, namely, (accord
ing to the Masoretic arrangement,)
Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth,
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Dan
iel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. In the
arrangement of the Old Testament books
now prevalent, the historical books come
iirst, then the devotional and didactic,
and lastly the prophetical. The Jews
ascribe to Ezra the honor of arranging
and completing the canon of the Old
Testament books, being inspired for this
work by the Spirit of God, and aided by
the learned and pious Jews of his day.
The New Testament writings were re
ceived each one by itself from the hands
of the apostles, and were, as their inspir
ed works, gradually collected into one
volume to the exclusion of all others.

The division into chapters and verses
was not made until comparatively mod-
64

ern times, though there appears to have
been a more ancient separation into
short sections or paragraphs. The chap
ters now used were arranged probably
by Cardinal Hugo, about the year 1240.
The division into verses was made in the
Old Testament in 1450, and recognized in
the Hebrew Concordance of Rabbi Na
than. The arrangement of the verses of
the New Testament as we now have
them was perfected in the Latin Vulgate,
an edition of which with verses was pub
lished by Robert Stephens, a learned
French printer, in 1551. He also mod
ified and completed the division of the
Old Testament into verses, in an edition
of the whole Bible, the Vulgate, in 1555.
This division into verses, and even into
chapters, having regard more to conven
ience of refereneis than to the meaning,
must often be disregarded in reading in
order to get the true sense.

The genuineness, authenticity, and
divine origin of the Scriptures cannot be
here discussed. The reader is referred
to the treatises of Bogue, Gregory, Keith,
Mcllvaine, Nelson, Spring, etc., pub
lished by the American Tract Society,
and numerous other valuable and stand
ard works.

The first well-known English transla
tion of the New Testament was that of
Wiclifle, made about 1370, before the in
vention of printing ; though others had
been made, one as early as king Alfred,
of parts of the Bible into Saxon. In the
time of Edward I., 1250, it required the
earnings of a day-laborer for fifteen years
to purchase a manuscript copy of the en
tire Bible. Now, a printed copy may be
had for the earnings of a few hours. The
iirst printed English Testament was that
of Tyndal, in 1526, which was afterwards
followed by his translation of the Penta
teuch. The first complete English Bible
is that of Myles Coverdale, in 1535. Mat
thew's Bible appeared in 1537. Cover-
dale and some other prelates, who resid
ed at Geneva during the bloody reign of
Mary, published there another edition in
1560, hence called the Geneva Bible. At
the accession of queen Elizabeth a new
revision was made, which appeared in
1568, and is called the Bishop's Bible.
This continued in use till our present
English version, made by order of James
I., was published in 1611. The first copy
of this was made by forty-seven of the
most learned men in England, divided

BIG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BIR

into six companies. Tins first copy was
then revised by a committee of twelve,
or two from each of the six companies ;
and then again by two others. The work
of translation and revision occupied be
tween four and five years ; and the faith
ful, clear, and vigorous standard Bible
thus secured, is an enduring monument
of the learning, wisdom, and fidelity of
the translators.

One of the most remarkable move
ments of modern times, and that which
holds out the greatest promise of good
for the coming triumphs of the Redeem
er's kingdom, and the temporal as well
as spiritual welfare of future generations,
is the mighty effort which is making to
circulate the holy Scriptures, not only in
Christian, but also in heathen lands. In
the year 1804, the British and Foreign
Bible Society was formed ; and the suc
cess which has attended this glorious ob
ject has by far exceeded the most san
guine expectations of its founders and
supporters. ' ' Their voice has gone out
through all the earth, and their words
to the end of the world." During the
first fifty years of this society, it printed
or assisted in printing the Scriptures in
148 languages, in about sixty of which
they had never before been printed, and
issued upwards of 29,000,000 copies of
the sacred writings. The Scriptures have
now been published in about 220 differ
ent languages and dialects. Other simi
lar associations have followed nobly this
glorious example ; and of these none has
labored with more effect than the Amer
ican Bible Society, which was formed in
1816, and has now, 1859, issued thirteen
millions of Bibles and Testaments.

BIG'THAN, a eunuch at the court of
Ahasuerus, whose conspiracy against that
king was frustrated by the vigilance of
Mordecai, Esther 2:21.

BIL'DAD, a descendant of Abraham
by Keturah, Gen. 25:1, 2. Shuah and
his brethren were located in Arabia Pe-
trasa ; and thus Bildad the Shuhite was
a neighbor and friend of Job, and came
to condole with him in his affliction, Job
2:11 ; 8 ; 18 ; 25. His chief topics are,
the suddenness, swiftness, and terrible-
ness of God's wrath upon hypocrites and
oppressors.

BIL'HAH, the handmaid of Rachel;
given by her to her husband Jacob when
herself childless, that she might become
a mother through her handmaid. Bil-

hah was the mother of Dan and Naph«
tali, Gen. 30:1-8.

BIRDS, like other animals, were di
vided by Moses into clean and unclean;
the former might be eaten, the latter
not. The general ground of distinction
is, that those which feed on grain or
seeds are clean ; while those which de
vour flesh, fish, or carrion, are unclean.
Turtledoves, young pigeons, and per
haps some other kinds of birds, were
prescribed in the Mosaic law as offerings,
Lev. 5:7-10; 14:4-7; Luke 2:24.

There is great difficulty in accurately
determining the different species of birds
prohibited in Levit. 11:13-19; Deut.
14:11-20, and the proper version of the
Hebrew names. The information we
have respecting them may be found
under the names by which they are
translated in our Bible.

Moses, to inculcate humanity on the
Israelites, ordered them, if they found a
bird's nest, not to take the dam with the
young, but to suffer the old one to fly
away, and to take the young only, Deut.
22:6, 7.

Cages for singing-birds are alluded to
in Jer. 5 : 27 ; and snares in Prov. 7 : 23 ;
Eccl. 9:12. Birds of prey are emblems
of destroying hosts, Isa. 46 : 11 ; Jer.
12:9; Ezek. 32:4; Rev. 19:17-19; and
the Lord comes to the defence of his peo
ple with the swiftness of the eagle, Isa.
31:5.

BIRTH'RIGHT, the privilege of the
first-born son. Among the Hebrews, as
indeed among most other nations, the
first-born enjoyed particular privileges ;
and wherever polygamy was tolerated,
it was highly necessary to fix them,
Deut. 21 : 15-17. Besides the father's
chief blessing, Gen. 27, and various mi
nor advantages, the first-born son was,
first, specially consecrated to the Lord,
Ex. 13:11-16; 22:29 ; and the first-born
son of a priest succeeded his father in
the priestly office. Among the sons of
Jacob, Reuben the first-born forfeited
the right of the first-born, Gen. 35:22;
49:3, 4, and God gave it to Levi, Num.
3 : 12, 13 ; 8:18. Secondly, the first-born
was entitled to a share of his father's
estate twice as large as any of the other
brethren received, Deut. 21:17. Third
ly, he succeeded to the official digni
ties and rights of his father, 2 Chr. 21:3.
In some of these privileges there is an
allusion to Him who is "the first-born
65

BIS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BLA

among many brethren," Rom. 8:29;
Col. 1:18; Heb. 1:2-6. Universal do
minion is his, and an everlasting priest
hood. See FIRST-BORN.

BISH'OP, an overseer, one who has the
charge and direction of any thing. The
most common acceptation of the word in
the New Testament, is that which occurs
Acts 20:28; Phil. 1:1, where it signifies
the pastor of a church. Peter calls Jesus
Christ "the Shepherd and Bishop of your
souls," 1 Pet. 2:25. Paul describes the
qualities requisite in bishops, 1 Tim. 3:2 ;
Tit. 1 : 7, etc. ; Christ himself is their
great exemplar.

BIT'TERN, a fowl about the size ot a
heron, and of the same genus. Nineveh
and Babylon became a possession for ' ' the
bittern" and other wild birds, Isa. 14:23 ;
34:11; Zeph. 2:14. According to some
critics, the more probable meaning of the
Hebrew word is hedge-hog, or porcupine;
and Mr. Rich says he found ' ' great quan
tities" of porcupine quills among the
ruins of Babylon ; but others think this
inconsistent with Zeph. 2:14, and under
stand the word as referring to the com
mon night-heron, a bird like the bittern
found among the marshes of Western
Asia, resorting to ruined buildings, and
uttering a peculiar harsh cry before and
after its evening flight.
66

BITHYN'IA, 1 Pet. 1:1, a province in
the northern part of Asia Minor, on the
shore of the Black sea, having Paphla-
gonia on the east, Phrygia and Galatia
on the south, and Mysia on the south
west. It was directly opposite to Con
stantinople. It is famous as being one
of the provinces to which the apostle
Peter addressed his first epistle ; also as
having been under the government of
Pliny, who, in a letter to the emperor
Trajan, makes honorable mention of the
number, character, and customs of the
persecuted Christians there, about A. D.
106 ; also for the holding of the most
celebrated council of the Christian church
in the city of Nice, its metropolis, about
A. D. 325. It may be, with some justice,
considered as a province taught by Peter ;
and we read that when Paul attempted to
go into Bithynia, the Spirit suffered him
not, Acts 16:7.

BLAINS, Ex. 9:8-10, burning ulcerous
eruptions, miraculously caused by
the ashes which Moses threw up
among the Egyptians. If these ash
es came from the brick-kilns where
the Hebrews had toiled, the pains
which the Egyptians suffered would
naturally remind them of those
•which they had inflicted.

BLAS'PHEMY. A man is guilty
of blasphemy, when he speaks of
God, or his attributes, injuriously ;
when he calumniously ascribes such
qualities to him as do not belong to
him, or robs him of those which do.
The law sentenced blasphemers to
death, Lev. 24:12-16. In a lower
sense, men are said to be blasphemed
'when abused by calumnious and re
viling words, 1 Kin. 21 : 10 ; Acts6: 11.
BLASPHEMY AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST,
Matt. 12:31, 32; Mark 3:28; Luke
12:10. This sin was committed by the
Pharisees when they, in violation of their
own convictions, wilfully and malicious
ly ascribed the miracles of the Son of God
and the work of the Holy Spirit to the
evil one. It is often inquired whether
this was the "sin unto death" spoken
of 1 John 5.16, and whether it is com
mitted in these days. However these
questions may be answered, certain it is
that when one can ridicule religion and
its ordinances, when he can make sport
with the work of the Holy Ghost in tho
human heart, when he can persist in a
wilful disbelief of the Gospel, and cast

BLA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BLO

contempt upon Christianity and "the
ministration of the Spirit," he is go
ing to a fearful extremity of guilt, and
provoking the final withdrawment of
divine grace. While on the other hand
the vilest blasphemer, who feels the re-
lentings of godly sorrow for his sins, and
.the desire to confess them at the Sav
iour's feet, may be sure of realizing the
truth of Christ's word. "Him that com-
eth unto me I will in no wise cast out."

BLAS'TUS, a chamberlain of Herod
Agrippa, bribed to favor the men of Tyre
andSidon, Acts 12:20.

BLEM'ISHES, imperfections or de
formities which unfitted men for the
priesthood, and animals for sacrifice. Of
these we have a particular enumeration
in Lev. 21 : 18-20 ; 22 ; 20-24. In this
provision of the law there was an allu
sion to the great High-priest of our pro
fession, who offered himself without spot
to God.

BLESS'ING is referred both to God and
to man. When God blesses, he bestows
that efficacy which renders his blessing
effectual. His blessings are either tem
poral or spiritual, bodily or mental ; but
in every thing they really convey the
good which they import, Num. 6:23-27.
The blessings of men to other men, un
less they be inspired prophecies, as in
Gen. 32, 49; Deut. 33, are only good
wishes, personal or official, and as it
were a peculiar kind of prayer to the
Author of all good for the welfare of the
subject of them. Blessing, on the part
of man towards God, is an act of thanks
giving for his mercies, Psa. 103:1; or
rather, for that special mercy which at
the time occasions the act of blessing :
as for food, for which thanks are ren
dered to God, or for any other good,
Psa. 116:13; 1 Cor. 10:16.

BLIND'NESS. This distressing mala
dy is very prevalent in the East. Many
physical causes in those countries unite
to injure the organs of vision. The sun
is hot, and in the atmosphere floats a
very fine dust, which enters and frets the
eye. The armies of France and Eng
land, which were so long in Egypt dur
ing the French war, suffered severely
from ophthalmic disease. In the cities
of Egypt, blindness is perpetuated as a
contagious disease by the filthy habits
of the natives. It is of frequent occur
rence also on the coast of Syria. In an
cient times, the eyes of persons hated or

feared were often torn out, Judg. 16 : 21 ;
1 Sam. 11 : 2 ; 2 Kin. 25 : 7. Blindness
was sometimes inflicted as a punishment,
Gen. 19 : 1 1 ; Acts 13:6; and it was often
threatened as a penalty, Deut. 28 : 28.
The Jews were enjoined by the humane
laws of Moses to show all kindness and
consideration to the blind, Lev. 19:14;
Deut. 27 : 18. No one affected with this
infirmity could officiate as priest, Lev.
21:18.

Our Saviour miraculously cured many
cases of blindness; both that which was
caused by disease and that which had
existed from birth. In these cases there
was a double miracle ; for not only was
the organ of sight restored, but also the
faculty of using it, which is usually gain
ed only by long experience, Mark 8. '22-
25. The touching of the eyes of the
blind, and anointing them with clay,
Matt. 9:29 ; John 9:6, can not have had
any medicinal or healing effect. The
healing was miraculous, by the power of
God.

"Blindness" is often used for igno-
/ance and error, especially our sinful
want of discernment as to spiritual
things, Matt. 15:14; 2 Cor. 4:4. The
abuse of God's mercy increases this
blindness, John 12:40. Blessed are the
eyes that fix their adoring gaze first of
all on their Redeemer.

BLOOD. The life of all animals was
regarded as especially in the blood, which
was a sacred and essential part of the
sacrifices offered to God, Heb. 9:22. It
was solemnly sprinkled upon the altar
and the mercy -seat, "for it is the blood
that maketh atonement for the soul,"
Lev. 17— the life of the victim for the
life of the sinner. It was therefore most
sacredly associated with the blood of the
Lamb of God, which ' ' cleanseth us from
all sin," Eph. 1:7 ; 1 John 1:7. Hence
the strict prohibition of the Israelites to
eat blood, or any meat in which blood
remained ; a prohibition renewed in Acts
15:29. In direct opposition to this are
the heathen customs of drinking the
blood of animals and even of men — of
eating raw flesh, with the blood, and even
fresh cut from the living animal, 1 Sam.
14:32; Psa. 16:4; Ezek. 33:25.

Besides the ordinary meaning of the
word blood, it often signifies the guilt of
murder, 2 Sam. 3:28; Acts 27: 25; also
relationship or consanguinity. "Flesh
and blood ' ' are placed in contrast with a
67

BLO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BOO

spiritual nature, Matt. 16 : 17, the glorified
body, 1 Cor. 15:50, and evil spirits, Eph.
6:12. The cause "between blood and
blood," Deut. 17 :8,was one where life was
depending on the judgment rendered.

BLOOD-AVEN'GER. The sacredness-
of human life, and the justice of punish
ing a murderer by death, are grounded
on the fact that man was made in the
image of God, Gen. 9:6. With justice,
the passion for revenge often conspired
to secure the death of the criminal.
Among the Arabs, the nearest male rela
tive of a murdered person was to pursue
the homicide until by force or craft he
put him to death . The law of Moses ex
pressly forbade the acceptance of any
ransom for a life thus forfeited, Num.
35:31 ; but it interfered between an ac
cused person and his pursuer, by pro
viding a sanctuary — at the altar of God
and in the cities of refuge — where the
accused might be safe until it was proved
that he had committed the act, wilfully
or accidentally, Josh. 20:6, 9. In the
former case, he was at once given up to
his pui'suer for death, Ex. 21 : 14 ; 1 Kin.»
2:29, 34. In the latter case, he might
dwell with safety in the city of refuge ;
but should he go elsewhere before the
death of the high-priest, he was liable
to be slain by the avenger of blood, Num.
35:25-28. See REFUGE.

BLUE See PURPLE.

BOANER'GES, sons of thunder, a name
given by our Saviour to James and John
the sons of Zebedee, Mark 3:17, perhaps
on account of their power as preachers.
Some suppose it Avas given on the occa
sion of their request that Christ would
call for fire from heaven, and destroy a
village of the Samaritans, which had re
fused to entertain them, Luke 9 '53, 54.

BOAR. The wild boar is considered
as the parent stock of the common hog.
He is a furious and formidable animal.
68

The tusks are larger and stronger than
in the tame herds. The color is iron-
grey, inclining to black. His snout is
long, and his ears are short. At present
wild boars frequent the marshes around
the upper Jordan, and have been found
on mount Carmel, and in large herds
near the sea of Tiberias. They were fre
quent in the time of the Crusades. Rich
ard Coeur de Lion encountered one, ran
him through with a lance, and while the
animal was still endeavoring to gore his
horse, leaped over him, and slew him
with his sword. The destructive rav
ages of the animal are referred to in Psa.
80:13.

BOAZ, Ruth 2 : 1, a wealthy Bethle-
hemite, a descendant of Judah, through
whom is traced the regular succession of
Jewish kings, Matt. 1:5. His conduct
in the case of Ruth proves him to have
been a man of fine spirit and of strict
integrity. He admitted the claim which
Ruth had upon him as a near kinsman :
under the obligations of the Levitical
law, he married the poor gleaner, and
thus became one of the ancestors of Da
vid, and also of David's Son and Lord.
He was the father of Obed, Obed was the
father of Jesse, and Jesse of David. The
whole narrative is a beautiful picture of
the simplicity of the age, when artificial
courtesies had not usurped the place of
natural and sincere expressions of love.

BOAZ was also the name of one of the
two brazen pillars which Solomon erect
ed in the porch of the temple, the other
being called JACHIN. These columns
were about thirty-five feet high, 1 Kin.
7:15, 16, 21.

BO'CHIM, weepings, a place near Gil-
gal, where the angel of the Lord reprov
ed Israel for their remissness, Judg.
2:1-5.

BOOK. Several sorts of materials were
anciently used in making books. Plates
of lead or copper, the bark of trees, brick,
stone, and wood, were originally em
ployed to engrave such things and docu
ments upon as men desired to transmit
to posterity, Deut. 27:2, 3; Job 19:23,
24. God's laws were written on stone
tablets. Inscriptions were also made on
tiles and bricks, which were afterwards
hardened by fire. Many of these are
found in the ruins of Babylon. See BAB
YLON, NEBUCHADNEZZAR. Tablets of wood,
box, and ivory were common among the
ancients : when they were of wood only,

BOO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BOO

ANCIENT BOOKS, PENS, AND INKSTAND.

they were oftentimes coated over with
wax, which received the writing inscrib
ed on them with the point of a style, or
iron pen, Jer. 17:13 ; and what was writ
ten might be effaced by the broad end
of a style, Luke 1:63. Afterwards, the
leaves of the palm-tree were used instead
of wooden tablets, and also the finest
and thinnest bark of trees, such as the
lime, the ash, the maple, the elm: hence
the word liber, which denotes the inner
bark of trees, signifies also a book. As
these barks were rolled up, to be more
readily carried about, the united rolls
were called volumen, a volume ; a name
given likewise to rolls of paper or of
parchment. The ancients wrote like
wise on linen. But the oldest material
commonly employed for writing upon,
appears to have been the papyrus, a reed
very common in Egypt and other places,
and still found in Sicily and Chaldea.
From this comes oar word paper. At a
later period, parchment from skins was in
vented in Pergamos, and was there used
for rolls or volumes. The pen for writing
on these soft materials A^as a small brush,
or a reed split at the end, Jer. 36:23.
The ink was prepared with lampblack,
coal of ivory, various gums, etc., and
the writing was sometimes permanently
fixed by fire. Scribes carried their ink-
horns hanging to their girdles, Ezek.
9:2. The making of paper from linen, in
its modern form, was first known in Eu
rope about A. D. 1300. The art of print
ing was introduced about one hundred
and fifty years later.

An ancient book therefore had the ap
pearance of a thick roll of some paper-
like substance, written usually in paral
lel columns on one side only, and read
by gradually unrolling it by means of
two small rollers, one at the beginning
and the other at the end of the volume.

A roll was sometimes sealed, be*
ing first tied or wrapped about
with a cord, on which the wax was
dropped, and stamped by a signet,
Isa. 29:11; Rev. 5:1-3.

That writing was practised very
early, may be inferred from allu
sions to the art in Gen. 5:1 ; Ex.
17:14; Job 9:25; 19:23; 31:5.
The Egyptians were accustomed
to it from the earliest ages.

Ancient writers, instead of writ
ing their books, etc., with their own hand,
often employed amanuenses. St. Paul
notes it as a particular circumstance, in
the epistle to the Galatians, that he had
written it with his own hand, Gal. 6:11.
To other letters he only affixed his salu
tation with his own hand, 1 Cor. 16:21 ;
Col. 4:18; 2Thess. 3:17. The amanu
ensis who wrote the epistle to the Ro
mans, has mentioned himself at the close,
Rom. 16:22. See LETTER.

BOOK OF THE GENERATION, is used in
Gen. 5:1 ; Matt. 1:1, in the sense of a
genealogical record. See GENERATION.

BOOK OF THE WARS OF THE LORD, Num.

21 : 14, was probably a sort of military
journal, formed of detached odes.

THE BOOK OF JASIIER, 2 Sam. 1 : 18, may
perhaps have been a collection of na
tional ballads, one of the forms most
used for perpetuating the history of an
cient times.

THE BOOKS OF THE CHRONICLES of the
kings of Judah and Israel were apparent
ly public journals, 1 Kin. 14:19, 29.

BOOK OF LIFE, OR OF THE LIVING, Psa.
69:28. It is probable that these descrip
tive phrases are taken from the custom
observed in the courts of princes, of keep
ing a list of persons who are in their
service, of the provinces which they
govern, of the officers of their armies,
of the number of their troops, and some
times even of the names of their soldiers.
In the figurative style of oriental poetry,
God is represented as inscribing the
names, acts, and destinies of men in vol
umes ; and the volume in which are
thus entered the names of those who are
chosen to salvation, is ' ' the book of life, ' '
Phil. 4:3.

BOOTH, a shelter, made usually of
poles fixed upright in the ground, and
covered over with green boughs, Gen.
33:17. The great feast of tabernacles,
or booths, had its name from the cir
cumstance that the Jews were directed

BOO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BOW

by their law to dwell in booths during
the seven days of this feast, Lev. 23:40-
42 ; Neh. 8 : 14. See TABERNACLE.

BOO'TY. Spoils taken in war were to
be shared equally by those who fought
and those who guarded the camp, Num.
31:27-32. The Lord's portion was first
deducted from the whole ; and in after-
times the king appropriated a large part
to himself.

BOR'ROW. The Hebrews are said to
have "borrowed" of the Egyptians, Ex.
3 : 22 ; 12 : 35. The original word denotes
simply asked. As they were known to be
taking a linal leave of Egypt, it is plain
that the Egyptians did not expect the
thing asked for to be returned. They
asked for them by divine direction, and
they undoubtedly received,no more than
a fair compensation for their many years
of hard service.

BO'SOM, the front of the upper part of
the body, the breast. The orientals gen
erally wore long, wide, and loose gar
ments ; and Avhen about to carry any
thing away that their hands would not
contain, they used for the pm-pose a fold
in the bosom of their robe above the gir
dle, Luke 6:38. Our Saviour is said to
carry his lambs in his bosom, which
beautifully represents his tender care
and watchfulness over them, Isa. 40:11.
See ABRAHAM'S BOSOM.

BOS'SES, the thickest and strongest
parts, the projecting points, of a shield.
Job 15:26.

GOAT-SKIN WATER BOTTLES.

BOT'TLE. The accompanying engrav
ing shows the form and nature of an an
cient goat-skin bottle, out of which a
water-carrier is offering to sell a draught
of water. After the skin has been strip
ped off from an animal, and properly
dressed, the places where the legs had
been are closed up ; and where the neck
70-

was, is the opening left for receiving and
discharging the contents of the bottle.
These were readily borne upon the shoul
der, Gen. 21:14. See also Josh .9:4,13;
Psa. 119:83; Jer. 13:12.

By receiving the liquor poured into it,
a skin bottle must be greatly swelled and
distended ; and still more, if the liquor
be wine, by its fermentation while ad
vancing to ripeness ; so that if no vent
be given to it, the liquor; may overpower
the strength of the bottle, or if it find
any defect, it may ooze out by that.
Hence the propriety of putting new wine
into new bottles, Which being in the
prime of their strength, may resist the
expansion of their contents, and pre
serve the wine to maturity ; while old
bottles may, without danger, contain old
wine, whose fermentation is already past,
Matt. 9:17; Luke 5:38; Job 32:19.

Such bottles, or skins, are still univer
sally employed in travelling in the East,
as well as by the public water-carriers,
and for domestic uses. They were made,
for storage in wine-cellars, of the hides
of oxen or camels. But the smaller ones
of goat-skins were more generally used
for water as well as wine. The ancients,
however, were acquainted with the art
of making earthenware, and had a va
riety of elegant small bottles and vases
for toilet purposes, made of the precious
metals, of stone, glass, porcelain, and
alabaster, Jer. 19:1, 10, 11. See CRUSE,
VINE, TEARS.

BOW, a weapon much used in ancient
times, both for hunting and for Avar. It
was made of wood, horn, or steel, Gen.
27:3 ; Psa. 18:34 ; and the foot was some
times used in bending it. It was carried
in a case, when not used, Hab. 3 : 19.
The Benjamites were celebrated for their
skill in the use of this weapon, 1 Chr.
12:2 ; 2 Chr. 14 : 8 ; 17 : 17. See ARMS.
The phrase, "a deceitful bow," to which
the people of Israel are compared, Psa.
78:57 ; Hos. 7:16, means an ill-made or
twisted bow, which does not shoot the
arrow as it is aimed. In 2 Sam. 1 : 18, we
read, "Also he bade them teach the chil
dren of Judah the use of the bow. " Hire
the words, "the use of," are not in the
Hebrew. The use of the bow in war had
long been common among the Jews, Gen.
48:22 ; and to "teach them the bow," is
by some supposed to mean, teach them
the song of THE BOW, the lamentation
over Saul and Jonathan, which follows ;

BOW

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BRE

so called from the mention of the weapon
in verse 22, as the first four books in the
Bible take their title in Hebrew from the
tirst word in each. See ARROW

BOWELS are often put by the He
brew writers for the internal parts gen
erally, the inner man, just as we often
use the word heart. Hence the bowels
are often represented as the seat of mer
cy, tenderness, compassion, etc., 1 Kin.
8:26 ;Isa. 63:15; Jer. 31:20; Col. 3:12;
1 John 3:17.

BOX-TREE, a well-known beautiful
evergreen, growing in many parts of
Europe and Asia. Its wood is highly
prized by engravers. The word employ
ed in Isa. 60": 13, is thought by many to
have been a species of cedar. It is used
as an emblem of the abiding grace and
prosperity of the church of God.

BOZ'RAH, Gen. 36:33, a city of Edom,
Isa. 34:6; 63:1, and the region around
it, Jer. 49:13, 22. It is associated with
Teman, and with the Red sea, Jer.
49:20-22 ; Amos 1:12. Its site is found
in the modern El-Busaireh, midway be
tween Kir Moab and mount Hor, south
by east of the Dead sea. This is a vil
lage of about fifty houses, on a hill
crowned by a small castle. The ruins
are those of a considerable city. Bozrah
of Moab, Jer. 48:24, may be the same
place with this, or perhaps with Bezer,

BRACE'LET, properly an ornament
for the wrist, or for the arm above or be
low the elbow ; but sometimes used also
in the Bible to signify an ornament worn
on the leg, Num. 31 : 50 ; Isa. 3:19. Arm
lets were worn by men, sometimes as a
badge of royalty, 2 Sam. I'lO. Brace
lets were of a great variety of materials
and forms ; were usually large, and often
of great value, Gen. 24:22.

The women of Syria and Arabia at
this day wear rings round their legs,
to which are fastened many other lesser
rings, which make a tinkling noise, like
little bells, when they walk. These
rings are fixed above the ankle, and are
of gold, silver, copper, glass, or even of
varnished earth, according to the con
dition of the wearer. The princesses
wear large hollow rings of gold, within
which are enclosed little pebbles, that
tinkle. See RINGS.

BRANCH As trees denote, in figura
tive language, great men and princes, so
branches, boughs, and plants denote
their offspring. 'Christ is called "the

Branch," the "rod out of the stem of
Jesse," and the "branch out of his
roots," Isa. 11:1 ; 53:2 ; Zech. 8:8; 6:12 ;
being a royal descendant of the princely
house of David, Jer. 23:5 ; 33:15. The
word branch also illustrates the union of
believers with Christ, John 15:5, 6. It
is used in Ezek. 8: 17 as a symbol of idol
atrous worship, probably in allusion to
the carrying of fragrant boughs in honor
of idols.

BRASS is frequently mentioned in the
English Bible, Gen. 4:22; Deut. 8:9;
but there is little doubt that copper is
intended, brass being a mixed metal —
two-thirds copper and one-third zinc —
for the manufacture of which we are in
debted to the Germans. The ancients
knew nothing of that particular com
pound, though well acquainted with
bronze, of which arms, mirrors, and or
naments were made. Copper was used
for many purposes about the temple,
Lev. 6 : 28 ; Num. 16 : 39 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 16 ;
for filters, Judg. 16:21 ; 2 Kin. 25:7 ; for
armor, 1 Sam. 17:5, 6, 38 ; for musical in
struments, 1 Chr. 15:19 ; and for money,
Matt. 10:9. " Brass ' ' is used to describe
drought, insensibility, baseness, and ob
stinacy in sin, Lev. 26:19; Deut. 28:23;
Isa. 48:4; Jer. 6:28; Ezek 22:18. It is
also a symbol of strength, Psa. 107:16;
Dan. 2:39; Zech. 6:1. See COPPER.

BRA'ZEN SERPENT, an image in brass
prepared by Moses, resembling the fiery
serpents so destructive to Israel in the
desert, and set up in the midst of the
camp in the view of all, that whosoever
would evince penitence, faith, and obe
dience by looking to it, might live, Num.
21 : 6-9. Our Saviour has shown us that
this was typical of himself and of salva
tion through him — a gratuitous salva
tion, free to all, on the easy terms of
faith and obedience, John 3 '14, 15. The
brazen serpent was long preserved, as a
memorial of the gracious miracle wrought
in connection with it ; but being regard
ed as an object of worship, it was broken
to pieces by king Plezekiah, as Nehush-
tan — a mere piece of brass, 2 Kin. 18:4.

BREAD, a word which in Scripture is
often put for food in general, Gen. 3:19 ;
18:5; 28:20; Ex. 2:20; Lev. 11:3 Man
na is called bread horn heaven, Ex. 16:4.
Bread, in the proper and literal sense,
usually means cakes made of wheaten
flour ; barley being used chiefly by the
poor and for feeding horses. The wheat
7i

BRE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BRE

was ground daily, in small stone mills
the flour was made into dough in a wood
en trough, and subsequently leavened,
Ex. 12:34 ; Hos. 7:4. It was then made
into cakes, and baked.

The ancient Hebrews had several ways
of baking bread: they often baked it
under the ashes upon the earth, upon
round copper or iron plates, or in pans or
stoves made on purpose. The Arabians
and other oriental nations, among whom
wood is scarce, often bake their bread
between two fires made of cow-dung,
which burns slowly. The bread is good,
if eaten the same day, but the crust is
black and burnt, and retains a smell of
the fuel used in baking it. This explains
Ezek. 4:9, 15.

The Hebrews, in common with other
eastern people, had a kind of oven, (tan-
noor,) which is like a large pitcher, open
at top, in which they made a lire. When
it was well heated, they mingled flour in
water, and this paste they applied to the
outside of the pitcher. Such bread is
baked in an instant, and is taken off in
thin, fine pieces, like our wafers, Lev. 2.
Bread was also baked in cavities sunk in
the ground, or the floor of the tent, and
well lined with compost or cement. A
fire was built on the floor of this oven ;
and the sides being sufficiently heated,
thin cakes were adroitly stuck upon
them, and soon baked. In the large
towns there were public ovens, and bak
ers by trade, Jer. 37:21 ; Hos. 7:4.

As the Hebrews generally made their
bread thin, and in the form of flat cakes,
or wafers, they did not cut it with a
knife, but broke it, Lam. 4 : 4, which
gave rise to that expression so usual in
Scriptuje, of "breaking bread," to sig
nify eating, sitting down to table, taking
a repast. In the institution of the Lord's
supper, our Saviour broke the bread
which he had consecrated; whence "to
break bread," and " breaking of bread,"
in the New Testament are used for cele
brating the Lord's supper. See under
EATING.

SHOW-BREAD, Heb. bread of presence,
was bread offered every Sabbath-day to
God on the golden table which stood in
the holy place, Ex. 25:30; twelve cakes
of unleavened bread, offered with salt
and frankincense, Lev. 2 : 13 ; 24 : 5-9.
The show-bread could be lawfully eaten
by none but the priests ; nevertheless,
David having received some of these
72

THE TABLE OF SHOW-BREAD.

loaves from the high-priest Abimelech,
ate of them without scruple in his neces
sity, 1 Sam. 21 : 1-6 ; and our Saviour
quotes his example to justify the disci
ples, who had bruised ears of corn, and
were eating them on the Sabbath-day,
Matt. 12:1-4.

BREAST'PLATE, a piece of embroid
ery, about ten inches square, fix. 28:15-
30, of very rich work, which the high-
priest wore on his breast. It was made
of two pieces of the same rich embroid
ered stuff of which the ephod was made,
having a front and a lining, and forming
a kind of purse or bag, in which, accord
ing to the rabbins, the Urim and Thum-
mim were enclosed. The front of it was

set with twelve precious stones, on each
of which was engraved the name of one
of the tribes. They were placed in four
rows, and divided from each other by
the little golden squares or partitions in
which they were set. At each corner
was a gold ring answering to a ring upon

BRI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BUL

the ephod, thege four pairs of rings serv
ing to hold the breastplate in its place
on the front of the ephod, by means of
four blue ribands, one at each corner.

BRICKS were usually made of clay,
dried and hardened in the sun, Gen.
11:3, though brick-kilns were sometimes
used, 2 Sam. 12:31; Nah. 3:14. The
tower of Babel was constructed of brick,
cemented with bitumen. The bricks
used were often a foot square ; and great
numbers of them are found, both in
Babylonia and Egypt, impressed with
some royal or priestly stamp. The prin
cipal subject of interest connected with
brick-making is the fact that it was the
labor in which the Hebrews in Egypt
were most oppressed. On the monu
ments of Egypt, all the parts of this
hard and ancient task-work are paint
ed —the carrying, tempering, and mould

ing of the clay, and the drying and pil
ing of the bricks— all done by foreigners
under the orders of taskmasters. The

BRICKMAKING, UNDER A TASKMASTER.

straw was probably mixed with the clay
to compact it. See Wilkinson's "An
cient Egyptians."

BRIDE and BRIDE'GROOM, see MAR.
RIAGE and SOLOMON'S SONG.

BRIG'ANDINE, a coat of mail, Jer.
46:4; 51:3.

BRIM'STONE, a mineral substance,
highly inflammable, and burning with a
sutfocating smell. Sodom and the other
cities of the plain were destroyed ' ' by
brimstone and fire," Gen. ]9:24; and
this awful catastrophe is often used in
Scripture, as an emblem of temporal and
eternal judgments of God upon the wick
ed, Job 18 : 15 ; Psa. 11:6; Isa. 30 : 33 ;
34:9; Rev. 21:8.
BROOK, see RIVER.
BROTH'ER signifies in Scripture the
son of the same parent or parents, Matt.
1:2; Luke 6:14; a cousin or near kins
man, Gen. 13:8; 14:16; John 7:3; Acts
1 : 14 ; one of the same stock or country,
Matt. 5 : 47 ; Acts 3 : 22 ; Heb. 7:5; a fel
low-man, an equal, Matt. 5:23 ; 7:3 ; one
beloved, 2 Sam. 1:26 ; Christians, as sons
ofGod,Acts9:30; 11:29. In Matt. 12:46-
50 ; 13 : 55, 56 ; Mark 3 : 31-35, the broth
ers of Christ are so mentioned, in con
nection with his mother and sisters, as
almost to require us to believe they were
children of Joseph and Mary, younger
than Jesus. Yet this is not quite cer
tain, as it may be that the James, Joses,
and Judas in Matt. 13 :55, are the neph
ews of Christ alluded to in Matt. 27:56 ;
Luke 6 : 15, 16 ; John 19 : 25 ; Cleophas
and Alphaius being probably the same.
BRUIT, rumor or report, Jer. 10:22;
Nah. 3:19.

BUL, occurring only in 1 Kin. 6:38,
applied to the eighth month, usually
called Marcheshvan, which see. Solo
mon's temple was finished in Bui.

BULLS of Bashan, pasturing in a fer
tile region and with but few keepers,
became strong and fierce, and might
' ' compass about ' ' an intruder, and tram
ple him under foot. They are symbols
of powerful, fierce, and numerous
foes, Psa. 22:12; 68:30; Isa. 34:7.
See Ox.

BUL'RUSH, see next page.
BUR'DEN, a weight or load, on
body or soul ; often used figuratively,
to denote afflictions, failings, sins,
Psa. 38:4; 55:22; Gal. 6:2; services
under the law, Matt. 23:4; official re
sponsibilities, Ex. 18:22; Deut 1:12;
and especially prophetic messages, not
always of a threatening character, Isa.
19:1. In this- last sense the Hebrew word
73

BUR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

BUR

may be rendered ' ' oracle, " " divine dec
laration," or "prophecy," as in Prov.
80:1; 31:1,

BUL'RUSH, or papyrus, a reed grow
ing on the banks of the Nile, in marshy
ground, Job 8 : 1 1, to the height of twelve
or fifteen feet, Isa. 35:7. The stalks are
pliable, and capable of being interwoven
very closely, as is evident from their
being used in the construction of arks,
Ex. 2:3, 5; and also vessels of larger
dimensions, Isa. 18 • 2. Boats of this
material were very common in Egypt.
Being exceedingly light and small, they
sailed with great velocity, and might
easily be borne on the shoulders around
rapids and Mis The inner bark of this
plant, platted and cemented together,
furnished a writing material ; and the
pith was sometimes used for food. See
BOOK.

BUR'IAL. The Hebrews were at all
times very careful in the burial of their
dead, Gen. 25 9 ; 35:29. To be deprived
of burial was thought one of the greatest
marks of dishonor, or causes of unhappi-
ness, Eccl. 6:3 ; Jer. 22:18, 19 ; it being
denied to none, not even to enemies.
Good men made it a part of their piety
to inter the dead. Indeed, how shock-
74

ing must the sight of unburied corpses
have been to the Jews, when their land
was thought to be polluted if the dead
were in any manner exposed to view,
2 Sam. 21 : 14 ; and when the very touch
of a dead body, or of any thing that
had touched a dead body, was esteemed
a defilement, and required a ceremonial
ablution, Num. 19:11-22.

Only two cases of burning the bodies
of the dead occur in Scripture : the man
gled remains of Saul and his sons, 1 Sam.
31:12, and the victims of some plague,
Amos 6:10. It was customary for the
nearest relatives to close the eyes of the
dying and give them the parting kiss,
and then to commence the wailing for
the dead, Jer. 46:4; 50:1 ; in this wail
ing, which continued at intervals until
after the burial, they were joined by
other relatives and friends, John 11:19,
whose loud and shrill lamentations are
referred to in Mark 5:38. It is also a
custom still prevailing in the East to
hire wailing women , Jer. 9:17; Amos
5:16, who praised the deceased, Acts
9:39, and by doleful cries and frantic
gestures, aided at times by melancholy
tones of music, Matt. 9:23, strove to ex
press the deepest grief, Ezek. 24:17, 18.

Immediately after death the body was
washed, and laid out in a convenient
room, Acts 9 : 39 ; it was wrapped in
many folds of linen, with spices, and the
head bound about with a napkin, Matt.
27 : 59 ; John 11 : 44. Unless the body
was to be embalmed, the burial took
place very soon, both on account of the
heat of the climate and the ceremonial
uncleanness incurred. Rarely did twen
ty-four hours elapse between death and
burial, Acts 5 : 6, 10. The body being
shrouded, was placed upon a bier — a
board resting on a simple handbarrow,
borne by men — to be conveyed to the
tomb, 2 Sam. 3:31; Luke 7: 14. Some
times a more costly bier or bed was used,
2 Chr. 16:14; and 'the bodies of kings
and some others may have been laid in
coffins of wood, or stone sarcophagi. The
relatives attended the bier to the tomb,
which was usually without the city. A
banquet sometimes followed the funeral,
Jer 16:7, 8 ; and during subsequent days
the bereaved friends were wont to go to
the grave from time to time, to weep and
to adorn the place with fresh flowers,
John 11:31, a custom observed even at
this day. See EMBALMING, SEPULCIIKE.

BUR

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

CJES

BURNT - OFFERINGS. See SACRI
FICE.

BUSH' EL, used in the New Testament
to express the Greek modi us, which was
about a peck by our measure.

BUTTER. The Hebrew word usually
rendered butter denotes, properly, sour or
curdled milk, Gen. 18 : 8 ; Judg. 5 : 25 ;
Job 20: 17. This last is a favorite bever
age in the East to the present day. Burck-
hardt, when crossing the desert from the
country south of the Dead sea to Egypt,
says, ' ' Besides flour, I carried some but
ter and dried leben, (sour milk,) which,
when dissolved in water, not only forms
a refreshing beverage, but is much to be
recommended as a preservative of health
when travelling in summer." Yet but
ter may have been known to the He
brews. It is much used by the Arabs and
Syrians at the present day, and is made
by pouring the milk into the common
goat-skin bottle, suspending this from
the tent-poles, and swinging it to and
fro with a jerk, until the process is com
pleted. Still it is not certain that the
Hebrew word rendered butter ever de
notes that article. Even in Prov. 80:33
we may render, "The pressing of milk
bringeth forth cheese ;" and everywhere
else the rendering "curd," or "curdled
milk," would be appropriate.

BUZ, son of Nahor and Milcah, and
ancestor of the Buzites, who lived in
Mesopotamia or Ram, and afterwards
perhaps in Arabia Deserta, Gen. 22 : 21 ;
Job 32: 2; Jer. 25:23.

C.

CAB, a Hebrew measure, the 'sixth
part of a seah, and the eighteenth part
of an ephah. A cab contained three
pints and one third, of our wine meas
ure, or two pints and five sixths, of our
corn measure, 2 Kin. 6:25.

CA'BUL, probably meaning displeasing,
I., a name given by Hiram king of Tyre
to a district in Northern Galilee contain
ing twenty cities, which Solomon gave
him for his help in building the temple,
1 Kin. 9:13 ; the term implying his dis
satisfaction with the gift.

II. A city of Asher, Josh. 19:27.

C^E'SAR, originally the Surname of the
Julian family at Rome. After being dig
nified in the person of Julius Caesar, it
became the usual appellation of those of j

his family who ascended the throne. The
last of tl>ese was Nero, but the name was
still retained by his successors as a sort
of title belonging to the imperial dignity.
The emperors alluded to by this title in
the New Testament, are Augustus, Luke
2:1; Tiberius, Luke 3:1; 20:22; Clau
dius, Acts 11:28; and Nero, Acts 25:8;
Phil. 4:22. Caligula, who succeeded Ti
berius, is not mentioned.

C^ESARE'A, often called Ciesarea of
Palestine, situated on the coast of the
Mediterranean sea, between Joppa and
Tyre. It was anciently a small place,
called the Tower of Strato, but was re
built with great splendor, and strongly
fortified by Herod the Great, who formed
a harbor by constructing a vast break
water, adorned the city with many state
ly buildings, and named it Caesarea, in
honor of Augustus. It was inhabited
chiefly by Greeks, and Herod established
in it quinquennial games in honor of the
emperor. This city was the capital of
Jtidea during the reign of Herod the
Great and of Herod Agrippa I., and was
also the seat of the Roman power while
Judea was governed as a province of the
empire. It was subject to frequent com
motions between the Greeks, Romans,
and Jews, so that on one occasion 20,000
persons are said to have fallen in one
day.

It is noted in gospel history as the
residence of Philip the evangelist, Acts
8:40 ; 21:8 ; and of Cornelius the centu
rion, the first-fruits from the Gentiles,
Acts 10 ; 11 : 1-18. Here Herod Agrippa
was smitten bv the angel of God, Acts
12 : 20-23. Paul several times visited it,
Acts 9:30; 18:22; 21:8, 16; here he ap
peared before Felix, who trembled under
his appeals, Acts 23 : 23 ; 24 ; here he
was imprisoned for two years ; and after
pleading before Festus and Agrippa, he
sailed hence for imperial Rome, Acts
25: 26 ; 27 : 1. It is now a heap of ruins.

C^ESARE'A-PHILIP'PI, a city three or
four miles east of Dan, near the eastern
source of the Jordan ; anciently called
Pancas, now Banias, from an adjacent
grotto dedicated to Pan, from which one
of the sources of the Jordan flowed. It
stood where the mountains south-west of
Hermon join the plain above lake Hu-
leh, on an elevated plateau surrounded
by ravines and water-courses ; and its
walls were thick and strong. It was en
larged and embellished by Philip the te-

CAI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CAL

trarch of Trachonitis, and called Caesarea
in honor of Tiberius Ccesar ; and the name
Philippi was added to distinguish it from
Cassarea on the Mediterranean. Our Sav
iour visited this place shortly before his
transfiguration, Matt. 16:13-28; Mark
8:27-38; Luke 9:18, 27. After the de
struction of Jerusalem, Titus here made
the captive Jews fight and kill each other
in gladiatorial shows. In the time of the
crusades it underwent many changes,
and is now a paltry village amid exten
sive ruins.

CAI'APIIAS, high-priest of the Jews,
A. i> 27 to 36. He was a Sadducee, and
a bitter enemy of Christ. At his palace
the priests, etc., met after the resurrec
tion of Lazarus, to plot the death of the
Saviour, lest all the people should be
lieve on him. On one of these occasions,
John 11:47-54, he counselled the death
of Christ for the political salvation of
the nation ; and his words were, uncon
sciously to him, an inspired prediction of
the salvation of a lost world. These
plots against Christ, Matt. 26 : 1-5 ; Mark
14:1 ; Luke 22:2, led to his seizure, and
he was brought first before Annas, for
merly high-priest, who sent him to Cai-
aphas his son-in-law. See ANNAS. Cai-
aphas examined Christ before the as
sembling of the Sanhedrim, after which
the trial went on, and Christ was con
demned, mocked, and transferred to Pi
late for sentence and execution, Matt.
26:57-68 ; Mark 14:53-72 ; Luke 22:54-
71; John 18:13-27. Not content with
procuring the death of the Saviour, Cai-
aphas and his friends violently persecut
ed his followers, Acts 4:1-6; 5:17, 33.
But a few years after the ascension of
Christ, and soon after the degradation of
Pilate, Caiaphas also was deposed from
office by the Roman proconsul Vitellius.
Like Balaam of the Old Testament, he
is a melancholy instance of light resist
ed, privilege, station, and opportunity
abused, and prophetic words concerning
Christ joined with a life of infidelity and
crime and a fearful death.

CAIN, the first-born of the human
race, Gen. 4:1, and the first murderer.
See ABEL. His crime was committed
against the warnings of God, and he de
spised the call of God to confession and
penitence, Gen. 4:6-9. The punishment
inflicted upon him included an increase
of physical wants and hardships, distress
of conscience, banishment from society,
76

and loss of God's manifested presence
and favor, Gen. 4:16. But God mingled
mercy with judgment ; and appointed
for Cain some sign that he should not
suffer the death-penalty he had incurred
at the hand of man, thus signifying that
God only was his judge. He withdrew
into the land of Nod, east of Eden, and
built a city which he named Enoch, after
one of his sons.

CAIN' AN, I., son of Enos, and father
of Mahalaleel, Gen. 5:9; 1 Chr. 1:2.

II. Son of Arphaxad and father of Sa-
lah, Luke 3:36. This Cainan, however,
is not named in the three Old Testament
genealogies, Gen. 10:24; 11:12; 1 Chr.
1:24, nor in any ancient version. The
name occurs in two places in the Septua-
gint, an early Greek version ; and some
suppose that copyists of Luke's gospel
inserted the name, in order to agree with
the Septuagint.

CA'LAH, a city of Assyria, built by
Ashur or by Nimrod, Gen. 10:11, 12. It
was at some distance from Nineveh, and
Resen lay between them. It is thought
to have been near the river Lycus, the
great Zab, which empties into the Ti
gris.

CALAMUS. See CANE.

CALEB, I., son of Jephunneh, of the
tribe of Judah, who was sent, with one
man from each of the other tribes, to
search out the promised land, Num. 13 ;
14. Of all the twelve, Caleb and Joshua
acted the part of true and faithful men ;
and they only, of all the grown men of
Israel, were permitted to enter Canaan,
Num. 14:6-24, 38 ; 26:65, He was one
of the princes appointed to divide the
conquered territory among the tribes,
Num. 34:19. Hebron was given to him
as a reward of his fidelity, according to
the promise of God, Deut. 1:36; Josh.
14. Though eighty-five years old, he
still retained his vigor, and soon drove
out the Anakim from his inheritance.
He gave a portion also with his daugh
ter Achsah to Othniel his nephew, who
had earned the reward by his valor in the
capture of Debir, Josh. 15 : 13-19 ; 21 : 12.
This region was for some time called by
his name, 1 Sam. 30:14.

II. Son of Hur, whose children peo
pled the country about Bethlehem, etc.,
IChr. 2:50-55.

CALF, the young of the cow, a clean
animal much used in sacrifice ; hence the
expression, " So will we render the calves

CAL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CAL

of our lips," Hos. 14:2, meaning, we will
offer as sacrifices the prayers and praises
of our lips, Heb. 13 : 15. The fatted calf
was considered the choicest animal food,
Gen. 18:7; Amos 6:4; Luke 15:23.

In Jer. 34: 18, "they cut the calf in
twain, and passed between the parts
thereof," there is an allusion to an an
cient mode of ratifying a covenant ; the
parties thus signifying their willingness
to be themselves cut in pieces if unfaith
ful, Gen. 15:9-18.

THE GOLDEN CALF worshipped by the
Jews at mount Sinai, while Moses was
absent in the mount, was cast by Aaron
from the earrings of the people. Its wor
ship was attended with degrading ob
scenities, and was punished by the death
of three thousand men.

The golden calves of Jeroboam were
erected by him, one at each extreme of
his kingdom, that the ten tribes might
be prevented from resorting to Jerusa
lem to worship, and thus coalescing with
the men of Judah, 1 Kin. 12 : 26-29.
Thus the people ' ' forgot God their Sav
iour," and sank into gross idolatry. Jer
oboam is scarcely ever mentioned in
Scripture without the brand upon him,
"who made Israel to sin," 2 Kin. 17:21.
The prophet Hosea frequently alludes to
the calf at Bethel, to the folly and guilt
of its worshippers, and to the day when
both idol and people should be broken
in pieces by the Assyrians.

CAL'NEH, called Calno, Isa. 10:9, and
Canneh, Ezek. 27 : 23, one of Nimrod's
cities, Gen. 10 : 10, afterwards called
Ctesiphon ; it lay on the east bank of
the Tigris opposite Seleucia, twenty miles
below Bagdad. Ctesiphon was a winter
residence of the Parthian kings. Noth
ing now remains but the ruins of a pal
ace and mounds of rubbish.

CAL'VARY, or GOL'GOTIIA, the latter
being the Hebrew term, place of a skull,
the place where our Saviour was cruci
fied, near by Jerusalem, John 19:20, but
outside of its walls, Matt. 27 : 33 ; Mark
15:22; John 19:17; Heb. 13:12. In the
same place was a private garden, and a
tomb in which the body of Christ lay
until the resurrection, John 19 : 41, 42.
The expression, "mount Calvary," has
no evidence to support it beyond what
is implied in the name Golgotha which
might well be given to a slight elevation
shaped like the top of a skull, and the
probability that such a place would be

chosen for the crucifixion. It is very
doubtful whether the true localities of
Calvary and the tomb are those covered
by the present ' ' Church of the Holy
Sepulchre," a vast structure north of
mount Zion and within the modern city,
built on the site which was fixed under
the empress Helena, A. D. 335, by tradi
tion and a pretended miracle. Some
biblical geographers adhere to this loca«
tion ; but llobinson and many others
strongly oppose it, on the ground cf the
weakness of the tradition, and the diffi
culty of supposing that this place lay
outside of the ancient walls. See JERU
SALEM. Dr. Fisk, while visiting the spot
under the natural desire to identify the
scene of these most sacred events, felt it
to be just possible, and that was all,
that the spot shown him might be the
actual scene of the crucifixion ; that the
rock shown him might be a part of the
rock riven by the earthquake; that the
stone column he saw, half concealed by
iron-work, might have been that to
which our Lord was bound when scourg
ed ; that the small fragment of rude
stone seen by the light of a small taper,
through a kind of iron filigree, might
have been the stone on which he sat to
be crowned with thorns ; that the spot
overhung with lamps, and covered with
a white marble sarcophagus, with a kind
of domed structure in the centre, might
have been the place of our Lord's burial
and resurrection: but when he saw the
near juxtaposition of all these things,
and knew that in order to provide for
the structure of the church the site had
to be cut down and levelled ; when he
reflected that on the very spot a hea
then temple had stood, till removed by
the empress Helena, to make room for
this church ; and, moreover, when he
considered the superstitious purpose all
these things were to serve, and the spirit
of that church which thus paraded these
objects of curiosity, he could not bring
himself to feel they were what they pro
fessed to be.

Let us be thankful that though the
exact scene of Christ's death is now un
known, there can be no doubt as to the
fact. " He died, and was buried, and the
third day rose again, according to the
Scriptures." Then the old ritual passed
away, Satan was despoiled, man was
redeemed, God reconciled, and heaven
opened to all believers.

77

CAM

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

CAM

THE SWIFT CAMEL, OR DROMEDARY.

CAM'EL, carrier, a beast of burden
very common in the East, where it is
called ' ' the land-ship, ' ' and ' ' the car
rier of the desert." It is six or seven
feet high, and is exceedingly strong,
tough, and enduring of labor. The feet
are constructed with a tough elastic sole,
which pi-events the animal from sinking
in the sand ; and on all sorts of ground
it is very sure-footed. The Arabian spe
cies, most commonly referred to in Scrip
ture, has but one hump on the back ;
while the Bactrian camel, found in cen
tral Asia, has two. While the animal is
well fed, these humps swell with accu
mulated fat, which is gradually absorbed
imder scarcity and toil, to supply the
lack of food. The dromedary is a light
er and swifter variety, otherwise not dis
tinguishable from the common camel,
Jer. 2 : 23. Within the cavity of the
stomach is a sort of paunch, provided
with membranous cells to contain an
extra provision of water: the supply
with which this is filled will last for
many days while he traverses the des
ert. His food is coarse leaves, twigs,
thistles, which he prefers to the tendcr-
est grass, and on which he performs the
longest journeys. But generally, on a
inarch, about a pound weight of dates,
beans, or barley, will serve for twenty-
four hours. The camel kneels to re
ceive its load, which varies from 500 to
1,000 or 1,200 pounds. Meanwhile it
is wont to utter loud cries or growls of
anger and impatience. It is often obsti
nate and stupid, and at times ferocious ;
78

the young are as dull and ungainly as
the old Its average rate of travel is
about two and one third miles an hour ;
and it jogs on with a sullen pertinacity
hour after hour without fatigue, seem
ing as fresh at night as in the morning.
No other animal could endure the severe
and continual hardships of the camel, his
rough usage, his coarse and scanty food.
The Arabians well say of him, "Job's
beast is a monument of God's mercy."

This useful animal has been much cm-
ployed in the East, from a very early
period. The merchants of those sultry
climes have found it the only means of
exchanging the products of different
lands, and from time immemorial long
caravans have traversed year after year
the almost pathless deserts, Gen. 37:25.
The number of one's camels was a token
of his wealth. Job had 3,000, and the
Midianites' camels were like the sand of
the sea, Judg. 7:12; 1 Chr. 5.21; Job
1:3. Rebekah came to Isaac riding upon
a camel, Gen. 24:64 ; the queen of Sheba
brought them to Solomon, and Hazael
to Elisha, laden with the choicest gifts,
1 Kin. 10'2 ; 2 Kin. 8:9 ; and they were
even made serviceable in war, 1 Sam.
30.17. The camel was to the Hebrews
an unclean animal, Lev. 11:4; yet its
milk has ever been to the Arabs an
important article of food, and is highly
prized as a cooling and healthy drink.
Indeed, no animal is more useful to the
Arabs, while living or after death. Out
of its hair they manufacture carpets, tent
cloth, and large sacks for corn. Of its
skin they make huge water-bottles and
leather sacks, also sandals, ropes, and
thongs. Its dung, dried in the sun, serves
them for fuel.

CAMELS' HAIR was woven into cloth in
the East, some of it exceedingly line and
soft, but usually coarse and rough, used
for making the coats of shepherds and
camel-drivers, and for covering tents.
It was this that John the Baptist wore,
and not "soft raiment," Matt. 11:8.
Modern dervishes wear garments of this
kind ; and this appears to be meant in
2 Kin 1 8.

The expression, " It is easier for a
camel to go through the eye of a nee
dle," etc., Matt. 19 : 24, was a proverb
to describe an impossibility. The same
phrase occurs in the Koran ; and a simi
lar one in the Talmud, respecting an el
ephant's going through a needle's eye.

CAM

BIBLE DICTIONARY

CAN

See also the proverb in Matt 23 : 24,
which illustrates the hypocrisy of the
Pharisees by the custom of passing wine
through a strainer. The old versions of
the New Testament, instead of, "strain
at" a gnat, have, "strain out," which
conveys the true meaning.

CAMP, ENCAMPMENTS, These terms
usually refer to the movements of the
Israelites between Egypt and Canaan ;
and many passages of the Levitical law
relate to things done "within" or
"without the camp." The whole body
of the people consisted of six hundred
thousand lighting men, besides women
and children, Num. 1:2; and was dis
posed into four battalions, so arranged
as to enclose the tabernacle in a square,
and each under one general standard,
Num. 2 : 3. The mode in which this vast
mass of people was arranged, with the
most perfect order and subordination,
must excite general surprise. Balaam,
standing on the heights of Moab, viewed
the imposing spectacle with admiration
and awe: "How goodly arc thy tents,
0 Jacob! the Lord his God is with him,"
Num. 23; 24.

The order appointed for the removal
of the hosts of Israel from one encamp
ment to another is detailed in Num.
9 ; 10 The names of forty-one encamp
ments are given in Num. 33 ; from the
first in Kameses, in the month April,
B. c. 1491, to the last on the brink of the
Jordan forty years later. See EXODUS,
and WANDERINGS

Travellers in the desert were wont to
pitch their tents in the centre of a circle
formed by their camels and baggage,
which served as a barrier against an
assault. A similar mode of encamping
was practised by large caravans, and by
armies, 1 Sam. 20:5, margin.

CAM'PHIUK, in Sol. Song 1:14; 4:13,
is not the gum Camphor of our apothe
caries, but the Cyprus-flower, as it is
sometimes called, the Alhenna of the
Arabs, a whitish fragrant llower, hang
ing in clusters like grapes. Oriental
ladies make use of the dried and pow
dered leaves to give their nails, feet, and
hands a reddish orange tinge. The nails
of Egyptian mummies are found thus
dyed. See EYELIDS. The flowers of the
Alhenna are fragrant ; and being dis
posed in clusters, the females of Egypt
are fond of carrying it in their bosoms.

CA'NA, the birthplace of Nathanael,

the city in which our Lord performed
his first miracle, and from which he soon
after sent a miraculous healing to the
nobleman's son at Capernaum, eighteen
miles off, John 2:1-11 ; 4:40-54; 21:2.
It was called Cana of Galilee, now K ana-
el -Jelil, and lay seven miles north of
Nazareth This is Robinson's view. -The
commonly received site is nearer Naza
reth, ('ana is now in ruins.

CA'NAAN, I., the son of Ham, and
grandson of Noah, Gen. 9'18. His nu
merous posterity seem to have occupied
Zidon lirst, and thence spread into Syria
and Canaan, Gen. 10 : 15-19 ; 1 Chr.
1 .13-10. The Jews believe that he was
implicated with his father in the dishon
or done to Noah, Gen. 9:20-27, which
was the occasion of the curse under which
he and his posterity suffered, Josh. 9:23,
27; 2 Chr. 8:7,8.

II. The land peopled by Canaan and
his posterity, and afterwards given to
the Hebrews. This country has at dif
ferent periods been called by various
names, either from its inhabitants or
some circumstances connected with its
history. (1.) "The land of Canaan,"
from Canaan, the son of Ham, who di
vided it among his sons, each of whom
became the head of a numerous tribe,
and ultimately of a distinct people, (Jen.
10-15-20; 11:31. This did not at first
include; any land east of the Jordan. (2.)
"The land of Promise," Hob. 11:9, from
the promise given to Abraham, that his
posterity should possess it, Gen. 12:7;
13:15. These being termed Hebrews,
the region in which they dwelt was ('ail
ed, (3.) "The land of the Hebrews, Gen.
40: 15; and (4.) "The land of Israel,"
from the Israelites, or posterity of Jacob,
having settled there. This name is of
frequent occurrence in the Old Testa
ment. It comprehends all that tract of
ground on each side of the Jordan, which
God gave for an inheritance to the He
brews. At a later age, this term was
often restricted to the territory of the
ten tribes, Ezek. 27:17. (5.) "The land
of Judah." This at lirst comprised only
the region which was allotted to the
tribe of Judah. After the separation of
the ten tribes, the land which belonged
to Judah and Benjamin, who formed a
separate kingdom, was distinguished by
the appellation of "the land of Judah,"
or Judea ; which latter name the wholo
country retained during the existence of
79

CAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CAN

the second temple, and under the do
minion of the Romans. (6.) "The Holy
Land. ' ' This name appears to have been
used by the Hebrews after the Babylo
nish captivity, Zech. 2:13. (7.) "Pal
estine," Ex. 15:14, a name derived
from the Philistines, who migrated from
Egypt, and having expelled the aborig
inal inhabitants, settled on the borders
of the Mediterranean. Their name was
subsequently given to the whole coun
try, though they in fact possessed only a
small part of it. By heathen writers,
the Holy Land has been variously termed
Palestine, Syria, and Phoenicia.

Canaan was bounded on the west by
the Mediterranean sea, north by mount
Lebanon and Syria, east by Arabia De-
serta, and south by Edom and the desert
of Zin and Paran. Its extreme length
was about one hundred and eighty miles,
and its average width about sixty-live.
Its general form and dimensions Cole-
man has well compared to those of the
state of New Hampshire. At the period
of David, vast tributary regions were for
a time annexed to the Holy Land. These
included the bordering nations on the
east, far into Arabia Deserta; thence
north to Tiphsah on the Euphrates, with
all Syria between Lebanon and the Eu
phrates. On the south it included Edom,
and reached the Red sea at Ezion-geber.

The land of Canaan has been variously
divided. Under Joshua it was appor
tioned out to the twelve tribes. Under
Rehoboam it was divided into the two
kingdoms of Israel and Judah. It after
wards fell into the hands of the Baby
lonians, the Greeks, the Syrians, and
the Romans. During the time of our
Saviour, it was under the dominion of
the last-mentioned people, and was divid
ed into five provinces : Galilee, Samaria,
Judea, Perrea, and Idurmea. Persea was
again divided into seven cantons : Abi
lene, Trachonitis, Iturea, Gaulonitis,
Batanoea, Peraa, and Decapolis. At
present, Palestine is subject to the sul
tan of Turkey, under whom the pashas
of Acre and Gaza govern the seacoast,
and the pasha of Damascus the interior
of the country.

• The surface of the land of Canaan is
beautifully diversified with mountains
and plains, rivers and valleys. The prin
cipal mountains are Lebanon, Carmel,
Tabor, Gilead, Hermon, the mount of
Olives, etc. The plain of the Mediterra-
80

nean, of Esdraslon, and of Jericno, are
celebrated as the scenes of many impor
tant events. The chief streams are the
Jordan, the Arnon, the Sihor, the Jab-
bok, and the Kishon. The lakes are the
Asphaltites or Dead sea, the lake of Ti
berias or sea of Galilee, and lake Merom-
These are elsewhere described, each in
its own place.

The general features of the country
may here be briefly described. The
northern boundary is at the lofty moun
tains of Lebanon and Hermon, some
peaks of which are ten thousand feet
high. Around the base of mount Her-
rnon are the various sources of the Jor
dan. This river, passing through lake
Merom and the sea of Galilee, flows south
with innumerable windings into the
Dead sea. Its valley is deeply sunk, and
from its source to the Dead sea it has a
descent of two thousand feet. The coun
try between the Jordan valley and the
Mediterranean sea is in general an ele
vated table-land, broken up by many
hills, and by numerous deep valleys
through which the wintry torrents flow
into Jordan and the sea. The table
land of Galilee may be nine hundred or
one thousand feet above the Mediterra
nean. In lower Galilee we find the great
and beautiful plain of Esd radon, extend
ing from mount Carmel and Acre on the
west to Tabor and Gilboa, and even to
the Jordan on the east. From this plain
the land again rises towards the south ;
mount Gerizim being 2,300 feet, Jerusa
lem 2,400, and Hebron 2,600 above the
sea. On the sea-coast, below mount
Carmel, a fertile plain is found ; towards
the south it becomes gradually wider,
and expands at last into the great des
ert of Paran. From this plain of the
sea-coast the ascent to the high land of
the interior is by a succession of natural
terraces; while the descent to the Jor
dan, the Dead sea, and Edom, is abrupt
and precipitous. The country beyond
the Jordan is mountainous ; a rich graz
ing land, with many fertile valleys.
Still farther east is the high and desolate
plateau of Arabia Deserta.

The soil and climate of Canaan were
highly favorable. The heat was not
extreme except in the deep river beds,
and on the sea-coast ; and the climate
was in general mild and healthful. The
variations of sunshine, clouds, and rain,
which with us extend throughout the

CAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CAN

year, are in Palestine confined chiefly to
the winter or rainy season. The autum
nal rains usually commence in the latter
part of October, and soon after the tirst
showers wheat and barley are sowed.
Riin falls more heavily in December ;
and continues, though with less frequen
cy, until April. From ' May to October
no rain falls. The cold of winter is not
severe, and the ground does not freeze.
Snows a foot or more deep sometimes
occur, and there are frequent hailstorms
in winter. The barley harvest is about
a fortnight earlier than the wheat, and
both are earlier in the plains than on the
high land ; altogether the grain harvest
extends from April to June. The first
grapes ripen in July, hut the vintage is
not over till September. In this month
and October the heat is great ; the ground
becomes dry and parched ; verdure has
long before disappeared; pools and cis
terns begin to dry up; and all nature,
animate and inanimite, looks forward
with longing for the return of the rainy
season.

The soil of Canaan was highly produc
tive. The prevailing rock is a chalky
limestone, abounding in caverns. It
readily formed, and was covered with, a
rich mould, 'which produced, in the va
rious elevations and climates so remark
ably grouped together in that small
region of the world, an unequalled vari
ety of the fruits of the ground. Olives,
figs, vines, and pomegranates grew in
abundance; the hills were clothed with
flocks and herds, and the valleys were
covered with corn. The land of promise
was currently described as ' ' flowing with
milk and honey." Yet the glowing
description given by Moses, Deut. 8:7-9,
and the statements of history as to the
vast population formerly occupying it,
are in striking contrast with its present
aspect of barrenness and desolation. The
curse brought down by the unbelief of
the Jews still blights their unhappy
land. Long ages of warfare and misrule
have despoiled and depopulated it. Its
hills, once terraced to the summit, and
covered with luxuriant grain, vines,
olives, and figs, are now bare rocks. Its
early and latter rains, once preserved in
reservoirs, and conducted by winding
channels to water the ground in the sea
son of drought, now flow off unheeded
to the sea. The land, stripped of its
forests, lies open to the sun— which now
4*

scorches where it once fertilized. And
yet some parts of Palestine still show an
astonishing fertility ; and wherever the
soil is cultivated, it yields a hundred
fold. Indian corn grows there eleven
feet high, and grapes are still produced
that almost rival the clusters of Eshcol.
Intelligent travellers agree in confirming
the statements of Scripture as to its an
cient fertility. See HEBREWS, JUDEA.

CONQUEST OF CANAAN. Various argu
ments have been adduced to justify the
conquest of Canaan, and the extermina
tion of its inhabitants by the Israelites :
as, that the land had been allotted to
Shem and his sons after the flood, and
the sons of Ham were usurpers ; that
they first assaulted the Jews ; that Abra
ham had taken possession v of the land
ages before ; that the Canaanites were
akin to the Egyptians, and implicated in
their guilt and punishment as oppressors
of the Hebrews. Whatever justice there
may be in any of these reasons, they are
not those which the Bible assigns. The
only true warrant of the Jews was, the
special command of the Lord of all. They
were impressively taught that the wick
edness of those nations was the reason of
their punishment, which the forbearance
of G-od had long delayed, and which was
designed as a warning to them and all
mankind against idolatry and its kindred
sins. It was these sins the Jews were to
abhor and exterminate ; they were to act
as agents of God's justice, and not for
the gratification of their own avarice,
anger, or lust, the spoil and the captives
being all devoted to destruction. The
narrative of the conquest is given in
Num. 1-4; Joshua; and Judges 1. The
Canaanites were not wholly destroyed.
Many of them escaped to other lands ;
and fragments of almost all the nations
remained in Judea, subject to the Israel
ites, but snares to their feet and thorns
in their sides. It must be observed also,
that full notice was previously given
them to quit their forfeited possessions ;
a solemn writ of ejectment had been
issued by the great Proprietor, and if
they resisted, they incurred the conse
quences.

CA'NAANITES, the descendants of
Canaan. Their first habitation was in
the land of Canaan, where they multi
plied extremely, and by trade and Avar
acquired great riches, and sent out colo
nies all over the islands and coasts of
81

CAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CAN

the Mediterranean. When the measure
of their idolatries and abominations was
completed, God delivered their country
into the hands of the Israelites, who con
quered it under Joshua. See the pre
vious article. The following are the
principal tribes mentioned.

1. The HIVITES dwelt in the northern
part of the country, at the foot of mount
Hermon, or Anti-Lebanon, according to
Josh. 11:3, where it is related that they,
along with the united forces of northern
Canaan, were defeated by Joshua. They
were not, however, entirely driven out
of their possessions, Judg. 3:3; 2 Sam.
24:7; 1 Kin. 9:20. There were also
Hivites in middle Palestine, Gen. 34:2;
Josh. 19:1, 7; 11:19.

2. The CANAANITES, in a restricted
sense, inhabited partly the plains on the
west side of the Jordan, and partly the
plains on the coast of the Mediterranean
sea, Num. 13:29; Josh. 11:3.

3. The GIRGASIIITES dwelt between the
Canaanites and the Jebusites ; as may be
inferred from the order in which they
are mentioned in Josh. 24:11.

4. The JEBUSITES had possession of the
hill country around Jerusalem, and of
that city itself, of which the ancient
name was Jebus, Josh. 15 8, 63; 18:28.
The Benjamites, to whom this region
was allotted, did not drive out the Jeb
usites, Judg-. 1 : 21 David first captured
the citadel of Jcbus, 2 Sam. 5:6.

5 The AMORITES inhabited, in Abra
ham's time, the region south of Jerusa
lem, on the western side of the Dead
sea, Gen. 14:7. At a later period, they
spread themselves out over all the moun
tainous country which forms the south
eastern part of Canaan, and which was
called from them the ' ' mountain of the
Arnorites," and afterwards the "moun
tain of Judah," Dent. 1:19, 20; Num.
13:29; Josh. 11:3. On the east side of the
Jordan also they had, before the time of
Moses, founded two kingdoms, that of
Bashan in the north, and another, bound
ed at first by the Jabbok, in the south.
But under Sihon they crossed the Jabbok,
and took from the Ammonites and Moab-
ites all the country between the Jabbok
and the Arnon ; so that this latter stream
now became the southern boundary of
the Amorites, Num. 21:13, 14, 26 ; 32:33,
39 ; Dent. 4 : 46, 47 ; 31 : 4. This last tract
the Israelites took possession of after
their victory over Sihon. Sec AMORITES.
82

6. The HITTITES, or children of Heth,
according to the report of the spies,
Num. 1:29, dwelt among the Amorites
in the mountainous district of the south,
afterwards called the ' ' mountain of Ju
dah. ' ' In the time of Abraham they pos
sessed Hebron; and the patriarch pur
chased from them the cave of Machpelah
as a sepulchre, Gen. 23 ; 25:9, 10. After
the Israelites entered Canaan, the Hit-
tites seem to have moved farther north
ward. The country around Bethel is
called "the land of the Hittites," Judg.
1:26. Sec HITTITES.

7. The PERIZZITKS were found in vari
ous parts of Canaan. The name signi
fies inhabitants of the plains, from their
original abode. According to Gen. 13:7,
they dwelt with the Canaanites, between
Bethel and Ai ; and according to Gen.
34:30, in the vicinity of Shechein. See
PERIZZITES.

Besides these seven tribes, there were

several others of the same parentage,

j dwelling north of Canaan. These were

j the Arkites, Arvadites, Hamathites, and

I Zemarites. There were also several other

i tribes of diverse origin within the bounds

of Canaan, destroyed by the Israelites;

such as the Anakim, the Amalekites, and

the Bcphaim or giants.

CAN'DACE, the name of an Ethiopian
queen, whose high treasurer was con
verted to Christianity under the preach
ing of Philip the evangelist, Acts 8:27.
The Ethiopia over which she ruled was
not Abyssinia, but that region of Upper
Nubia called by the Greeks Meroe ; and
is supposed to correspond with the pres
ent province of Atbara, lying between
thirteen and eighteen degrees north lat
itude. Extensive ruins found in this
neighborhood, and along the upper val
ley of the Nile, indicate high civili
zation among the ancient Ethiopians.
Pliny and Strabo inform us that for
some time before and after the Christian
era, Ethiopia Proper was under the gov
ernment of female sovereigns, who all
bore the appellation of Candace. Irenzc-
us and Eusebius ascribe to Candace 's
minister her own conversion to Christi
anity, and the promulgation of the gos
pel through her kingdom.

CANDLESTICK. In the tabernacle,
the golden candlestick stood on the left
hand of one entering the Holy Place,
opposite the table of show-bread. It
consisted of a pedestal ; an upright shaft ;

CAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CAP

SPOILS OF JERUSALEM , FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS AT ROME.

six arms, three on one side, and three on
the opposite side of the shaft ; and seven
lamps surmounting the shaft and arms.
The arms were adorned with three kinds
of carved ornaments, called cups, globes,
and blossoms. Its lamps were supplied
with pure olive oil, and lighted every
evening, Ex. 25:31-40; 30:7, 8; 37:17-
24 ; Lev. 24 : 1-3 ; 1 Sam. 3:3; 2 Chr.
13:11. In the first temple there were
ten candelabra of pure gold, half of them
standing on the north, and half on the
south side, within the Holy Place, 1 Kin.
7:49, 50; 2 Chr, 4:7; Jer. 52:19. In
the second temple there was but one,
resembling that of the tabernacle. This
wras carried to Rome, on the destruction
of Jerusalem ; it was lodged in Vespa
sian's temple to Peace, and copied on the
triumphal arch of Titus, where its mu
tilated image is yet to be seen. See the
beautiful and significant visions of the
candlestick by Zechariah and John, Zech.
4:2-12; Rev. 1:12, 20.

CANE, or CAL'AMUS, SWEET, Song 4:14,
an aromatic reed mentioned among the
drugs of which the sacred perfumes were
compounded, Ex. 30:23. The true odo
riferous calamus or grass came from In
dia ; and the prophets speak of it as a
foreign commodity of great value, Isa.
43:24; Jer. 6:20; Ezek. 27:19.

CANKER- WORM, in our English Bi
ble, is put where the Hebrew means a
species of locust, Joel 1:4; Nah. 3 : 15, 16.

CANON. The Greek word denotes,
primarily, a straight rod ; hence a rule or
standard, by a reference to which the rec
titude of opinions or actions may be de
cided. In the latter sense it is used in
Gal. 6 : 16 ; Phil. 3 : 16. In the same
sense it was used by the Greek fathers.

As the standard to which they sought to
appeal on all questions was the will of
God contained in the Scriptures of the
Old and New Testaments, they came
naturally to apply this term to the col
lective body of those writings, and to
speak of them as the canon or rule. Canon
is also equivalent to a list or catalogue,
in which are inserted those books which
contain the inspired rule of faith.

In order to establish the canon of
Scripture, it must be shown that all the
books are of divine authority ; that they
are entire and incorrupt ; that it is com
plete without addition from any foreign
source ; and that the whole of the books
for which divine authority can be proved
are included. See BIBLE.

CAPER'NAUM, a chief city of Galilee
in the time of Christ, not mentioned be
fore the captivity in Babylon. It lay on
the north-west shore of the sea of Gali
lee, about five miles from the Jordan,
and on the frequented route from Da
mascus to the Mediterranean. This
seems to have been the residence of
Christ, during the three years of his
ministry, more than any other place.
The brothers Andrew and Peter dwelt
there ; Christ often taught in the syna
gogue, and wrought mighty works there,
Matt. 17:23 ; Mark 1:21-35; John 6: 17,
59; and it is called "his own city,"
Matt. 4:12-16; 9:1 ; Mark 2:1. Its in
habitants were thus ' ' exalted unto heav
en ;" but their unbelief and impenitence
cast them down to destruction, Matt.
11 : 20-24. The very name and site of
Capernaum have been lost. Dr. Robin
son, however, finds them at Khan Min-
yeh, on the northern border of the fine
plain of Gennesareth, where ruins of
83

CAP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CAP

gome extent still remain, and a copious
fountain not far from the sea.

CAPH'TORIM, descendants of Mizra-
im, and kindred to the Casluhim, near
.whom they were probably located on the
north-east coast of Africa. These last
two people are both named as ancestors
of the Philistines, Gen. 10 : 14 ; Deut.
2 : 23 ; Amos 9:7; and it is probable that
a colony made up from both drove out
the Avim from the country on the south
east coast of the Mediterranean, and oc
cupied it under the name of Philistines,
which it is generally agreed means stran
gers. But whether they came from Cy
prus, Crete, or Cappadocia, is not agreed.

CAPPADO'CIA, the largest ancient
province of Asia Minor ; having Pontus
on the north, mount Taurus, separating
it from Cilicia and Syria, on the south,
Galatia on the west, and the Euphrates
and Armenia on the east. It was wa
tered by the river Halys, and was noted
for its fine pastures and its excellent
breed of horses, asses, and sheep. There
were many Jews residing in it, Acts 2:9.
Christianity was early introduced there,

1 Pet. 1:1, among a people proverbial
for dulncss, faithlessness, and vice. See
CRETE. Several celebrated Christian fa
thers flourished in this province, as Ba
sil and the three Gregorics ; and their
churches may be traced as late as the
tenth century.

CAP'TIVES, taken in war, seem an
ciently to have been looked upon as just
ly liable to death, and hence to any treat
ment less dreadful than death. Their
necks were trodden upon, Josh. 10:24,
in token of abject subjection, which il
lustrates Psa. 110: 1. They were sold
into servitude, like Joseph. They were
mutilated, like Samson, or Adonizcdek.
They were stripped of all clothing, and
driven in crowds to adorn the victor's
triumph. Large numbers of them were
selected, often by a measuring line, 2 Sam.
8:2, and slain, 2 Chr. 25:12. This was
sometimes done with designed cruelty,

2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 3. The Ro
mans in some cases bound a living cap
tive to a dead body, and left them to
perish together ; a practice which may
be applied to illustrate the apostle's cry,
' ' 0 wretched man that I am ! who shall
deliver me from the body of this death ?"
Rom. 7:24.

CAPTIVITY. God often punished the
sins of the Jews by captivities or servi-
84

tudes, according to his threatenings,
Deut. 28. Their first captivity, howev
er, from which Moses delivered them,
should be considered rather as a permis
sion of Providence, than as a punishment
for sin. There were six subjugations of
the twelve tribes during the period of
the judges. But the most remarkable
captivities, or rather expatriations of
the Hebrews, were those of Israel and
Judah under the regal government. Is
rael was first carried away in part about
B. c. 740, by Tiglath - pileser, 2 Kin,
15:29. The tribes east of the Jordan,
with parts of Zebulun and Naphtali, Isa.
9:1, were the first sufferers. Twenty
years later, Shalmanezer carried away
the remainder, 2 Kin. 17:6, and located
them in distant cities, many of them
probably not far from the Caspian sea;
and their place was supplied by colonies
from Babylon and Persia, 2 Kin. 17:6-
24. Aside from certain prophecies, Isa.
11 : 12, 13 ; Jer 31 : 7-9, 16-20 ; 49: 2 ;
Ezek. 37:16; Hos. 11:11; Amos 9:14;
Obad. 18, 19, etc., which are variously
interpreted to mean a past or a future
return, a physical or a spiritual restora
tion, there is no evidence that the ten
tribes as a body ever returned to Pales
tine.

To Judah are generally reckoned three
captivities : 1. Under Jehoiakim, in his
third year, B. c. 606, when Daniel and
others were carried to Babylon, 2 Kin.
24:1, 2 ; Dan. 1:1. 2. In the last year
of Jehoiakim, when Nebuchadnezzar car
ried 3,023 Jews to Babylon ; or rather,
under Jehoiachin, when this prince also
was sent to Babylon, that is, in the sev
enth and eighth years of Nebuchadnez
zar, B. c. 598, 2 Kin. 24 : 2, 12 ; 2 Chr.
36 : 8, 10 ; Jer. 52 : 28. 3. Under Zedc-
kiah, B. c. 588, Avhen Jerusalem and the
temple were destroyed, and most that
was valuable among the people and their
treasures was carried to Babylon, 2 Kin.
25 ; 2 Chr. 36. The seventy years dur
ing which they were to remain in cap
tivity, Jer. 25:11; 29:10, arc reckoned
probably from the date of the first cap
tivity, B. c. 606. While at Babylon the
Jews had judges and elders who gov
erned them, and decided matters in dis
pute juridically according to their laws.
The book of Daniel shows us a Jew in a
high position at court, and the book of
Esther celebrates their numbers and
power in the Persian empire. The

CAP

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

CAR

prophets labored, not in vain, to keep
alive the flame of true religion.

At length the seventy years were ful
filled, and Cyrus, in the first year of his
reign at Babylon, B. c. 536, made a proc
lamation throughout his empire permit
ting the people of God to return to their
own country, and rebuild the temple,
Ezra 1:11. Nearly 50,000 accepted the
invitation, Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7 This
company laid the foundation of the sec
ond temple, which was completed in the
sixth year of Darius, B. c. 516. Fifty-
eight years after, Ezra led a small com
pany of 7,000 from Babylon to Judea.
He was succeeded as governor by Nehe-
miah, who labored, faithfully and suc
cessfully to reform the people, and many
of the good fruits of his labors remained
until the time of Christ.

Probably none among tho posterity of
Jacob can now prove from which of his
twelve sons they arc descended. Both
Judah and Israel being removed from
"the lot of their inheritance" in Ca
naan, and dispersed among strangers,
the various tribes would naturally amal
gamate with each other, the envy of Ju
dah and Ephraim would depart, and the
memory of Abraham, Moses, and David
would revive, Ezra 6 : 16, 17 ; 8 : 35 ;
Ezek. 37:26-28.

The last captivity of the Jews, A. D.
71, after they had filled up the measure
of their iniquity by rejecting Christ and
the gospel, was a terrible one. Accord
ing to Joscphus, 1, 100,000 perished at the

of Jerusalem by Titus, and nearly
100,000 captives were scattered among
the provinces to perish in gladiatorial
shows, doomed to toil as public slaves,
or sold into private bondage. The cut
represents the medal of the emperor Ves

pasian, A. D. 71, in memory of the cap
ture of Jerusalem. Under the emperor
Hadrian, A. D. 133, a similar crushing
blow fell on the Jews who had again as
sembled in Judea ; and at this day they
are scattered all over the world, yet dis'
tinct from the people among whom they
dwell, suffering under the woe which un
belief has brought upon their fathers and
themselves, and awaiting the time when
Christ ' ' shall turn away ungodliness
from Jacob," Rom. 11 : 25, 26.

CAR'BUNCLE, a precious stone, like
a large ruby or garnet, of a dark, deep
red color, said to glitter even in the
dark, and to sparkle more than tho
ruby. The word is put to represent two
different Hebrew words, one of which,
Ex. 28 : 17 ; Ezek. 28 : 13, is commonly
thought to mean the emerald ; and tho
other, Isa. 54:12, may mean a brilliant
species of ruby.

CAR'CHEMISH, probably the same
with Circesium or Circusium, a fortified
city on the west side of the Euphrates,
where the river Chaboras enters it. In
Isa. 10:9, it appears as taken by some king
of Assyria. It was attacked by Pharaoh-
necho king of Egypt, near the close of
king Josiah's reign, 2 Chr. 35:20. Five
years afterwards Necho was signally de
feated by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 46:1-12.
In later times it was held as a frontier
post of the Roman empire on the east.

CAR'MEL, a fruitful field, I., a city of
Judah, on a mountain of the same name,
eight miles south by east of Hebron,
Josh. 15:55. On this mountain Saul,
returning from his expedition against
Amalek, erected a trophy ; and here
Nabal the Carmelite, Abigail's husband,
dwelt, 1 Sam. 15: 12, 25. Its ruins indi
cate that it was a large place.

II. A celebrated range of hills run
ning north-west from the plain of Es-
draslon, and ending in the promontory
which forms the bay of Acre. Its great
est height is about 1,500 feet; at its
north-eastern foot runs the brook Ki-
shon, and a little farther north, the river
Belus. On its northern point stands a
convent of the Carmelite friars, an order
established in the twelfth century, and
having at the present day various branch
es in Europe. Mount Carmel is the only
great promontory upon the coast of Pal
estine. The foot of the northern part
approaches the water, so that, seen from
the hills north-east of Acre, mount Car-
85

CAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CAS

MT. CARMEL AND HAIFA, FROM THE N. E.

mcl appears as if "dipping his feet in
the western sea;" farther south it re
tires more inland, so that between the
mountain and the sea there is an exten
sive plain covered with fields and olive-
trees. Mariti describes it as a delightful
region, and says the good quality of its
soil is apparent from the fact that so
many odoriferous plants and flowers, as
hyacinths, jonquilles, tazettos, anemo
nes, etc. , grow wild upon the mountain.
Von Rich tor says, "Mount Carmel is en
tirely covered with green ; on its sum
mit are pines and oaks, and farther down
olive and laurel trees. It gives rise to
a multitude of crystal brooks, the largest
of which issues from the so-called ' foun
tain of Elijah ;' and they all hurry
along, between banks thickly overgrown
with bushes, to the Kishon. Every spe
cies of tillage succeeds admirably under
this mild and cheerful sky. The pros
pect from the summit of the mountain j
out over the gulf of Acre and its fertile j
shores, to the blue heights of Lebanon
and to the White cape, is enchanting."
Mr. Carne also ascended the mountain,
and traversed the whole summit, which
occupied several hours. He says, " It is
the finest and most beautiful mountain
in Palestine, of great length, and in
many parts covered with trees and flow
ers. On reaching, at last, the opposite
summit, and coming out of a wood, we
saw the celebrated plain of Esdralon
beneath, with the river Kishon flowing
through it; mounts Tabor and Little
Hermon were in front, (east) ; and on the
right, (south,) the prospect was bound -
86

ed by the hills of Samaria." From the
south-east side of this ridge, a range of
low wooded hills on the south spreads
and rises into the high lands of Samaria.
Those who visit mount Carmel in the
last part of the dry season, find every
( thing parched and brown ; yet enough
j remains to show how just were the allu
sions of ancient writers to its exceeding
beauty, Isa. 35:2, its verdure of drapery
and grace of outline, Song 7:5, and its
rich pastures, Isa. 33 : 9 ; Jer. 50 : 19 ; Amos
1:2. The rock of the mountain is a hard
limestone, abounding in natural caves,
Amos 9:3. These have in many cases
been enlarged, and otherwise fitted for
human habitation ; and the mountain
has been in various ages a favorite resi
dence for devotees. It is memorable for
frequent visits of the prophets Elijah and
Elisha, 2 Kin. 2:25 ; 4:25, and especially
for the destruction of the priests of Baal
upon it, 1 Kin. 18.

CARPUS, a disciple and friend of Paul,
who lived at Troas, 2 Tim. 4:13.

CARRIAGE, in. the Bible, usually
means the baggage which formed the
burden of a man or beast, Acts 21 : 15.
Once it seems to indicate a circular
trench or rampart of baggage, etp.,
around a camp, 1 Sam. 17:20.

A MODERN SYRIAN CART.

CARTS or wagons were used in Pales
tine formerly, though now almost un
known. The roads are generally impas
sable by any wheeled vehicle ; and the
chief use of the cart was on a limited scale
for agricultural purposes, such as forcing
the ripe grain out of the ear, bruising
the straw, removing the produce of the
fields, etc., Isa. 5:18; 28:27, 28. Wag
ons were used to carry Israel into Egypt,
arid for the conveyance of the ark, Gen.
45:27; Num. 7:3-9 They were often
drawn by heifers, etc., 1 Sam. 6:7, and
were usually low, and on solid wooden
wheels, sometimes iron-shod.

CASIPHIA, the home of many of the
exiled Jews, was probably in the vicinity
of the Caspian sea, Ezra 8: 17.

CAS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CED

CAS'LUHIM, descendants of Mizraim
See CAPHTORIM.

CAS'SIA, the bark of an odoriferous
tree, from which came one ingredient of
the holy oil or ointment, Ex. 30 : 24 ;
Psa. 45:8; Ezek. 27:19.

CAS'TOR and POLLUX, twin sons of
Jupiter, and guardians of seamen, ac
cording to heathen mythology. Ships
often bore their images on the prow, and
were distinguished by their names, Acts
28-11.

CATERPILLAR, some locust-like in
sect, now undistinguishable, Deut. 28: 08;
1 Kin. 8:37; Psa. 78:46; 105:34; Isa.
33:4. See LOCUST.

CATH'OLIC. This term is Greek, sig
nifying universal or general The church
of Christ is called catholic, because it ex
tends throughout the world, and during
all time. In modern times the church
of Rome has usurped this title, improp
erly applying it exclusively to itself.

The "Catholic epistles" are seven, BO

called because they were addressed to the
church or Christians in general, and not
to any particular church. They are, one
epistle of James, two of Peter, three of
John, and one of Jude.

CAVE. The geological structure of
Judea is highly favorable to the forma
tion of caves; and the whole region
abounds with subterranean caverns of
various dimensions, often giving rise to
small rirulets. These were used as
dwellings, places of refuge, and tombs.
It was in a cave that Lot resided after the
destruction of Sodom, Gen. 19 : 30 Petra,
in Idumea, was a city of caves, Num.
24:21 ; Song 2:14 ; Jer 49:16 ; Obad. 3.
In the vicinity of Hebron, the poor still
live in caves while pasturing their flocks.
Natural cavities were sometimes enlarg
ed, and artificial ones made for refuge and
defence, Judg. 6:2; 1 Sam. 13:6; Isa.
2:19 ; Jer. 41:9. The caves of Machpe-
lah, of Adullam, of Engedi, of Carmel,
and of Arbela, still exist. See SEPULCHRE.

CE'DAR, a noble evergreen-tree great
ly celebrated in the Scriptures, Psa. 92:12;
Ezck. 31:3-6. These trees are remark
ably thick and tall ; some among them
are from thirty-five to forty feet in girth,
and ninety feet in height. The cedar-
tree shoots out branches at ten or twelve

feet from the ground, large and almost
horizontal ; its leaves are an inch long,
slender and straight, growing in tufts.
The tree bears a small cone, like that of
the pine. This celebrated tree is not
peculiar to mount Lebanon, but grows
also upon mounts Amanus and Taurus
87

CED

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CEN

in Asia Minor, and in other parts of the
Levant, but does not elsewhere reach
the size and height of those on Leb
anon It has also been cultivated in
the gardens of Europe ; two venerable
individuals of this species exist at Chis-
wick in England ; and there is a very
beautiful one in the Jardin des Plantes
in Paris. The beauty of the cedar con
sists in the proportion and symmetry of
its wide-spreading branches and cone-
like top. The gum, which exudes both
from the trunk and the cones or fruit, is
soft like balsam ; its fragrance is like
that of the balsam of Mecca. Every
thing about this tree has a strong bal
samic odor ; and hence the whole grove
is so pleasant and fragrant, that it is de
lightful to walk in it, Song 4:11 ; Hos,
14:6. The wood is peculiarly adapted to
building, because it is not subject to de
cay, nor to be eaten of worms ; hence it
was much used for rafters, and for boards
with which to cover houses and form the
floors and ceilings of rooms. It was of a
red color, beautiful, solid, and free from
knots. The palace of Persepolis, the
temple at Jerusalem, and Solomon's pal
ace, were all in this way built with ce
dar; and "the house of the forest of
Lebanon," was perhaps so called from
the quantity of this wood used in its
construction, 1 Kin. 7:2; 10:17.

Of the forests of cedars which once
covered Lebanon, comparatively few are
now left, Isa. 2: 13 ; 10: 19 ; though there
are still many scattered trees in various
parts, resembling the genuine cedar.
The largest and most ancient trees, gen
erally thought to be the only ones,
are found in a grove, lying a little off
from the road which crosses mount Leb
anon from Baalbek to Tripoli, at some
distance below the summit of the moun
tain on the western side, at the foot in
deed of the highest summit or ridge of
Lebanon. This grove consists of a few
very old trees, perhaps as old as the
time of Christ, intermingled with 400 or
500 younger ones. See LEBANON.

Besides the true cedar of Lebanon, the
word cedar in the Bible appears to mean
sometimes the jumper and sometimes
the pine.

CE'DRON, see KIDRON.

CEILING. The ancients took great
pains to ornament the ceilings of their
best apartments; making them some
times of a sort of wainscoting, in squares
88

or complicated figures; and sometimes
of a fine plaster with beautiful mould
ings, tinted and relieved by gilding,
small mirrors, etc., 1 Kin. 6:15; 2 Chr.
3:5; Jer. 22:14.

CEN'CHREA, a port of Corinth, now
called Kikries, whence Paul sailed for
Ephesus, Acts 18.18. It was a place
of some commercial note, and the seat
of an early church, Eom. 16:1. It was
situated on the eastern side of the isth
mus, eight or nine miles east of the city.
The other port, on the western side of
the isthmus, was Lechamm.

CEN'SER, a vessel in which fire and
incense were carried, in certain parts of
the Hebrew worship. Little is known of
its form. The censer for the daily offering
was at first made of copper, Num. 16:39.
That used on the great day of atonement,
(and perhaps others also,) was made of
pure gold, 1 Kin. 7:50; Heb. 9:4. In
the daily offering, the censer was filled
with coals from the perpetual fire, and
placed on the altar of incense, where the
incense was thrown upon the coals, Ex.
30: 1, 7-10 On the day of atonement, in
the Holy of Holies, the censer must have
been held in the hand, and probably by
a handle, Lev. 16:12, 13

There are two Hebrew words, which

are translated censer in our English Bi
bles. The one signi
fies strictly fire-pan.
The other signifies in
cense-pan, a vessel for
burning incense ; but
we do not know its
exact shape.

The censers of the
Egyptians had long
handles, like a human
arm and hand, upon
the palm of which
the incense-cup stood.
Those of the Greeks and Romans had
chains, by which they were carried, like
those now used in the Romish service.

CEN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CHA

In the New Testament, where the
twenty-four elders are said to have gold
en "vials" full of odors, Rev. 5:8, the
meaning is vessels of incense, censers,
not vials in the present sense of the
word.

CENTU'RION, a Roman officer com
manding a hundred soldiers ; similar to
"captain" in modern times. Several
centurions are mentioned with honor in
the New Testament, Mark 15:39 ; Luke
7:1-10; and the first-fruits to Christ
from the Gentiles was the generous and
devout Cornelius, Acts 10.

CE'PHAS, a rock, a Syriac or later He
brew name given to Peter by Christ,
John 1:42. The Greek Petros and the
Latin Petrus have the same meaning.
See PETER.

CESAR, see CJJSAK.

CHALCED'ONY, a precious stone,
resembling the agate ; of various colors,
but often a light brown or blue, Rev.
21 : 19. It is found in most parts of the
world, though named after Chalcedon,
in Bithynia opposite Constantinople ;
and is much used as a material for cups,
vases, and other articles of taste Car-
nelian is said to be one of its varieties.

CHALDEA, a country in Asia, the
capital of which, in its widest extent,
was Babylon. It was originally of small
extent ; but the empire being afterwards
very much enlarged, the name is gener
ally taken in a more extensive sense,
and includes Babylonia, which see.

CHALDEANS. This name is taken,
1. for the people of Chaldea, and the
subjects of that empire generally ; 2. for
philosophers, naturalists, or soothsayers,
whose principal employment was the
study of mathematics and astrology, by
which they pretended to foretell the
destiny of men born under certain con
stellations.

The Chaldeans were originally a war
like people, who at first inhabited the
Carduchian or Koordish mountains north
of Assyria and Mesopotamia, Jer. 50:17.
As the Assyrian monarchs extended their
conquests towards the north and west,
the Chaldeans also came under their do
minion ; and this rough and energetic
people appear to have assumed, under
the sway of their conquerors, a new
character, and to have been transformed
from a rude horde into a civilized peo
ple. A very vivid and graphic descrip
tion of the Chaldean warriors is given

by the prophet Habakkuk, who probably
lived about the time when they first
made incursions into Palestine or the
adjacent regions, Hab. 1:6-11. Of the
date of their location in Babylonia noth
ing is now known. In the reign of king
Hezekiah, B, c. 713, a king of Babylon
is mentioned, the first of whom we read
after Nimrod and Amraphel. About one
hundred years later we find the Chalde
ans in possession of the kingdom of Baby
lon. The first sovereign in the new line
appearing in history was Nabopolassar.
His son Nebuchadnezzar invaded Pales
tine, as foretold by Jeremiah and Habak
kuk, Ezra 5.12; Jer. 39 : 5 He was suc
ceeded by his son Evil-merodach, 2 Kin.
25:27 ; Jer. 52:31. After him came, in
quick succession, Neriglissar, Laboroso-
archod, and Nabonnidus or Belshazzar,
under whom this empire was absorbed
in the Medo-Persian. The Chaldeo-baby-
lonian dynasty continued probably not
more than one hundred years.

CHAL'DEE LANGUAGE, see LANGUAGE.

CHAM'BERLAIN, 2 Kin. 23:11, an
officer who had charge of a king's lodg
ings and wardrobe. In eastern courts
eunuchs were generally employed in this
office, Esth. 1:10, 12, 15. This title in
Rom. 16:23 probably denotes the stew
ard or treasurer of the city.

CHAME'LEON, Lev. 11:30, a kind of
lizard. Its body is about six inches
long ; its feet have five toes each, arrang
ed like two thumbs opposite to three
fingers ; its eyes turn backwards or for
wards independently of each other. It
89

CHA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CHE

feeds upon flies, which it catches by dart
ing out its long, viscous tongue. It has
the faculty of inflating itself at pleasure
with air ; and of changing its color, from
its ordinary gray to green, purple, and
even black when enraged.

CHAM'OIS, not the well-known moun
tain goat of southern Europe, but proba
bly a variety of wild sheep, resembling a
goat, and still found in Arabia Peteea,
Deut. 14:5.

CHAPMEN, merchants, 2 Chr. 9:14.

CHAPTER, see BIBLE.

CHAR'GER, a large, shallow dish,
Num. 7:13; Matt. 14:8.

CHAR'IOTS. Scripture speaks of two
sorts of these : one for princes and gener
als to ride in, Gen. 41:43 ; the other to
break the enemy's battalions, by rush
ing in among them, being "chariots of
iron," that is, armed with iron scythes
or hooks, projecting from the ends of the
axletrees. These made terrible havoc.
The Canaanites, whom Joshua engaged
at the waters of Merom, had horsemen,
and a multitude of chariots, Josh. 11:4 ;
Judg. 1:19. Sisera, general of Jabin
king of Hazor, had nine hundred char
iots of iron, Judg. 4:3. See LITTER.

CHARM'ERS, Psa. 58 : 4, 5 ; Eccl.
10:11; Jer. 8:17, persons very common
throughout India and Egypt, who claim
to have the faculty of catching, taming,
and controlling serpents, even the most
venomous.

CHE'BAR, a river which rises in the
northern part of Mesopotamia, and flows
first south-east, then south and south
west, into the Euphrates. It was called
Chaboras by the Greeks ; now Khabour.
On its fertile banks Nebuchadnezzar lo
cated a part of the captive Jews, and
90

here the sublime visions of Ezekiel took
place, Ezek. 1:3; 3:15; 10:15; 43:3.

CHEDORLA'OMER, king of Elam, in
Persia, in the time of Abraham. He
made the cities in the region of the Dead
sea his tributaries ; and on their rebel
ling, he came with four allied kings and
overran the whole country south and east
of the Jordan. Lot was among his cap
tives, but was rescued by Abraham ; who
promptly raised a force from his own
dependents and his neighbors, pursued
the enemy, and surprised and defeated
them, Gen. 14:1-24. Compare Psa. 110.
CHEESE, several times alluded to in
Scripture, and still an important article
of food in the East, 1 Sam. 17 : 18 ; 2 Sam.
17 : 29. It is usually white and very sal t ;
soft, when new, but soon becoming hard
and dry. The cheese was like a small
saucer in size, Job 10:10.

CHEMARIM, occurring once only in
the English version, Zeph. 1:4, but fre
quently in the Hebrew, translated
"idolatrous priests," 2 Kin. 23:5; Hos.
10:5. The word is supposed to be de
rived from a root signifying to burn,
and may perhaps denote lire-priests,
worshippers of the sun.

CHE'MOSH, the national god of the
Moabites, and of the Ammonites, wor
shipped also under Solomon at Jerusa
lem, Num. 21:29; Judg. 11:24; 1 Kin.
11:7; 2 Kin. 23:13; Jer. 48:7. Some
erroneously identify Chemosh with Arn-
mon.

CHER'ETHITES, or CIIER'ETHIM, I., a
portion of the Philistines, supposed by
many to have originated in Crete, 1 Sam.
30:14; Ezek. 25:16; Zeph. 2:5.

II. A portion of David's body-guard,
always mentioned with the Pelethites,
2Sam. 8:18; 15:18; 20:7 ; 1 Chr. 18:17.
Some suppose that they were foreigners,
whom David took into his service while
among the Philistines. The Gittites
mentioned with them in 2 Sam. 15:18,
were plainly such. Others think they
had their name from their office — execu
tioners and runners. See PELETHITES.

CHE'RITH, a small brook flowing into
the Jordan, to which Elijah once with
drew, and where ravens brought him
supplies of bread and flesh, 1 Kin. 17 : 3-5.
Robinson suggests that it may be the
present Wady Kelt, which drains the
hills west of Jericho, and flows near that
town on its way to the Jordan. This
brook is dry in summer.

CHE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CHI

CHER'UB, plural CHER'UBIM, an order
cf celestial beings or symbolical repre
sentations often referred to in the Old
Testament and in the book of Revela-
tion. The cherubim are variously rep
resented as living creatures, Ezek. 1 ;
Rev. 4 ; or as images wrought in tapes
try, gold, or wood, Ex. 36 : 35 ; 37 : 7 ,
Ezek. 41:25 ; as having one, two, or four
faces, Ex. 25:20; Ezek. 10:14; 41:18;
as having two, four, or six wings, 1 Kin.
6:27; Ezek. 1:6; Rev. 4:8; in the sim
plest form, as in the golden figures above
the ark of the covenant ; or in the most
complex and sublime form, as in Ezekiel's
wonderful visions of the glory of God —
discerning and ruling all things, and exe
cuting irresistibly and with the speed of
thought all his wise and just decrees,
Ezek. 1 and 10. The fullest of these
descriptions represents the cherub as a
winged figure, like a man in form, full
of eyes, and with a fourfold head — of a
man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle — with
wheels turning every way, and speed
like the lightning ; presenting the high
est earthly forms and powers of creation
in harmonious and perfect union, Ezek.
1 ; 10 ; 41 ; Rev. 4. Usually also the
cherubim stand in a special nearness to
God; they are engaged in the loftiest
adoration and service, moving in instant
accordance with his will, Psa. 18:10;
Ezek. 1:26; 10:20; Rev. 4; they are
seen in the temple inseparably associ
ated with the mercy-seat — made of the
same mass of pure gold, Ex. 25:19, bend
ing reverently over the place of God's
presence, Psa. 99:1, where he met his
people, Num. 7:89, accepted the blood
of atonement, Lev. 16:14-10, and shone
forth as their Saviour, Psa. 80:1.

CHEST'NUT-TREE, Gen. 30:37, called
by the Septuagint and Vulgate the plane-
tree, with which most modern expositors
agree. The plane-tree has a tall and
stately trunk, with smooth bark, and
branches spreading in every direction,
covered with a profusion of glossy green
leaves. It is nowhere more abundant
and noble than in the plains of Assyria,
Ezek. 31:8.

CHESUL'LOTH, or CHISLOTII-TABOR, a
town on the border of Zebulun and Issa-
char, about four miles west of mount
Tabor ; the village called Iksal now
marks its site, together with numerous
excavated tombs, Josh. 19:12, 18, 22;
IChr. 6:62.

CHIL'DREN. A numerous offspring
was regarded as a signal blessing, Psa.
127:3-5, and childless wives sought va
rious means to escape the reproach of
barrenness, which was deprecated in the
blessing given to a newly married coup
le, Ruth 4:11. The pangs of childbirth,
in their suddenness and sharpness, are
often alluded to in Scripture. The apos'
tie Paul speaks of them as fruits and evi
dences of the fall ; but assures those who
abide in faith, that, amid all the suffer
ing that reminds them that woman was
first in the transgression, Gen. 3:16, they
may yet look trustfully to God for acr
ceptance and salvation, 1 Tim. 2:15.

A new-born child was washed, rubbed
with salt, and wrapped in swaddling
clothes, Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7-11. On
the eighth day he was circumcised and
named. At his weaning a feast was
often made, Gen. 21:8. The nurse of a
female child often attended her through
life. Gen. 24:59; 35:8. Children were
to be instructed with great diligence and
care, Deut. 6:20-23. They were requir
ed to honor and obey their parents, and
were subject to the father's control in all
things, Gen. 22:21; Num. 30:5; they
were even liable to be sold into tempo
rary bondage for his debts, Lev. 25:39-
41; 2 Kin. 4:1; Matt. 18:25.

The first-born son received, besides
other privileges, (see BIRTHRIGHT,) two
portions of his father's estate : the other
sons, one portion each. The sons of
concubines received presents, and some
times an equal portion with the other?,
Gen. 21:8-21; 25:1-6; 49:1-27; Judg.
11 : 1-7. The daughters received no
portion, except in cases provided for in
Num. 27:1-11.

The term child or children, by a He
brew idiom, is used to express a great
variety of relations : the good are called
children of God, of light, of the king
dom, etc. ; the bad are named children
of the devil, of wrath, of disobedience,
etc. A strong man is called a son of
strength ; an impious man, a son of Be
lial ; an arrow, the son of a bow, and a
branch the son of a tree. The posterity
of a man are his ' ' sons, ' ' for many gen
erations.

CHIM'HAM, probably a son of Barzil-
lai, 2 Sam. 19:37 ; 1 Kin. 2:7. He may
have received from David the place near
Bethlehem called Chimham, Jer. 41:17.

CHIN'NERETH, or CINNEROTH, a town
91

CHI

. BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CHR

on the west shore of the sea of Galilee,
Num. 34:11; Deut. 3:17; Josh. 11:2;
19:35; 1 Kin. 15:20. It was a "fenced
city" of Naphtali, and gave its name to
the lake on which it stood. Tiberias is
supposed by Jerome to have afterwards
occupied its site.

CHI'OS, an island in the Archipelago,
between Lesbos and Samos, on the coast
of Asia Minor, now called. Scio. It is
thirty miles long and ten wide. Paul
passed this way as he sailed southward
from Mitylene to Samos, Acts 20:15.

CHIS'LEU, the ninth month of the
Hebrews, beginning with the new moon
of December, Neh. 1:1; Zech. 7:1.

CHIT'TIM, or KITTIM, descendants of
Javan, son of Japheth ; and the land set
tled by them, Gen. 10:4. Chittim seems
to denote primarily the island Cyprus,
and also to be employed, in a wider sense,
to designate other islands and countries
adjacent to the Mediterranean, as for
instance, Macedonia, Dan. 11:30, and
Home, Num. 24:24.

CHI'UN, the name of an idol worship
ped by the Israelites in the desert, Amos
5:26 ; Acts 7 :43. It was most probably
the planet Saturn, worshipped by eastern
nations as an evil spirit to be propitiated
by sacrifices. See KEMPHAN.

CHORAZIN, a town in Galilee, near
to Capernaum and Bethsaida, on the
north-west shore of the sea of Galilee.
Jerome says it was two miles from Ca
pernaum. No traces of its name re
main ; but Robinson with strong proba
bility locates it at the modern Tell-hum,
on the northern shore of the sea of Gal
ilee, three miles north-east of Caperna
um. It was upbraided by Christ for its
impenitence, Matt. 11:21; Luke 10:13.

CHRIST, anointed, a Greek word, an
swering to the Hebrew MESSIAH, the
consecrated or anointed one, and given
preeminently to our blessed Lord and
Saviour. See MESSIAH and JESUS.

The ancient Hebrews, being instructed
by the prophets, had clear notions of the
Messiah ; but these became gradually
depraved, so that when Jesus appeared
in Judea, the Jews entertained a false
conception of the Messiah, expecting a
temporal monarch and conqueror, who
should remove the Roman yoke and
subject the whole world. Hence they
were scandalized at the outward appear
ance, the humility, and seeming weak
ness of our Saviour. The modern Jews,
92

indulging still greater mistakes, form to
themselves ideas of the Messiah utterly
unknown to their forefathers.

The ancient prophets had foretold that
the Messiah should be God, and man:
exalted, and abased ; master, and servant;
priest, and victim ; prince, and subject ;
involved in death, yet victor over death ;
rich, and poor ; a king, a conqueror, glo
rious — and a man of griefs, exposed to
infirmities, unknown, in a state of ab
jection and humiliation. All these con
trarieties were to be reconciled in the
person of the Messiah; as they really
were in the person of Jesus.

It is not recorded that Christ ever re
ceived any external official unction. The
unction that the prophets and the apos
tles speak of is the spiritual and internal
unction of grace and of the Holy Ghost,
of which the outward unction, with
which kings, priests, and prophets were
anciently anointed, was but the figure
and symbol.

The name CHRIST is the official title of
the Redeemer ; and is not to be regarded
as a mere appellative, to distinguish our
Lord from other persons named Jesus.
The force of many passages of Scripture
is greatly weakened by overlooking this.
We may get the true sense of such pas
sages by substituting for ' ' Christ, " " the
Anointed," and where Jews were ad
dressed, ' ' THE MESSIAH. ' ' Thus in Matt.
2:4, Herod "demanded of them," the
priests and scribes, "where Christ should
be born," that is, the Old Testament
Messiah. Peter confessed, "thouartthe
Messiah," Matt, 16:16. The devils did
the same, Luke 4:41. In later times the
name JESUS was comparatively disused ;
and CHRIST, as a proper name, was used
instead of JESUS.

When we consider the relation of
Christ's person, as God and man, to his
official work as our Prophet, Priest, and
King, and to his states of humiliation
and glory ; when we consider how God
is in and with him — how all the perfec
tions of God are displayed, and all the
truths of God exemplified in him ; when
we consider his various relations to the
purposes, covenants, word, and ordinan
ces of God, and to the privileges, duties,
and services of saints, in time and to
eternity, we have a delightful view of
him as ALL and IN ALL, Col. 3:11.

CHRISTS, FALSE. Our Saviour pre
dicted that many pretended Messiahs

CHR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CHU

would come, Matt. 24:24, and his word
has been abundantly fulfilled. One of
them named Coziba lived within one
hundred years of Christ, had many fol
lowers, and occasioned the death of more
than half a million of Jews. Others
have continued to appear, even down to
modern times.

CHUIS'TIANS, a name given at Anti-
och to those who believed Jesus to be
the Messiah, A. D. 42, Acts 11:26. It
seems to have been given to them by
the men of Antioch as a term of conven
ience rather than of ridicule, to designate
the new sect more perfectly than any
other word could do. They generally
called each other "brethren," "the
faithful," "saints," "believers;" and
were named by the Gentiles, Nazarenes
and Galileans. He only is a real Chris
tian who heartily accepts Christ as his
teacher, guide, and master, the source of
his highest life, strength, and joy, his
only Redeemer from sin and hell, his
Lord and his God. They who rightly
bear Christ's name and partake of his
nature, and they only, shall finally share
in his glory.

CHRONICLES, the name of two his
torical books of the Old Testament, the
author of which is not known, though
the general opinion ascribes them to
Ezra, B. c. 457. In writing them the
inspired penman made use, not only of
the earlier books of Scripture, but of
numerous other public annals, now lost,
2 Chr. 9:29; 16:11; 20:34. The first
book contains a recapitulation of sacred
history, by genealogies, from the begin
ning of the world to the death of David.
The second book contains the history of
the kings of Judah, without those of
Israel, from the beginning of the reign
of Solomon only, to the return from the
Captivity of Babylon. In this respect it
differs from the books of Kings, which
give the history of the kings of both
Judah and Israel. In many places, where
the history of the same kings is related,
the narrative in Chronicles is almost a
copy of that in Kings ; in other places,
the one serves as a supplement to the
other. In the Septuagint, these books
are called Paraleipomena, that is, things
omitted. The two books of Chronicles
dwell more on ecclesiastical matters than
the books of Kings ; they enlarge upon
the ordinances of public worship ; and
detail minutely the preparations of David j

for the building of the temple, and its
erection and dedication by Solomon ; the
histories of the other kings also are
specially full in respect to their relig
ious character and acts, 1 Chr. 13:8-11 ;
2 Chr. 11 : 13 ; 19 : 8-11 ; 26 : 16-19, etc.
The Chronicles should be read in con
nection with the books of Samuel and
the Kings ; treating of the same periods,
they illustrate each other, and form a
continuous and instructive history, show
ing that religion is the main source of
national prosperity, and ungodliness of
adversity, Prov. 14:34. The details of
these books may be studied with interest,
in view of their bearing upon the com
ing and the kingdom of our Lord Jesus
Christ. The whole period treated of in
the Chronicles is about 3,500 years.

CHRYS'OLITE, a transparent precious
stone, having the color of gold with a
mixture of green, and a fine lustre, Rev.
21:20. Many suppose it to be the topaz
of the moderns.

CHRYSOP'RASUS, the tenth of those
precious stones which adorned the foun
dation of the heavenly Jerusalem, as
seen by John the Evangelist. Its color
was green, inclining to gold, as its name
imports, Rev 21:20.

CHUN, elsewhere called BEROTIIAH,
which see.

CHURCH. The Greek word trans
lated church signifies generally an as
sembly, either common or religious ;
and it is sometimes so translated, as in
Acts 19:32, 39. In the New Testament
it usually means a congregation of re
ligious worshippers, either Jewish, as
Acts 7:38, or Christian, 'as Matt. 16:18 ;
1 Cor. 6:4. The latter sense is the more
common one ; and it is thus used in a
twofold manner, denoting,

1. The universal Christian church :
either the invisible church, consisting of
those whose names are written in heav
en, whom God knows, but whom we
cannot infallibly know, Heb. 12:23; or
the visible church, made up of the pro
fessed followers of Christ on earth, Col.
1:24; 1 Tim. 3:5, 15.

2. A particular church or body of pro
fessing believers, who meet and worship
together in one place; as the churches
of Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Philippi,
etc. , to which Paul addressed epistles.

CHURN'ING, Prov. 30:33. See BUT
TER.

CHU'SHAN-RISHATHA'IM, a king of
93

CHU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CIR

Mesopotamia, who oppressed the Israel
ites eight years, A. M. 2591-9, but was
defeated by Othniel, Caleb's nephew,
Judg. 3:8-10.

CHU'ZA, see JOANNA.

CILI'CIA, the south-eastern province
of Asia Minor, bounded north by the
Taurus range, separating it from Cappa-
docia, Lycaonia, and Isauria, south by
the Mediterranean, east by Syria, and
west by Pamphylia. The western part j
had the appellation of Aspera, or rough ;
while the eastern was called Campestris,
or level. This country was the province
of Cicero when proconsul ; and its chief
town, Tarsus, was the birthplace of the
apostle Paul, Acts 6 : 9. Many Jews
dwelt in Cilicia, and maintained fre
quent intercourse with Jerusalem, where
they joined the other Jews in opposing
the progress of Christianity. Paul him
self may have taken part in the public
discussion with Stephen, Acts 6:9 ; 7:58.
After his conversion he visited his na
tive province, Acts 9: 30; Gal. 1:21, and
established churches, which were ad
dressed in the letter of the council at
Jerusalem, Acts 15 : 23. The apostle
once afterwards made a missionary tour
among these churches, his heart yearn
ing to behold and to increase their pros
perity, Acts 15:30, 41.

CIN'NAMON, one of the ingredients
in the perfumed oil with which the tab
ernacle arid its vessels were anointed, Ex.
30:23; Prov. 7:17; Song 4:14. It is
the inner bark of a tree growing about
twenty feet high, and being peeled off in
thin strips curls as it is found in market.
94

It is of a dark red color, of a poignant
taste, aromatic, and very agreeable. That
of the finest quality comes from Ceylon,
Kev. 18:13.

CIRCUMCISION, a cutting around, be
cause in this rite the foreskin was cut
away. God commanded Abraham to use
circumcision, as a sign of his covenant ;
and in obedience to this order, the patri
arch, at ninety-nine years of age, was
circumcised, as also his son Ishmael,
and all the males of his household, Gen.
17:10-12. God repeated the precept to
Moses, and ordered that all who intend
ed to partake of the paschal sacrifice
should receive circumcision ; and that
this rite should be performed on chil
dren on the eighth day after their birth,
Ex. 12:44 ; Lev. 12:3 ; John 7:22. The
Jews have always been very exact in
observing this ceremony, and it appears
that they did not neglect it when in
Egypt, Josh. 5:1-9.

All the other nations sprung from
Abraham besides the Hebrews, as the
Ishrnaelites, the Arabians, etc., also re
tained the practice of circumcision. At
the present day it is an essential rite of
the Mohammedan religion, and though
not enjoined in the Koran, prevails wher
ever this religion is found. It is ako
practised in some form among the Abys-
sinians, and various tribes of south Afri
ca, as it was by the ancient Egyptians.
But there is no proof that it was prac
tised upon infants, or became a general,
national, or religious custom, before God
enjoined it upon Abraham.

The Jews esteemed uncircumcision as
a very great impurity ; and the great
est offence they could receive was to be
called ' ' uncircumciscd. ' ' Paul frequent
ly mentions the Gentiles under this term,
not opprobrious] y, Rom. 2:26, in oppo
sition to the Jews, whom he names "the
circumcision , ' ' etc.

Disputes as to 'the observance of this
rite by the converts from heathenism to
Christianity occasioned much trouble in
the early church, Acts 15; and it was
long before it was well understood that
"in Christ Jesus neither circumcision
availeth any thing, nor uncircumcision,
but a new creature," Gal. 5:2,3; 6:15.

The true circumcision is that of the
heart ; and those are ' ' uncircumcised in
heart and ears," who will not obey the
law of God nor embrace the gospel of
Christ.

CIS

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

CLA

CIS'TERNS and reservoirs were very
common in Palestine, both in the coun
try and in cities. During half the year
no rain falls, and never-failing streams
and springs are rare indeed. The main
dependence of a large portion of the pop
ulation was upon the water which fell in
the rainy season and was preserved in
cisterns, 2 Sam. 17 : 18. Dr. Robinson
alludes to immense reservoirs within and
under the area of the temple, supplied
by rainwater and by the aqueduct from
Solomon's pools, and says, "These of
themselves, in case of a siege, would fur
nish a tolerable supply. But in addition
to these, almost every house in Jerusa
lem, of any size, is understood to have
at least one or more cisterns, excavated
in the soft limestone rock on which the
city is built. The house of Mr. Lan-
neau, in which we resided, had no less
than four cisterns ; and as these are but
a specimen of the manner in which all
the better class of houses are supplied, I
subjoin here the dimensions :

LENGTH. BREADTH. DEPTH.

I. 15 feet. 8 feet. 12 feet.
II. 8 " 4 " 15 "

III. 10 " 10 " 15 "

IV. 30 " 80 " 20 "
The water is conducted into them dur
ing the rainy season, and with proper
care remains pure and sweet during the
whole summer and autumn." Such cis
terns, and others more properly called
tanks and pools, were provided in the
fields for irrigation, and at intervals
along the highways, for the accommo
dation of travellers, Psa. 84 : 6. The
same causes led to the erection, near all
the chief cities, of large open reservoirs
for public use. These were built of mas
sive stones, and in places where the win
ter rains could be easily conducted into
them. Many such reservoirs, and ruins
of others, yet remain. See BETIIESDA,
SILOAM, SOLOMON'S POOLS.

CITY. The towns and cities of Pales
tine were commonly built on heights,
for better security against robbers or in
vaders. These heights, surrounded by
walls, sometimes formed the entire city.
In other cases, the citadel alone crowned
the hill, around and at the base of which
the town was built ; and in time of dan
ger the surrounding population all took
refuge in the fortified place. Larger
towns and cities were often not only de
fended by strong outer walls, with tow

ers and gates, but by a citadel or castle
within these limits— a last resort when
the rest of the city was taken, Judg.
9:46, 51. The "fenced cities" of the
Jews, Deut. 8 : 5, were of various sizes
and degrees of strength ; some being sur
rounded by high and thick stone walls,
and others by feebler ramparts, often of
clay or sun-dried bricks, and sometimes
combustible, Isa. 9 : 10 ; Amos 1 : 7-14.
They were also provided with watch
men, Psa. 127:1 ; Song 5:7. The streets
of ancient towns were usually narrow,
and often unpaved. Some cities were
adorned with vast parks and gardens ;
this was the case with Babylon, which
embraced an immense space within its
walls. It is impossible at this day to
form any reliable estimate of the popu
lation of the cities of Judea. Jerusalem
is said by Josephus to have had 150.000
inhabitants, and to have contained, at
the time of its siege by the Romans, more
than a million of persons crowded in its
circuit of four miles of wall. See GATE,
REFUGE, WATCHMEN.

CITY OF DAVID, usually denotes mount
Zion, the south-west section of Jerusa
lem, which David took from the Jebu-
sitcs, and occupied by a palace and city
called by his own name. In Luke 2:11,
Bethlehem his native city is meant.

CITY or GOD, Deut. 12:5; Psa. 46:4,
and THE HOLY CITY, Neh. 11:1, names
of Jerusalem. Its modern name is El-
Kuds, the Holy.

CLAU'DA, a small island near the
south-west shore of Crete, approached
by Paul in his voyage to Jerusalem,
Acts 27 :16. It is now called Gozzo, and
is occupied by about thirty families.

CLAU'DIA, a Christian woman, prob
ably a convert of Paul at Rome, 2 Tim.
4:21.

CLAU'DIUS C^E'SAR, fifth emperor
of Rome, succeeded Cains Caligula, A. D.
41, and was followed by Nero, after a
reign of thirteen years. He endowed
Agrippa with royal authority over Ju
dea, which on the death of Agrippa again
became a province of Rome. A. D. 45.
About this time probably occurred the
famine foretold by Agabus, Acts 11:28.
In the ninth year of his reign, he ban
ished all Jews from Rome, Acts 18:2. In
A. D. 43-44, he made a military expedi
tion to Britain. His death was caused
by poison, from the hand of his wife and
nioce Agrippina.

95

CLA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

COL

CLAU'DIUS FE'LIX. See FELIX.

CLAU'DIUS LYS'IAS. See LYSIAS.

CLAY designed for earthenware was
trodden by the feet to mix it well, Isa.
41 : 25, was moulded on a wheel, and
then baked in a kiln, Jer. 18:3; 43:9.
The potter's art is referred to in Scrip
ture to illustrate man's dependence upon
God, Isa. 64 : 8 ; Rom. 9 : 21. See POT
TER. Clay seems to have been also used
in sealing, as wax is with us, Job 38:14.
The bricks of Babylon are found marked
with a large seal or stamp, and modern
travellers find the locks of doors in east
ern khans and granaries sealed on the
outside with clay.

CLEAN and UNCLEAN, terms often used
in the Bible in a ceremonial sense ; as
signed to certain animals, and to men in
certain cases, by the law of Moses, Lev.
11-15; Num. 19; Deut. 14. A distinc
tion between clean and unclean animals
existed before the deluge, Gen. 7:2. The
Mosaic law was not merely arbitrary, but
grounded on reasons connected with an
imal sacrifices, with health, with the sep
aration of the Jews from other nations,
and their practise of moral purity, Lev.
11:43-45; 20:24-26; Deut. 14:2, 3, 21.
The ritual law was still observed in the
time of Christ, but under the gospel is
annulled, Acts 10:9-16.

Cei'emonial uncleanness was contract
ed by the Jews in various ways, volun
tarily and involuntarily. It was remov
ed, usually at the evening of the same
day, by bathing. In other cases a week,
or even forty or fifty days, and some sac
rificial offerings, were required.

CLEM'ENT, mentioned in Phil. 4:3.
It is conjectured, though without evi
dence, that this is the same Clement who
was afterwards a bishop at Rome, com
monly called Clemens Romanus. The
church at Corinth having been disturbed
by divisions, Clement wrote a letter to
the Corinthians, which was so much es
teemed by the ancients, that they read
it publicly in many churches.

CLE'OPHAS, the husband of Mary,
John 19:25, called also ALPHEUS, which
see. The Cleopas mentioned in Luke
24:18, probably was a different person.

CLOTHES. See GARMENTS.

CLOUD, PILLAR OF, the miraculous
token of the divine presence and care,
Ex. 14 : 24 ; 16 : 10 ; Num. 12 : 5, which
guided the Israelites in the desert ; it
was a means of protection and perhaps

ye

of shade by day, and gave them light by
night, Ex. 13:21, 22; 14:19, 20. By it
God directed their movements, Num.
9: 15-23 ; 14 : 14 ; Deut. 1 : 33. See the
beautiful application of the image to the
future church in Isa. 4:5.

CLOUDS, in the summer season of
Palestine, were an unlooked-for phe
nomenon, 1 Sam. 12:17, 18, and rising
from off the Mediterranean, betokened
rain, 1 Kin. 18 : 44 ; Luke 12 : 54. Clouds
are the symbol of armies and multitudes,
probably by their grand and majestic
movements, Isa. 60:8; Jer. 4:13; Heb.
12:1. They betokened the presence of
Jehovah, as on mount Sinai, Ex. 19:9;
24:12-18; in the temple, Ex. 40:34;
1 Kin. 8:10; in the cloudy pillar, and
on the mount of Transfiguration. They
are found in many representations of the
majesty of God, Psa. 18:11, 12; 97:2, and
of Christ, Matt. 24:30; Rev. 14:14-16.

CNI'DUS, a town and peninsula of
Doris in Caria, jutting out from the
south-west corner of Asia Minor, be
tween the islands of Rhodes and Cos.
It had a fine harbor, and was celebrated
for the worship of Venus. Paul passed
by it in his voyage to Rome, Acts 27:7.

COAL, usually in Scripture, charcoal,
or the embers of fire. Mineral coal is
now procured in mount Lebanon, eight
hours from Beirut ; but we have no cer
tainty that it was known and used by
the Jews. The following passages are
those which most strongly suggest this
substance, 2 Sam. 22:9, 13 ; Job 41:21.

COCK'ATRICE, an old English word
of obscure origin, used by our translat
ors to designate the Hebrew T/epha, or
Tsiphoni, a serpent of a highly venom
ous character, Isa. 14:29; 5U:5; Jer.
8:17. See SEKPENT.

COCK'-CROWING, the third watch of
the night, in the time of Christ. See
HOUR.

COCK'LE, a plant growing among
wheat, Job 31:40. The Hebrew word
seems to denote some noisome weed
which infests cultivated grounds.

COLOS'SE, a city of Phrygia, situated
on a hill near the junction of the Lycus
with the Meander, and not far from the
cities Hierapolis and Laodicea, Col. 2:1 ;
4:13, 15. With these cities it was de
stroyed by an earthquake in the tenth
year of Nero, about A. D. 65, while Paul
was yet living. It was soon rebuilt.
The church of Christians in this city, to

COL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CON

whom Paul wrote, seems to have been
gathered by Epaphtas, Col. 1:2. Com
pare 1:7, 8, 9, and 4:12, 13. In modern
times the place is called Chonos.

COLOS'SIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, was
written by Paul, from Rome, A. D. 62.
The occasion of the letter was the intel
ligence brought him by Epaphras, Col.
1:6-8, respecting the internal state of
the church, which apparently he himself
had not yet visited, Col. 2:1, though fa
miliar with their history and affairs, Acts
16:6; 18:23. Some Jewish philosopher
professing Christianity, but mingling
with it a superstitious regard for the law
and other errors, seems to have gained
a dangerous ascendancy in the church.
Paul shows that all our hope of salva
tion is in Christ the only mediator, in
whom all fulness dwells ; he cautions
the Colossians against the errors intro
duced among them, as inconsistent with
the gospel, and incites them by most
persuasive arguments to a temper and
conduct worthy of their Christian char
acter. The epistle was written at the
same time with that to the Ephesians,
and was sent by the same bearer. The
two closely resemble each other, and
should be studied together.

COM'FORTER, Greek PAR'ACLETE, an
advocate, teacher, or consoler. This title
is given to our Saviour : ' ' We have an
advocate (paraclete) with the Father, Je
sus Christ the righteous," 1 John 2:1.
But more frequently it designates the
Holy Spirit. He is the " other Comfort
er," succeeding Christ, the great promis
ed blessing of the Christian church, John
14:16, 17, 26 ; 15 ; 16 ; Luke 24:49 ; Acts
1 : 4. The English word Comforter does
not adequately describe the office of the
Paraclete, who was not only to console,
but to aid and direct them, as Christ had
done. The disciples found the promise
fulfilled to them. The Comforter aided
them when called before councils ; guid
ed them into all truth respecting the
plan of salvation ; brought to their re
membrance the words and deeds of
Christ ; and revealed to them things to
come. His presence was accompanied
by signal triumphs of grace, and made
amends for the absence of Christ. The
church is still under the dispensation of
the Comforter, and still he convinces the
world of sin, of righteousness, and of the
judgment to come.

COM'MON, profane, ceremonially un

clean, Mark 7:2,5; Acts 10:14, 15 <
Bom. 14:14.

CONCTS'IOX, cutting, a term of re
proach, applied to certain Judaizing
teachers at Philippi, as mere cutters of
the flesh ; in contrast with the true cir
cumcision, those who were created anew
in Christ Jesus unto righteousness and
true holiness, Phil. 3:2.

CON'CUBINE, a term which, in mod-
ern authors, commonly signifies a woman
who, without being married to a man,
lives with him as his wife ; but in the
Bible the word concubine is understood in
another sense — meaning a lawful wife,
but of a secondary rank. She differed
from a proper wife in that she was not
married by solemn stipulation, but only
betrothed ; she brought no dowry with
her, and had no share in the government
of the family. She was liable to be re
pudiated, or sent away with a gift, Gen.
21 : 14, and her children might be treated
in the same way, and not share in their
father's inheritance, Gen. 25:6. One
cause of concubinage is shown in the his
tory of Abraham and Jacob, Gen. 16 ; 30.
Concubinage, however, became a gen
eral custom, and the law of Moses re
stricted its abuses, Ex. 21 : 7-9 ; Deut.
21 : 10-14, but never sanctioned it. The
gospel has restored the original law of
marriage, Gen. 2:24; Matt. 19:5; ICor.
7:2, and concubinage is ranked with for
nication and adultery.

CO'NEY, an old English name for the
rabbit; used in Scripture to translate
the Hebrew SHAPHAN, which agrees with
the Ashkoko or Syrian Hyrax, Lev. 11:5;
Deut. 14:7; Psa. 104:18; Prov. 30:26.
This animal is externally of the size and
form of the rabbit, and of a brownish
97

CON

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

COP

color. It is, however, much clumsier
in its structure, -without tail, and hav
ing long bristly hairs scattered through
the fur. The feet are naked below, and
the nails flat and rounded, except those
on the inner toe of the hind feet, which
are long and awl-shaped. They cannot
dig, but reside in the clefts of rocks.
They are called by Solomon, "wise,"
and " a feeble folk ;" they are timid and
i gregarious in their habits, and so gentle
and quiet, that they shrink from the
shadow of a passing bird. The name of
Spain is said to have been given to it by
Phoenician voyagers, who seeing its west
ern coast overrun with animals resem
bling the shaphan, called it Hispania, or
Coney-land. Some eminent interpreters
think the SIIAPIIAN means the Jerboa.

CONI'AH. See JEIIOIACIIIN.

CON'SCIENCE is that faculty common
to all free moral agents, Rom. 2:13-15,
in virtue of which we discern between
right and wrong, and are prompted to
choose the former and refuse the latter.
Its appointed sphere is in the regulation,
according to the will of God revealed in
nature and the Bible, of all our being
and actions so far as these have a moral
character. The existence of this faculty
proves the soul accountable at the bar of
its Creator, and its voice is in an impor
tant sense the voice of God. We feel
that when pure and fully informed, it is
an unerring guide to duty, and that no
possible array of inducements can justify
us in disregarding it. In man, however,
though this conviction that we must do
what is right never fails, yet the value
of conscience is greatly impaired by its
inhering in a depraved soul, whose evil
tendencies warp and pervert our judg
ments on all subjects. Thus Paul verily
thought that he ought to persectite the
followers of Christ, Acts 26:9. His sin
was in his culpable neglect to enlighten
his conscience by all the means in his
power, and to purify it by divine grace.
A terrible array of conscientious errors
and persecutions, which have infested
and afflicted the church in all ages,
warns us of our individual need of per
fect light and sanctifying grace. A
"good" and "pure" conscience, 1 Tim.
1:5; 3:9, is sprinkled with Christ's
blood, clearly discerns the will of God,
and urges us to obey it from gospel mo
tives ; in proportion as we thus obey it,
it is "void of offence," Acts 24:16, and
98

its approbation is one of the most essen«
tial elements of happiness. A "weak,"
or irresolute and blind conscience, 1 Cor.
8:7; a "defiled" conscience, the slave
of a corrupt heart, Tit. 1 : 15 ; Heb.
10 : 22 ; and a ' ' seared ' ' conscience, 1 Tim.
4:2, hardened against the law and tho
gospel alike, unless changed by grace,
will at length become an avenging con
science, the instrument of a fearful and
eternal remorse. The case of Judas shows
its terrific power. No bodily tortures
can equal the agony it inflicts ; and
though it may slumber here, it will
hereafter be like the worm that never
dies and the lire that never can be
quenched.

CONVENIENT, suitable and right,
Rom. 1:28.

CONVERSA'TION, in the Bible, usu~
ally means the whole tenor of one's life,
in intercourse with his fellow-men, Gal.
1:13; Eph. 4:22; 1 Pet. 1:15. Another
word is employed in Phil. 3:20, which
means, "our citizenship is in heaven."
For conversation in the modern sense of
discourse, the English version generally
has communication, 2 Kin. 9:11 ; Matt.
5:37; Eph. 4:29, etc.

CO'OS, a small island of the Grecian
archipelago, at a short distance from the
south-west point of Asia Minor. Paul
passed it in his voyage to Jerusalem,
Acts 21:1. It is now called Stanchio.
It was celebrated for its fertility, for
wine and silkworms, and for the manu
facture of silk and cotton of a beautiful
texture.

COP'PER, one of the primitive metals,
and the most ductile and malleable after
gold and silver. Of this metal and zinc
is made brass, which is a modern inven
tion. There is little doubt but that cop
per is intended in those passages of our
translation of the Bible which speak of
brass. Copper was known prior to the
flood, and was wrought by Tubal-cain,
Gen. 4:22. Hiram of Tyre was a^ cele
brated worker in copper, 1 Kin. 7 : 14.
Palestine abounded in it, Deut. 8:9, and
David amassed great quantities to be
employed in building the temple, 1 Chr.
22:3-14. In Ezra 8:27, two vessels are
mentioned "of fine copper, precious as
gold." This was probably a metal com
pounded of copper, with gold or silver,
or both. It was extolled for its beauty,
solidity, and rarity, and for some uses
was preferred to gold itself. Some com-

COR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

COR

pound of this kind may have been used
for the small mirrors mentioned in Ex.
33:8; Job 37:18. See BRASS.

COR'AL, a hard, calcareous, marine
production, produced by the labors of
millions of insects, and often resembling
in figure the stem of a plant, divided
into branches. It is of various colors,
black, white, and red. The latter is the
most valuable. It is ranked by Job,
28 : 18, and Ezekiel, 27 : 16, among pre
cious stones. It abounds in the Red sea ;
and the islands of the South seas "are
often coral reefs, covered over with
earth. The word "rubies" in Prov.
3:15 ; 8 : 11 ; 20 : 15 ; 31 : 10, is thought
by many to mean ornaments of coral.

COR'BAN, a sacred gift, a present de
voted to God, or to his temple, Matt.
23:18. Our Saviour reproaches the Jews
with cruelty towards their parents, in
making a corban of what should have
been appropriated to their use. The son
would say to his needy parents, " It is a
gift — whatsoever thou mightest be prof
ited by me," that is, I have already de
voted to God that which you request of
me, Mark 7:11; and the traditionary
teachings of the Jewish doctors would
enforce such a vow, and not suffer him
to do aught for his parents against it,
although it was contrary to nature and
reason, and made void the law of God
as to honoring parents, Matt. 15 : 3-9.
The Pharisees, and the Talmudists their
successors, permitted even debtors to
defraud their creditors by consecrating
their debt to God; as if the property
were their own, and not rather the right
of their creditor.

CORIAN'DER, a small round seed of
an aromatic plant. The plant is a na
tive of China, and is widely diffused in
Asia and the south of Europe. Its seeds
are planted in March. They are em
ployed as a spice in the East, and are
much used by druggists, confectionarists,
etc. The manna which fell in the wil
derness was like coriander-seed, Exod.
16:31 ; Num. 11:7. See MANNA.

COR'INTH, see page 100.

CORIN'TIIIANS, EPISTLE I. This was
written by Paul at Ephesus, about A. D.
57, upon the receipt of intelligence re
specting the Corinthian church, convey
ed by members of the family of Chloe,
chap. 1 : 11, and by a letter from the
church requesting advice, chap. 7:1,
probably brought by Stephanus, etc.,
chap. 16: 17. Certain factions had arisen
in the church, using his name and those
of Peter, Apollos, and of Christ himself,
in. bitter partisan contentions. In the
first part of this letter he endeavors to
restore harmony among them, by reunit
ing them to the great and sole Head of
the church. He then takes occasion to
put them on their guard against teach
ers of false philosophy, and resting their
faith on the wisdom of men instead of
the simple but mighty word of God. He
proceeds, in chap. 5, to reprove them
for certain gross immoralities tolerated
among them, such as they had formerly
practised like all around them, but
which he charges them to banish from
the church of Christ. He replies to their
queries respecting celibacy and marriage,
and the eating of food offered to idols ;
and meets several errors and sins preva
lent in the church by timely instructions
as to disputes among brethren, decorum
in public assemblies, the Lord's supper,
the resurrection of believers, true chari
ty, and the right use of spiritual gifts,
in which the Corinthian Christians ex
celled, but not without a mixture of os
tentation and disorder. He directs them
as to the best method of Christian be
neficence, and closes with friendly greet
ings.

EPISTLE II. This was occasioned by
intelligence received through Titus, at
Philippi. Paul learned of the favorable
reception of his former letter, and the
good effects produced, and yet that a
party remained opposed to him — accus
ing him of fickleness in not fulfilling his
promise to visit them ; blaming his se-
99

COB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

COR

verity towards the incestuous person ;
and charging him with an arrogance
and assumption unsuited to his true
authority and his personal appearance.
In the course of his reply he answers all
these objections; he enlarges upon the
excellence of the new covenant, and the
duties and rewards of its ministers, and

on the duty of the Corinthian Christians
as to charitable collections. He then
vindicates his own course, his dignity
and authority as an apostle, against
those who assailed him. His last words
invite them to penitence, peace, and
brotherly love. This epistle seems to
have been written soon after the lirst.

MODERN CORJHTH.

COR'INTH, called anciently Ephyra,
the capital of Achaia, and seated on the
isthmus which separates the Ionian sea
from the yEgean, and hence called bima-
ris, "on two seas." The city itself stood
a little inland ; but it had two ports, Le-
chasum on the west, and Cenchrea on
the east. Its position gave it great com
mercial and military importance ; for
while the traffic of the east and west
poured through its gates, as over the
isthmus of Darien the commerce of two
oceans, it was also at the gate of the
Peloponnesus, and was the highway be
tween Northern and Southern Greece.
Its defence, besides the city walls, was
in the Acro-corinth, a mass of rock, ris
ing 2,000 feet above the sea, with pre
cipitous sides, and with room for a town
upon its summit. Corinth thus became
one of the most populous and wealthy
100

cities of Greece ; but its riches produced
pride, ostentation, effeminacy, and all
the vices generally consequent on plen
ty. Lasciviousness, particularly, was
not only tolerated, but consecrated here,
by the worship of Venus, and the noto
rious prostitution of numerous attend
ants devoted to her. Corinth was de
stroyed by the Romans, B. c. 146. It
was afterwards restored by Julius Caesar,
who planted in it a Roman colony ; but
though it soon regained its ancient splen
dor, it also relapsed into all its former
dissipation and licentiousness. Paul ar
rived at Corinth, A. D. 52, Acts 18:1, and
lodged with Aquila and his wife Priscil-
la, who, as well as himself, were tent-
makers. Supporting himself by this la
bor, he remained at Corinth a year and
a half, preaching the gospel at first to
the Jews, and afterwards more success-

COR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

COR

fully to the Gentiles. During this time
he wrote the epistles to the Thessalo-
nians; and in a subsequent visit, the
epistles to the Galatians and Romans.
Some suppose he made a short interven
ing visit, not narrated in the Bible.
Compare 2 Cor. 13:1 with 2 Cor. 1:15;
2:1; 12 : 14, 21 ; 13:2. Apollos followed
him in his labors at Corinth, and Aquila
and Sosthenes were also among its early
ministers, Acts 18:1; 1 Cor. 1:1 ; 16:19.
Its site is now unhealthy and almost de
serted, with few vestiges of its former
greatness.

COR'MORANT, a water-bird, about
the size of a goose. It lives on fish,
which it catches with great dexterity ;
and is so voracious and greedy, that its
name has passed into a kind of prover
bial use. The Hebrew word translated
"cormorant" in Isa. 34:11 ; Zeph. 2:14,
should rather be translated, as it is in
other passages, "pelican," Lev. 11:17.

CORN, in the Bible, is the general
word for grain of .all kinds, including
various seeds, peas, and beans. It never
means, as in America, simply maize, or In
dian corn. Palestine was anciently very
fertile in grain, which furnished in a
great measure the support of the inhab
itants. "Corn, wine, and oil-olive"
were the staple products, and wheat
and barley still grow there luxuriantly,
when cultivated. Wheat was often eaten
in the field, the ripe ear being simply
rubbed in the hands to separate the ker
nels, Deut. 23:25 ; Matt. 12:1. Parched
wheat was a part of the ordinary food of
the Israelites, as it still is of the Arabs,
Ruth 2 : 14 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 28, 29. Their
methods of preparing grain for the man
ufacture of bread were the following :
The threshing was done either by the
staff or the flail, Isa. 28:27, 28 ; by the
feet of cattle, Deut. 25:4 ; or by "a sharp
threshing instrument having teeth,"
Isa. 41:15, which was something resem
bling a cart, drawn over the corn by
means of horses or oxen. See THRESH
ING. When the grain was threshed, it
was separated from the chaff and dust by
throwing it forward across the wind, by
means of a winnowing fan, or shovel,
Matt. 3.12; after which the grain was
sifted, to separate all impurities from it,
Amos 9:9 ; Luke 22:31. Hence we see
that the threshing-floors were in the
open air, and if possible on high ground,
as travellers still find them in actual use,

Judg. 6:11; 2 Sam. 24 : 18. The grain
thus obtained was sometimes pounded in
a mortar, Num. 11:8; Rev. 18:22, but
was commonly reduced to meal by the
hand-mill. This consisted of a lower

millstone, the upper side of which was
slightly concave, and an upper mill
stone, the lower surface of which was
convex. These stones were each about
two feet in diameter, and half a foot
thick ; and were called ' ' the nether
millstone," and the rider, Job 41 : 24 ;
Judg. 9 : 53 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 21. The hole
for receiving the corn was in the centre
of the upper millstone ; and in the oper
ation of grinding, the lower was fixed,
and the upper made to move round upon
it with considerable velocity by means of
a handle. The meal came out at the
edges, and was received on a cloth spread
under the mill on the ground. Each
family possessed a mill, and the law for
bade its being taken in pledge, Deut.
24:6 ; one among innumerable examples
of the humanity of the Mosaic legisla
tion. These mills are still in use in the
East, and in some parts of Scotland. Dr.
E. D. Clarke says, "In the island of Cy
prus I observed upon the ground the sort
of stones used for grinding corn, called
querns in Scotland, common also in Lap
land, and in all parts of Palestine. These
are the primeval mills of the world ; and
they are still found in all corn coun
tries where rude and ancient customs
have not been liable to those changes
introduced by refinement. The employ
ment of grinding with these mills is con
fined solely to females, who sit o» the
101

COR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

COT

ground with the mill before them, and
•thus may be said to be "behind the
mill," Ex. 11:5; and the practice illus
trates the prophetic observation of our
Saviour concerning the day of Jerusa
lem's destruction : "Two women shall be
grinding at the mill ; one shall be taken
and the other left," Matt. 24:41. To
this feminine occupation Samson was
degraded, Judg. 16:21. The women al
ways accompany the grating noise of the
stones with their voices ; and when ten
or a dozen are thus employed, the fury
of the song rises to a high pitch. As the
grinding was usually performed in the
morning at daybreak, the noise of the
females at the hand-mill was heard all
over the city, and often awoke their
more indolent masters. The Scriptures
mention the want of this noise as a
mark of desolation, Jer. 25:10; Rev.
18:22.

CORN"E'LIUS, a Roman centurion, sta
tioned at C;csarea in Palestine, supposed
to have been of a distinguished family in
Rome. He was " the first gentile con
vert ;" and the story of his reception of
the gospel shows how God broke down
the partition- wall between Jews and Gen
tiles. When first mentioned, Acts 10:1,
he had evidently been led by the Holy
Spirit to renounce idolatry, to worship
the true God, and to lead, in the midst
of profligacy, a devout and beneficent
life ; he was prepared to receive the Sav
iour, and God did not fail to reveal Him.
Cornelius was miraculously directed to
send for Peter, who was also miracu
lously prepared to attend the summons.
He went from Joppa to Cajsarea, thirty-
five miles, preached the gospel to Corne
lius and his friends, and saw with won
der the miraculous gifts of the Spirit
poured upon them all. Providence thus
explained his recent vision in the trance ;
he nobly discarded his Jewish prejudices,
and at once began his great work as apos
tle to the Gentiles by receiving into the
church of Christ those whom Christ had
so manifestly accepted, Acts 10; 11.

COPt'NER-STONE, a massive stone,
usually distinct from the foundation,
Jer. 51:26 ; and so placed at the corner
tof the building as to bind together the
'two walls meeting upon it. Such a stone
is found at Baalbek, twenty-eight feet
long, six and a half feet wide, and four
feet thick.

Our Lord is compared in the New Tes-
102

tament to a corner-stone in three differ
ent points of view. First, as this stone
lies at the foundation, and serves to give
support and strength to the building, so
Christ, or the doctrine of a Saviour, is
called the chief corner-stone, Eph. 2:20,
because this doctrine is the most impor
tant feature of the Christian religion — as
a system of truths, and as a living power
in the souls of men. Further, as the
corner-stone occupies an important and
conspicuous place, Jesus is compared to
it, 1 Pet. 2:6, because God has given him,
as the Mediator, a dignity and conspicu-
ousness above all others. Lastly, since
men often stumble against a projecting
corner-stone, Christ is so called, Matt.
21 : 42, because his gospel will be the
cause of aggravated condemnation to
those who reject it..

COR'NET, a wind instrument of mu
sic, of a curved form, 1 Chr. 15:28 ; Dan.
3:5,7. See Music.

COTES, inclosures for the safe keeping
of sheep, 2 Chr. 32:28. See SHEEP.

COT'TAGE, a rustic tent or shelter,
made perhaps of boughs, Isa. 24:20.

COT'TON was a native product of In
dia, and perhaps of Egypt, and is sup
posed to be intended in some of the pas
sages where the English version has
"fine linen. 'J It has been much dis-»
puted whether cotton cloth was used by!
the ancient Hebrews and Egyptians, or'
not ; but minute examination of the
cloths in which Egyptian mummies were
wrapped, proves that this material was
sometimes used, especially for children*
See FLAX, LINEN.

cou

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CRE

COUCH. See BED.

COUN'CIL is occasionally taken for
any kind of assembly ; sometimes for
that of the Sanhedrim ; at others, for a
convention of pastors met to regulate
ecclesiastical affairs. Thus the assembly
of the apostles, etc., at Jerusalem, Acts
15, to determine whether the yoke of
the law should be imposed on gentile
converts, is commonly reputed to be the
first council of the Christian church. See
SANHEDRIM.

COUR'SES, the order in which the
priests were on duty at the temple. See
ABIA.

COURT, an inclosed space or yard
within the limits of an oriental house,
2 Sam. 17 : 18. For the courts of the tem
ple, see TEMPLE. The tabernacle also had
a court. All oriental houses are built in
the form of a hollow square around a
court. See HOUSE.

COV'ENANT. The word testamentum
is often used in Latin to express the
Hebrew word which signifies covenant ;
whence the titles, Old and New Testa
ments, are used to denote the old and
new covenants. See TESTAMENT.

A covenant is properly an agreement
between two parties. Where one of the
parties is infinitely superior to the other,
as in a covenant between God and man,
there God's covenant assumes the nature
of a promise, Isa. 59:21; Jer. 31:33,
34; Gal. 3:15-18. The first covenant
with the Hebrews was made when the
Lord chose Abraham and his posterity
for his people ; a second covenant, or a
solemn renewal of the former, was made
at Sinai, comprehending all who ob
serve the law of Moses. The "new
covenant" of which Christ is the Me
diator and Author, and which was con
firmed by his blood, comprehends all
who believe in him and are born again,
Gal. 4:24; Heb. 7:22; 8:6-13; 9:15-
23; 12:24. The divine covenants were
ratified by the sacrifice of a victim, to
show that without an atonement there
could be no communication of blessing
and salvation from God to man, Gen.
15:1-18; Ex. 24:6-8; Heb. 9:6. Emi
nent believers among the covenant peo
ple of God were favored by the establish
ment of particular covenants, in which
he promised them certain temporal fa
vors ; but these were only renewals to
Individuals of the "everlasting cove
nant," with temporal types and pledges

of its fulfilment. Thus God covenanted
with Noah, Abraham, and David, Gen.
9:8, 9; 17:4, 5; Psa. 89:3, 4; etc., and
gave them faith in the Saviour after
wards to be revealed, Rom. 3:25; Heb.
9:15.

In common discourse, we usually say
the old and new testaments, or cove
nants — the covenant between God and
the posterity of Abraham, and that which
he has made with believers by Jesus
Christ ; because these two covenants con
tain eminently all the rest, which are
consequences, branches, or explanations
of them. The most solemn and perfect
of the covenants of God with men is that
made through the mediation of our Re
deemer, which must subsist to the end
of time. The Son of God is the guaran
tee pf it ; it is confirmed with his blood ;
the end and object of it is eternal life,
and its constitution and laws are more
exalted than those of the former cove
nant.

Theologians use the phrase ' ' covenant
of works" to denote the constitution
established by God with man before the
fall, the promise of which was eternal
life on condition of obedience, Hos. 6:7 ;
Rom. 3:27; Gal. 2:19. They also use
the phrase, ' ' covenant of grace or re
demption," to denote the arrangement
made in the counsels of eternity, in vir
tue of which the Father forgives and
saves sinful men redeemed by the death
of the Son.

CRACK'NELS, a sort of hard brittle
cakes, 1 Kin. 14:3.

CRANE, see next page.

CREA'TION, (1,) the act by which
God calls into existence things not pre
viously in being — material or spiritual,
visible or invisible, Psa. 148:5; Rev.
4:11; (2,) the moulding or reconstitut
ing things, the elements of which previ
ously existed; and (3,) the things thus
"created and made," 2 Pet. 3:4; Rev.
3:14 ; 5:13. It is probably in the first
of these senses the word ' ' created " is to
be understood in Gen. 1:1, though some
understand it in the second sense. In
either case the idea of the eternity of
matter is to be rejected, as contrary to
sound reason and to the teachings of
Scripture, Prov. 8:22-31; John 1:1-3;
Heb. 11:3.

Creation is exclusively the work of
God. The Father, the Son, and the
Spirit are each in turn named as ite au-
103

ORE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CRE

thor, Isa. 40:28; Col. 1:16; Gen. 2:2.
It is a work the mysteries of which no
finite mind can apprehend ; and yet, as
it reveals to us the invisible things of
God, Horn. 1:20, we may and ought to
learn what he reveals respecting it not
only in revelation, but in his works.
These two volumes are from the same
divine hand, and cannot but harmonize
with each other. The Bible opens with
an account of the creation unspeakably
majestic and sublime. The six days there
spoken of have usually been taken for our
present natural days ; but modern geo
logical researches have given rise to the
idea that ' ' day ' ' here denotes a longer
period. The different rocks of our
globe lie in distinct layers, the com
parative age of which is supposed to
have been ascertained. Only the
most recent have been found to con
tain human remains. Older layers
present in turn different fossil re
mains of animals and plants, many
of them supposed to be now extinct.
These layers are deeply imbedded
beneath the present soil, and yet
appear to be formed of matter wash
ed into the bed of some primeval
sea, and hardened into rock. Above
this may lie numerous other strata
of different materials, but which ap
pear to have been deposited in the
same manner, in the slow lapse of
time. These layers are also thrown
up and penetrated all over the world
by rocks of still earlier formations,
apparently once in a melted state.

There are several modes of recon
ciling these geological discoveries
with the statements of Scripture :
First, that the six days of Gen. 1 de
note six long epochs — periods of al
ternate progressive formation and revo
lution on the surface of the earth. To
the Lord ' ' a thousand years are as one
day," Psa. 90:2,4; 2 Pet. 3:5-10; Rev.
20. Secondly, that the long epochs in
dicated in the geological structure of the
globe occurred before the Bible account
commences, or rather in the interval
between the first and second verses of
Gen . 1 . According to this interpretation ,
verse 2 describes the state of the earth at
the close of the last revolution it experi
enced, preparatory to God's fitting it up
for the abode of man as described in
the verses following. Thirdly, that God
compressed the work of those untold
104

ages into six short days, and created the
world as he did Adam, in a state of ma
turity, embodying in its rocks and fos
sils those rudimental forms of animal and
vegetable life which seem naturally to
lead up to the existing forms.

The "creature" and "the whole cre
ation," in Rom. 8:19-22, may denote
the irrational and inferior creation,
which shall be released from the curse,
and share in the glorious liberty of the
sons of God, Isa. 11 : 6 ; 35 : 1 ; 2 Pet.
3:7-13. The bodies of believers, now
subject to vanity, are secure of full de
liverance at the resurrection — • ' the re
demption of our body," Rom. 8:23.

THE DEMOISELLE, OR NUMIDIAN CRANE.

CRANE. In Isa. 38:14, and Jer. 8:7,
two birds are mentioned, the sus and the
AGUE,, the first rendered in our version
crane, the second swallow. Bochart
says the sus, or sis, is the swallow ; the
agur, the crane. The Numidian crane,
supposed to be referred to, is about three
feet in length, is bluish-grey, with the
cheeks, throat, breast, and tips of the
long hinder feathers black, with a tuft of
white feathers behind each eye. "Like
a crane, or a swallow, so did I chatter :"
there is peculiar force and beauty in the
comparison here made between the dy-

CRE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CRO

Ing believer and migratory birds about
to take their departure to a distant but
more genial clime. They linger in the
scenes which they have frequented, but
instinct compels them to remove.

CRES'CENS, an assistant of the apos
tle Paul, and probably one of the seventy
disciples ; supposed to have exercised his
ministry in Galatia, 2 Tim. 4:10.

CRETE, a large island, now called
Candia, in the Mediterranean, originally
peopled probably by a branch of the
Caphtorim. It is celebrated by Homer
for its hundred cities. Being surround
ed by the sea, its inhabitants were excel
lent sailors, and its vessels visited all
coasts. They were also famous for arch
ery, which they practised from their in
fancy. The Cretans were one of the three
K's against whose unfaithfulness the
Grecian proverb cautioned — Kappado-
cia, Kilicia, and Krete. In common
speech, the expression, "to Cretanize,"
signified to tell lies ; which helps to ac
count for that detestable character which
the apostle has given of the Cretans, that
they were "always liars," brutes, and
gormandizers, as Epimenides, a Cretan
poet, described them, Tit. 1:12, 13.

Crete is famous as the birthplace of
the legislator Minos ; and in the Bible,
for its connection with the voyage of
Paul to Rome, Acts 11, The ship first
made Salmone, the eastern promontory
of the island, and took shelter at Fair
Havens, a roadstead on the south side,
east of cape Matala. After some time,
and against Paul's warning, they set sail
for Phenice, a more commodious harbor
on the western part of the island ; but
were overtaken by a fierce wind from the
east-north-east, which compelled them
to lie to, and drifted them to Malta.
Paul is supposed to have visited Crete
afterwards, in connection with one of his
visits to Asia Minor, 1 Tim. 1:3 ; Phile.
22. Here he established gospel institu
tions, and left Titus in the pastoral
charge, Tit. 1:5.

CRIM'SON, 2 Chr. 2 : 7-14 ; 3 : 14. See

PuilPLE.

CRISP'IXG-PINS irons for curling the
hair, Isa. 3:22.

CRIS'PUS, president of the synagogue
at Corinth, converted under the preach
ing of Paul, Acts 18:8, and baptized by
him, 1 Cor. 1 : 14.

CROSS, a kind of gibbet made of pieces
of wood placed transversely, whether
5*

crossing at right angles, one at the top
of the other, T, or below the top, f, or
diagonally, X. Death by the cross was
a punishment of the meanest slaves, and
was a mark of infamy, Deut. 21 :23 ; Gal.
3: 13. This punishment was so common
among the Romans, that pains, afflic
tions, troubles, etc. , were called ' ' cross
es. ' ' Our Saviour says, that his disciples
must take up the cross and follow Him.
Though the cross is the sign of ignominy
and sufferings, yet it is the badge and
glory of the Christian.

The common way of crucifying was by
fastening the criminal with nails, one
through each hand, and one through
both his feet, or through each foot.
Sometimes they were bound with cords,
which, though it seems gentler, because
it occasions less pain, was really more
cruel, because the sufferer was hereby
made to languish longer. Sometimes
they used both nails and cords for fasten
ings ; and when this was the case, there
was no difficulty in lifting up the per
son, together with his cross, he being
sufficiently supported by the cords ; near
the middle of the cross also there was a
wooden projection, which partially sup
ported the body of the sufferer. Before
they nailed him to the cross, they gen
erally scourged him with whips or leath
ern thongs, which was thought more se
vere and more infamous than scourging
with cords. Slaves who had been guilty
of great crimes were fastened to a gibbet
or cross, and were thus led about the
city, and beaten. Our Saviour was load
ed with his cross, and as he sunk under
the burden, Simon the Cyrenian was
constrained to bear it after him and with
him, Mark 15:21.

After the person had been nailed to
the cross, a stupefying draught was some
times administered, in order to render*
him less sensible to pain, an alleviation
which our Saviour did not accept, Matt
105

CRO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

CRY

27 : 34 ; Mark 15 : 23 ; though he seems
afterwaids to have taken a little of the
common beverage of the soldiers. Sent
by the Father to bear the heavy load of
penal suffering for a lost race, he felt
that he had no right to the palliatives
resorted to in ordinary cases, and perfect
ly lawful except in his own. ' ' The cup
which my Father hath given me, shall
I not drink it?" John 18:11. He drank
it, and to the very dregs. The cross
being erected under the burning sun, the
wounds made by the scourge and the
nails soon occasioned a general fever and
an intolerable thirst. The blood, inter
rupted in its regular flow, accumulated in
various parts of the body, and caused pain
ful congestions. Every slight writhing of
the sufferer increased his anguish, which
found no relief but in final mortification
and death. Those who were fastened up
on the cross lived in that condition sever
al days, and sometimes a week or more.
Hence Pilate was amazed at our Saviour's
dying so soon, because naturally he must
have lived longer, Mark 15.44. The legs
of the two thieves were broken, to hasten
their death, that their bodies might not
remain on the cross on the Sabbath day,
Deut. 21:23 ; Josh. 8:29 ; but the cruci
fied were usually left hanging, under the
eye of guards, till their bodies fell to the
ground, or were devoured by birds and
beasts of prey.

CROWN. There are two distinct He
brew terms rendered crown. The one
represents such headdresses as we should
designate coronet, band, mitre, tiara,
garland, etc. The other is generally
applied to the headdresses of kings. The
former was a simple fillet or diadem
around the head, variously ornamented.
Newly-married persons of both sexes
wore crowns on their wedding-day, Song
3:11; Ezek. 16: 12. The crowns of kings
were sometimes white fillets, bound
round the forehead, the ends falling back
on the neck ; or were made of gold tis
sue, adorned with jewels. That of the
Jewish high-priest was a fillet, or dia
dem, tied with a ribbon of a hyacinth
color, Ex. 28:36; 39:30. Occasionally
the crown was of pure gold, and was
worn by kings, 2 Chr. 23:11, sometimes
when they went to battle, 2 Sam. 1:10 ;
12:30. It was also worn by queens,
Esth. 2:17. The crown is a symbol of
honor, power, and eternal life, Prov.
12:4; Lam. 5:16; 1 Pet. 6:4. Crowns
106

ANTIQUE GARLANDS, DIADEMS, AND CROWNS.

or garlands were given to the successful
competitors at the Grecian games, to
which frequent allusion is made in the
Epistles, 2 Tim. 4:7,8.

CRUSE, a small vessel for holding
water and other liquids, 1 Sam. 26:11.
The above cut represents various antique
cups, travelling flasks, and cruses, like
those still used in the East.

CRYS'TAL. The same Hebrew word
is rendered by our translators, crystal,
Ezek. 1:22; frost, Gen. 31:40; and ice,
Job 6: 16. The word primarily denotes
ice ; and the name is given to a perfectly
transparent and glass -like gem, from its

CUB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GYM

resemblance to this substance, Job 28 : 17 :
Rev. 4:G; 21:11.

CU'BIT, a measure used among the
ancients. A cubit was originally the
distance from the elbow to the extrem
ity of the middle finger, which is the
fourth part of a well-proportioned man's
stature. The Hebrew cubit, according
to some, is twenty-one inches ; but oth
ers fix it at eighteen. The Talmudists
observe that the Hebrew cubit was larger
by one quarter than the Roman.

CU'CUMBER, a vegetable very plenti
ful in the East, especially in Egypt, Num.
11 : 5, where they are esteemed delicacies,
and form a great part of the food of the
lower class of people, especially during
the hot months. The Egyptian cucum
ber is similar in form to ours, but larger,
being usually a foot in length. It is
described by Hasselquist as greener,
smoother, softer, sweeter, and more di
gestible than our cucumber.

CUM'MIN, a plant much like fennel,
and which produces blossoms and branch
es in an umbellatcd form. Its seeds yield
an aromatic oil, of a warm, stimulating
nature, Isa. 28 : 25-27. Our Lord reproved
the scribes and Pharisees for so very care
fully paying tithe of mint, anise, and cum
min, and yet neglecting good works and
obedience to God's law, Matt. 23:23.

CUP. This word is taken in Scripture
both in a proper and in a figurative
sense. In a proper sense, it signifies a
common cup, of horn, or some precious
metal, Gen. 40:13; 44:2; 1 Kin. 7:26,
such as is used for drinking out of at
meals ; or a cup of ceremony, used at
solemn and religious meals — as at the
passover, when the father of the family
pronounced certain blessings over the
cup, and having tasted it, passed it
round to the company and his whole
family, who partook of it, 1 Cor. 10:10.
In a figurative sense, a cup is spoken of
as filled with the portion given to one
by divine providence, Psa 11:6; 16:5;
with the blessings of life and of grace,
Psa. 23:5 ; with a thank-offering to God,
Ex. 29 : 40 ; Psa. 116 : 13 ; with liquor
used at idolatrous feasts, 1 Cor. 10 : 21 ;
with love-potions, Rev. 17:4; with sore
afflictions, Psa. 65 : 8 ; Isa. 51 : 17 ; and
with the bitter draught of death, which
was often caused by a cup of hemlock or
some other poison, Psa. 75:8. See Matt.
16 : 28 ; Luke 22 : 42 ; John 18 : 11. See
CEUSB.

CUSH, I., the eldest son of Ham, and

father of Nimrod, Seba, Havilah, Sab-
tah, Raamah, and Sabtecha, most of
whom settled in Arabia Felix, Gen.
10:0-8.

II. The countries peopled by the de
scendants of Cush, and generally called
in the English Bible, Ethiopia, though
not always. But under this name there
seem to be included not less than three
different countries :

1. The oriental Cush, comprehending
the regions of Persis, Chusistan, and Su-
siana, in Persia. It lay chiefly to the
eastward of the Tigris. Hither we may
refer the river Gihon, Gen. 2:13 ; Zeph.
3:10. See EDEN.

2. The Hebrews also, in the opinion of
many, used Cush and Cushan, Hab. 3 : 7,
to designate the southern parts of Arabia,
and the coast of the Red sea. From this
country originated Nimrod, who estab
lished himself in Mesopotamia, Gen. 10 : 8.
The "Ethiopian woman," too, whom
Moses married during the march of the
Israelites through the desert, came prob
ably from this Cush, Exod. 2:16-21;
Num. 12:1; 2 Chr. 21:.16.

3. But, more commonly, Cush signifies
Ethiopia proper, lying south and south
east of Egypt, and now called Abys
sinia, Isa. "18 : 1 ; 20 : 3-5 ; Jer. 13 : 23 ;
Ezek. 29:10; Dan. 11:43.

CUTH'ITES, a people who dwelt be
yond the Euphrates, and were thence
transplanted into Samaria, in place of
the Israelites who had before inhabited
it. They came from the land of Cush, or
Cutha, in the East ; their first settlement
being in the cities of the Medes, subdued
by Shalmaneser and his predecessors.
See Cusn. The Israelites were substi
tuted for them in those places, 2 Kin.
17:24, 80.

CYM'BAL, a musical instrument con
sisting of two broad plates of brass, of a
convex form, which being struck to
gether, produce a shrill, piercing sound.
From Psa. 150:5, it would appear that
both hand-cymbals and finger-cymbals,
or castagnets, were used. They were
used in the temple, and upon occasions
of public rejoicings, 1 Chr. 13:8; 16:5,
as they are by the Armenians at the
present day. In 1 Cor. 13:1, the apos
tle deduces a comparison from sounding
brass and "tinkling" cymbals; perhaps
the latter words had been better ren-
| dered clanging or clattering cymbals,
107

CYP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DAG

HAND AND FINGER CYMBALS, AND TAMBOTTKITJB.

since such is the nature of the instru
ment. See Music.

CY'PRESS, an evergreen tree, resem
bling in form and size the Lombardy
poplar. Its wood is exceedingly durable,
and seems to have been used for making
idols, Isa. 44:14.« The cypress is thought
to be intended in some of the passages
where "fir-tree" occurs, 2 Sam. 6:5,
etc.

CY'PEUS, a large island in the Med
iterranean, situated in the north-east
part of that sea between Cilicia and
Syria. It is about one hundred and forty
miles long, and varies from five to fifty
miles in breadth. Its inhabitants were
plunged in all manner of luxury and
debauchery. Their principal deity was
Venus, who had a celebrated temple at
Paphos. The island was extremely fertile,
and abounded in wine, oil, honey, wool,
copper, agate, and a beautiful species of
rock crystal. There were also large for
ests of cypress-trees. Of the cities in the
island, Paphos on the western coast, and
Salamis at the opposite end, are men
tioned in the New Testament. The gos
pel was preached there at an early day,
Acts 11:19. Barnabas and Mnason, and
other eminent Christians, were natives of
this island, Acts 11 : 20 ; 21 : 16. The
apostles Paul and Barnabas made a mis
sionary tour through it, A. D. 44, Acts
13: 4-1 S See also Acts 15:39; 27:4.

CYRE'NE, a city and province of Lib
ya, west of Egypt, between the Great
Syrtis and the Marectis, at present call
ed Cairoan, in the pi ovince of Barca. It
108

was sometimes called PENTAPOLIS, from
the five principal cities which it con
tained — Gyrene, Apollonia, Arsinoe, Be
renice, and Ptolemais. From hence came
Simon the Cyrenian, father of Alexander
and Rufus, on whom the Roman soldiers
laid a part of our Saviour's cross, Matt.
27:32; Luke 23: 26. There were many-
Jews in the province of Gyrene, a great
part of whom embraced the Christian
religion, though others opposed it with
much obstinacy, Acts 11:20; 13:1. Also
Acts 6: 9.

CYRE'NIUS, or Publius Sulpitius Qui-
RINUS, according to his Latin appellation,
governor of Syria, Luke 2:2. According
to history, Quirinus was not properly
governor of Syria till some years after
this date ; and the only census of that
time mentioned by secular historians
took place when Christ was eight or ten
years old. The passage in Luke may
be translated, "This enrolment took
place first under Cyrenius governor of
Syria- ' ' Compare Acts 5 : 37.

CY'RUS, son of Cambyscs king of Per
sia, and Mandane, daughter of Astyages
king of the Mecles. He aided his uncle
Cyaxares (called ' ' Darius the Mede ' ' in
the Bible) in conquering Asia Minor,
and afterwards their joint forces cap
tured Babylon and overran the Assyrian
empire. He married his cousin, the
daughter of Cyaxares, and thus at length
inherited and united the crowns of Per
sia and Media. Cyrus was foretold by
the prophet Isaiah, 44 : 28 ; 45 : 1-7, as
the deliverer and restorer of Judah, as
lie proved to be, 2 Chr. 36:22, 23 ; Ezn*
1 : 1-4. The prophet Daniel was his fa
vorite minister, Dan. 6 : 28.

DAB'ERATH, a Levitical town in the
borders of Zebultm and Issachar, Josh.
19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr. 6:72. Its site is
probably that of the modern Deburieh,
i small village at the foot of mount Ta
bor on the north-west.

DA'GON, fish-god, a national idol of
:he Philistines, with temples at Gaza,
Ashdod, etc., 1 Chr 10:10. The temple
at Gaza was destroyed by Samson, Judg.
16:21-30. In that at Ashdod, Dagon
;wice miraculously fell down before the
ark of God ; and in the second fall his
lead and hands were broken off, leaving

DAL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DAM

only the body, which was in the form of
a large fish, 1 Sam. 5 : 1-9. See Josh.
15:41; 19:27. There were other idols
of like form among the ancients, partic
ularly the goddess Derceto or Atergatis ;
and a similar form or ' ' incarnation ' ' of
Vishnu is at this day much worshipped
hi India, and like Dagon is destined to
be prostrated in the dust before the true
God.

DALMANU'THA, a town or village
near the city of Magdala, Mark 8 : 10.
Compare Matt. 15:39. The exact situa
tion of this place is uncertain ; it lay,
however, on the western shore of the
sea of Galilee, north of Tiberias.

DALMA'TIA, a province of Europe on
the east of the Adriatic sea, and forming
part of Illyricum. It was contiguous to
Macedonia, Upper Mcesia. and Liburnia,
from which latter it was divided by the
river Titius. Hither Titus was sent by
Paul to spread the knowledge of Chris
tianity, 2 Tim. 4:10.

DAMARIS, an Athenian lady, honor
ably distinguished as one of the few who
embraced Christianity at Athens under
the preaching of Paul, Acts 17:34.

DAMAS'CUS, a celebrated metropolis
of Syria, first mentioned in Gen. 14:15 ;
15:2, and now probably the oldest city
on the globe. It stands on the river
Barada, the ancient Chrysorrhoas, in a
beautiful and fertile plain on the east
and south-east of Anti-Lebanon. See
ABANA. This plain is about fifty miles
in circumference ; it is open to the des
ert of Arabia on the south and east, and
is bounded on the other sides by the
mountains. The region around and

north of Damascus, including probably
the valley between the ridges of Leba
non and Anti-Lebanon, is called in thu
Scriptures, "Syria of Damascus," 2 Sam.
8:5, and by Strabo, Ccelesyria. This
city, which at first had its own kings,
was taken by David, 2 Sam. 8:5, 6, and
by Jeroboam II., 2 Kings 14:28. Its
history at this period is to be found in
the accounts given of Naaman, Ben-ha-
dad, Hazael, and Rezin. It was subdued
by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 16 : 9 ; and
was afterwards subject to the Assyrians,
Babylonians, Persians, Seleucidte, and
Romans. In the days of Paul it appears
to have been held, for a time at least,
by Aretas, king of Arabia Petraia, the
father-in-law of Herod Antipas. At this
period the city was so much thronged by
the Jews, that, according to Josephus,
ten thousand of them, by command of
Nero, were put to death at once. It is
memorable to Christians as the scene of
the miraculous conversion of that most
illustrious "servant of the Lord Jesus
Christ," the apostle Paul, Acts 9:1-27;
22: 1-16. Since 1506, Damascus has been
held by the Turks ; it is the metropolis
of " the Pashalic of Damascus," and has
a population of about one hundred and
fifty thousand. The Arabs call it Esh-
shams. It is still celebrated, with the
surrounding country, by all travellers,
as one of the most beautiful and luxuri
ant regions in the world. The orientals
themselves call it the "Paradise on
earth," and it is pretended that Moham
med refused to enter it, lest he should
thereby forfeit his heavenly Paradise.
The plain around the city is well water
ed and of exuberant fertility ; and the
eye of the traveller from any direction is
fascinated by the view — a wilderness of
verdure, interspersed with innumerable
villas and hamlets, with gardens, foun
tains, and groves. A nearer view of the
city discloses much that is offensive to
the senses, as well as to the spirit. It
is the most purely oriental city yet re
maining of all that are named in the
Bible. Its public buildings and bazaars
are fine; and many private dwellings,
though outwardly mean, are decorated
within in a style of the most costly lux
ury. Its position has made it from the
very first a commercial city, Ezek. 27 • 18.
The cloth called Damask is supposed to
have originated here, and Damascus steel
has never been equalled. It still carriea
109

DAM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DAN

on an extensive traffic in woven stuffs of
silk and cotton, in line inlaid cabinet
work, in leather, fruits, sweetmeats, etc.
For this purpose huge caravans assemble
here at intervals, and traverse, just as of
old, the desert routes to remote cities.
Here too is a chief gathering-place of pil
grims to Mecca. People from all the
nations of the East resort to Damascus,
a fact which shows its importance as
a missionary station. An encouraging
commencement has been made by Eng
lish Christians, and the fierce and bigot
ed intolerance of its Mussulman popula
tion has begun to give way. A street is
still found here called "Straight," prob
ably the same referred to in Acts 9:11.
It runs a mile or more through the city
from the eastern gate.

DAMNATION, the state of being ex
cluded from God's mercy, and condemn
ed to the everlasting punishment of the
wicked. This is now the sense of the
word damnation, in our language ; but
at the time when the Bible was trans
lated, it signified the same as condem
nation. The words damn and damna
tion ought therefore to be still so under
stood, in such passages as Rom. 13 : 2 ;
14:23; 1 Cor. 11:29.

DAN, a judge, I., a son of Jacob by
Bilhah, Gen. 30:3; 35.25, The tribe
of Dan was second only to that of Ju-
dah in numbers before entering Canaan,
Num. 1:39; 26:43. A portion was as
signed to Dan, extending south-east from
the seacoast near Joppa. It bordered on
the land of the Philistines, with whom
the tribe of Dan had much to do, Judg.
13-16. Their territory was fertile, but
small, and the natives were powerful.
A part of the tribe therefore sought
and conquered another home, Josh. 19 ;
Judg. 18.

II. A city originally called Laish,
Judg. 18:29, at the northern extremity
of Israel, in the tribe of Naphtali.
"From Dan to Beersheba" denotes the
whole extent of the land of promise,
Dan being the northern city, and Beer-
Eheba the southern one. Dan was seat
ed at the foot of mount Hermon, four
miles west of Paneas, near one source of
the Jordan, on a hill now called Tell-el-
Kady. Laish at one time belonged to
Zidon, and received the name of Dan
from a portion of that tribe who con
quered and rebuilt it, Judg. 18. It was
an idolatrous city even then, and was
110

afterwards the seat of one of the golden
calves of Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 12:28 ; Amos
8:14. Though once and again a very
prosperous city, Judg. 18 : 10 ; Ezek.
27:19, only slight remains of it now
exist.

DANC'ING. The Hebrew word signi
fied "to leap for joy," Psa. 30:11 ; and
the action of the lame man healed by
Peter and John, Acts 3:8, more nearly
resembled the Hebrew dancing than the
measured artificial steps of modern times
do. The Jewish dances were expressive
of religious joy and gratitude. Some
times they were in honor of a conqueror,
as in the case of David, 1 Sam. 18:6, 7 ;
when he had slain the Philistine giant,
' ' the women came out of all the cities
of Israel singing and dancing." It was
practised on occasions of domestic joy.
See the case of the prodigal son's return.
In the religious dance, the timbrel was
used to direct the ceremony, and some
one led, whom the rest followed with
measured step and devotional songs;
thus Miriam led the women of Israel,
Ex. 15:20, 21, and king David the men,
2 Sam. 6:14; Psa. 150:4. Several im
portant conclusions have been drawn
from a careful comparison of the por
tions of Scripture in which there is allu
sion to dancing. It was religious in its
character ; practised exclusively on joy
ous occasions ; only by one of the sexes ;
usually in the daytime, and in the open
air : no instances are on record in which
the two sexes united in the exercise ; and
it was not practised for amusement. The
exceptions to this latter assertion are the
"vain fellows," alluded to by Michal,
2 Sam. 6 : 20, the ungodly rich families re
ferred to by Job, 21:11, and the daugh
ter of Herodias, Mark 14:6. Among the
Greeks and Romans dancing was a com
mon pastime, resorted to in order to en
liven feasts, and also on occasions of
domestic joy. Still Cicero says, "No
one dances, unless he is either drunk or
mad ;" and these words express the pre
vailing sense as to the impropriety of
respectable individuals taking part in
the amusement. Hence the gay circles
of Rome, as is the case in the East at the
present time, derived their entertain
ment from the performances of profes
sional dancers. These were women of
abandoned character ; and their dances,
like those in heathen temples, were
often grossly indecent, Isa. 23 : 16.

DAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DAN

DAN'IEL, I., called Belteshazzar by
the Chaldeans, a prophet descended from
the royal family of David, who was
carried captive to Babylon, when very
young, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim
king of Judah, B. c. 606. He was chosen,
with his three companions, Hananiah,
Mishael, and Azariah, to reside at Neb
uchadnezzar's court, where he received
a suitable education, and made great
progress in all the sciences of the Chal
deans, but declined to pollute himself
by eating provisions from the king's ta
ble, which would often be ceremonially
unclean to a Jew, or defiled by some con
nection with fdol-worship. At the end
of their three years' education, Daniel
and his companions excelled all others,
and received honorable appointments in
the royal service. Here Daniel soon dis
played his prophetic gifts in interpreting
a dream of Nebuchadnezzar, by whom he
was made governor of Babylon, and head
of the learned and priestly class. He
seems to have been absent, perhaps on
some foreign embassy, when his three
companions were cast into the iiery fur
nace. At a later period he interpreted
another dream of Nebuchadnezzar, and
afterwards the celebrated vision of Bel-
shazzar — one of whose last works was
to promote Daniel to an office much
higher than he had previously held dur
ing his reign, Dan. 5:29; 8:27.

After the capture of Babylon by the
Medes and Persians, under Cyaxares and
Cyrus, Daniel was continued in all his
high employments, and enjoyed the
favor of these princes until his death,
except at one short interval, when the
envy of the other officers prevailed on
the king to cast him into the lions' den,
an act which recoiled on his foes to
their own destruction. During this pe
riod he earnestly labored, by fasting and
prayer as well as by counsel, to secure
the return of the Jews to their own land,
the promised time having come, Dan. 9.
He lived to see the decree issued, and
many of his people restored ; but it is
not known that he ever revisited Jeru
salem. In the third year of Cyrus, he
had a series of visions disclosing the
state of the Jews till the coming of the
promised Redeemer ; and at last we see
him calmly awaiting the peaceful close
of a well-spent life, and the gracious res
urrection of the just. Daniel was one of
the most spotless characters upon record.

His youth and his age were alike devot
ed to God. He maintained his integrity
in the most difficult circumstances, and
amid the fascinations of an eastern court
he was pure and upright. He confessed
the name of God before idolatrous»prin-
ces ; and would have been a martyr, but
for the miracle which rescued him from
death. His history deserves the care
ful and prayerful study of the young,
and the lessons which it inculcates are
weighty and rich in instruction.

II. The second son of David, also
called Chileab, 1 Chr. 3:1 ; 2 Sam. 3:3.

III. A descendant of Ithamar, the
fourth son of Aaron. He was one of
the chiefs who accompanied Ezra from
Babylon to Judea, and afterwards took a
prominent part in the reformation of the
people, Ezra 8: 2.

DAN'IEL, BOOK OF. This is a mixture
of history and prophecy. The first six
chapters are chiefly historical, and the
remainder prophetical. It was complet
ed about B. c. 534. The wonders related
are of a peculiar and striking character,
and were designed to show the people of
God that, amid their degeneracy, the
Lord's hand was not shortened that it
could not save ; and also to exhibit to
their enemies that there was an essential
difference between Jehovah and idols,
between the people of God and the
world. The prophecies contained in the
latter part of the book extend from the
days of Daniel to the general resurrec
tion. The Assyrian, the Persian, the
Grecian, and the Roman empires are de
scribed under appropriate imagery. The
precise time of Christ's coming is told ;
the rise and fall of antichrist, and the
duration of his power, are accurately
determined ; the victory of Christ over
his enemies, and the universal preva
lence of his religion arc clearly pointed
out. The book is filled with the most
exalted sentiments of piety and devout
gratitude. Its style is simple, clear, and
concise, and many of the prophecies are
delivered in language so plain and cir
cumstantial, that some infidels have as
serted that they were written after the
events they describe had taken place.
Sir Isaac Newton regards Daniel as the
most distinct and plain of all the proph
ets, and most easy to be understood;
and therefore considers that in things
relating to the last times, he is to be re
garded as the key to the other prophets.
Ill

CAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DAV

With respect to the genuineness and
authenticity of the book, there is the
strongest evidence, both internal and
external. We have the testimony of
Christ himself, Matt. 24:15; of St. John
and S4. Paul, who have copied his proph
ecies ; of the Jewish church and nation,
who have constantly received this book
as canonical ; of Josephus, who recom
mends him as the greatest of the proph
ets ; and of the Jewish Targums and
Talmuds, which frequently cite his au
thority. As to the internal evidence, the
style, the language, the manner of writ
ing, perfectly agree with the age ; and
especially, he is proved to have been a
prophet by the exact fulfilment of his
predictions. This book, like that of
Ezra, is written partly in Hebrew, and
partly in Chaldee, the prevailing lan-
guage of the Babylonians.

I. DARI'US THE MEDE, Dan. 5:31;
9:1; 11:1, was son of Astyages king of
the Medes, and brother of Mandane
mother of Cyrus, and of Amyit the moth
er of Evil-merodach and grandmother of
Belshazzar: thus he was uncle, by the
mother's side, to Evil-merodach and to
Cyrus. The Hebrew generally calls him
Darius ; the Septuagint, Artaxerxes ; and
Xenophon, Cyaxares. Darius dethroned
Belshazzar king of the Chaldeans, and
occupied the throne till his death two
years after, when it reverted to the illus
trious Cyrus. In his reign Daniel was
cast into the lions' den, Dan. 6.

II. DAPJ'US HYSTAS'PIS, spoken of
in Ezra 4-7, Haggai, and Zechariah, as
the king who renewed the permission to
rebuild the temple, given to the Jews by
Cyrus and afterwards recalled. He suc
ceeded Smerdis, the Magian usurper,
B. c. 521, and reigned thirty-six years.
He removed the seat of government to
Susa, whereupon Babylon rebelled against
him ; but he subdued the rebellion and
broke down the walls of Babylon, as was
predicted, Jer. 51:58.

III. DAPJ'US CODOMA'NUS, Neh.
12:22, was one of the most brave and
generous of the Persian kings. Alexan
der the Great defeated him several times,
and at length subverted the Persian mon
archy, after it had been established two
hundred and six years. Darius was killed
by his own generals, after a short reign
of six years. Thus were verified the
prophecies of Daniel, ch. 8, who had fore-
t Id the enlargement of the Persian mon-

112

archy, under the symbol of a ram, "butt
ing with its horns westward, northward,
and southward, which nothing could re
sist ; and its destruction by a goat hav
ing a very large horn between his eyes,
(Alexander the Great,) coming from the
west, and overrunning the world with
out touching the earth. Nothing can be
added to the clearness of these prophe
cies, so exactly describing what in due
time took place arid is matter of history.

DAPJv'NESS, the absence of natural
light, Gen. 1 : 2, and hence figuratively a
state of misery and adversity, Job 18:6 ;
Psa. 107 : 10 ; Isa. 8 : 22 ; 9:1; also the
absence of the sun and st&rs, and hence
the fall of chief men and national con
vulsions, Isa. 13:10; Acts 2: 20. "Works
of darkness, ' ' are the impure mysteries
practised in heathen worship, Eph. 5:11.
" Outer darkness" illustrates the gloom
of those on whom the gates of heaven
are closed, Matt. 8:12. The darkness in
Egypt, Ex. 10:21-23, was miraculous;
also that which covered all Judea with
sympathetic gloom at the crucifixion of
Christ, Luke 23 : 43. This could not
have been caused by an eclipse of the
sun ; for at the Passover the moon was
full, and on the opposite side of the
earth from the sun.

DATE, the fruit of the palm-tree. See
PALM.

DA'THAN, one of the rebels, in com-
pany with Korah, against the authority
of Moses and Aaron, Num. 16.

DA'VID, beloved, the youngest son of
Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, born in
Bethlehem B. c. 1085 ; one of the most
remarkable men in either sacred or sec
ular history. His life is fully recorded
in 1 Sam. 16 to 1 Kin. 2. He was "the
Lord's anointed," chosen by God to be
king of Israel instead of Saul, and coja-
secrated to that office by the venerable
prophet Samuel long before he actually
came to the throne, 1 Sam. 16:1-13, for
which God prepared him by the gift of
his Spirit, and a long course of vicissi
tudes and dangers. In his early pasto
ral life he distinguished himself by his
boldness, fidelity, and faith in God ; and
while yet a youth was summoned to
court, as one expert in music, valiant,
prudent in behavior, and comely in per
son. He succeeded in relieving from
time to time the mind of king Saul, op
pressed by a spirit of melancholy and
remorse, and became a favorite attend-.

DAV

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DAY

ant, ver. 21 ; but on the breaking out of
war with the Philistines he seems to
have been released, and to have returned
to take care of his father's flock. Prov
idence soon led him to visit the camp,
and gave to his noble valor and faith
the victory over the giant champion Go
liath. He returned to court crowned
with honor, received a command in the
army, acquitted himself well on all occa
sions, and rapidly gained the coniidence
and love of the people. The jealousy of
Saul, however, at length drove him to
seek refuge in the wilderness of Judea ;
where he soon gathered a band of six
hundred men, whom he kept in perfect
control and employed only against the
enemies of the land. He was still pur
sued by Saul with implacable hostility ;
and as he would not lift his hand against
his king, though he often had him in his
power, he at length judged it best to
retire into the land of the Philistines.
Here he was generously received ; but
had found the difficulties of his position
such as he could not honorably meet,
when the death of Saul and Jonathan
opened the way for him to the promised
throne.

He was at once chosen king over the
house of Judah, at Hebron ; and after
about seven years of hostilities was unan
imously chosen king by all the tribes of
Israel, and established himself at Jerusa
lem — the founder of a royal family which
continued till the downfall of the Jewish
state. His character as a monarch is
remarkable for fidelity to God, and to
the great purposes for which he was call
ed to so responsible a position. The ark
of God he conveyed to the Holy City with
the highest demonstrations of honor and
of joy. The ordinances of worship were
remodelled and provided for with the
greatest care. He administered justice
to the people with impartiality, and gave
a strong impulse to the general prosper
ity of the nation. His wisdom and en
ergy consolidated the Jewish kingdom ;
and his warlike skill enabled him not
only to resist with success the assaults of
invaders, but to extend the bounds of the
kingdom over the whole territory prom
ised in prophecy — from the Eed sea and
Egypt to the Euphrates, Gen. 15 : 18 ;
Josh. 1:3. With the spoils he took in
war he enriched his people, and provided
abundant materials for the magnificent
temple he purposed to build in honor of

Jehovah, but which it was Solomon's
privilege to erect.

David did not wholly escape the de
moralizing influences of prosperity and
unrestricted power. His temptations
were numerous and strong ; and though
his general course was in striking con
trast with that of the kings around him,
he fell into grievous sins. Like others
in those days, he had numerous wives,
and his later years were imbittered by
the evil results of polygamy. His crimes
in the case of Uriah and Bathsheba
were heinous indeed ; but on awaking
from his dream of folly, he repented in
dust and ashes, meekly submitted to
reproof and punishment, and sought and
found mercy from God. Thenceforth
frequent afflictions reminded him to be
humble and self-distrustful. There were
discords, profligacy, and murder in his
own household. The histories of Ta-
mar, Amnon, and Absalom show what
anguish must have rent their father's
heart. The rebellions of Absalom, She-
ba, and Adonijah, the famine and plague
that afflicted his people, j;he crimes of
Joab, etc., led him to cry out, "0 that I
had wings, like a dove ; then would I fly
away, and be at rest." Yet his trials
bore good fruit. His firmness and de
cision of character, his humility, noble
ness, and piety shine in his last acts,
on the occasion of Adonijah' s rebellion.
His charge to Solomon respecting the
forfeited lives of Joab and Shimei, was
the voice of justice and not of revenge.
His preparations for the building of the
temple, and the public service in which
he devoted all to Jehovah, and called on
all the people to bless the Lord God of
their fathers, crown with singular beau
ty and glory the life of this eminent
servant of God. After a reign of forty
years, he died at the age of seventy-one.

The mental abilities and acquirements
of David were of a high order ; his gen
eral conduct was marked by generosity,
integrity, fortitude, activity, and perse
verance ; and his religious character em
inently adorned by sincere, fervent, and
exalted piety. He was statesman, war
rior, and poet all in one. In his Psalms
he frankly reveals his whole heart. They
are inspired poems, containing many
prophetic passages, and wonderfully fitted
to guide the devotions of the people of
God so long as he has a church on earth.
Though first sung by Hebrew tongues
113

DAY

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DEB

In the vales of Bethlehem and on the
heights of Zion, they sound as sweetly in
languages then unknown, and are dear
to Christian hearts all round the world.
In introducing them into the temple ser
vice, David added an important means
of instruction and edification to the for
mer ritual.

In his kingly character, David was a
remarkable type of Christ ; and his con
quests foreshadowed those of Christ's
kingdom. His royal race was spiritually
revived in the person of our Saviour,
who was descended from him after the
flesh, and who is therefore called "the
Son of David," and is said to sit upon
his throne.

DAY. The day is distinguished into
natural, civil, and artificial. The natu
ral day is one revolution of the earth on
its axis. The civil day is that, the begin1-
ning and end of which are determined
by the custom of any nation. The He
brews began their day in the evening,
Lev. 23 : 32 ; the Babylonians at sunrise ;
and we begin at midnight. The artifi
cial day is the time of the sun's continu
ance above the horizon, which is une
qual according to different seasons, on
account of the obliquity of the equator.
The sacred writers generally divide the
day into twelve hours. The sixth hour
always ends at noon throughout the
year ; and the twelfth hour is the last
hour before sunset. But in summer, all
the -hours of the day were longer than
in winter, while those of night were
shorter. See HOURS, and THREE.

The word day is also often put for an
indeterminate period, for the time of
Christ's coming in the flesh, and of his
second coming to judgment, Isa. 2 : 12 ;
Ezek. 13:5; John 11:24; 1 Thess. 5:2.
The prophetic "day" usually is to be
understood as one year, and the pro
phetic "year" or "time" as 360 days,
Ezek. 4:6. Compare the three and a
half years of Dan. 7:25, with the forty-
two months and twelve hundred and
sixty days of Bev. 11:2, 3.

DEA'CON. The original meaning of
this word is an attendant, assistant,
helper. It is sometimes translated min
ister, that is, servant, as in Matt. 20 : 26 ;
2 Cor. 6:4 ; Eph. 3:7. Deacons are first
mentioned as officers in the Christian
church in Acts 6, where it appears that
their duty was to collect the alms of the
church, and distribute them to such as
114

had a claim upon them, visiting the poor
and sick, widows, orphans, and sufferers
under persecution, and administering all
necessary and proper relief. Of the seven
there named, Philip and Stephen are
afterwards found laboring as evangelists,
The qualifications of deacons are speci»
tied in 1 Tim. 3:8-12.

DEA'CONESS. Such women were
called deaconesses as served the church
in those offices in which the deacons
could not with propriety engage ; such
as keeping the doors of that part of the
church where the women sat, privately
instructing those of their own sex, and
visiting others imprisoned for the faith.
In Bom. 16:1, Phebe is said to be a "ser
vant" of the church at Cenchrea; but
in the original Greek she is called dea
coness.

DEAD SEA. See SEA.
DEATH is taken in Scripture, first,
for the separation of body and soul, the
first death, Gen. 25 : 11 ; secondly, for
alienation from God, and exposure to
his wrath, 1 John 3 : 14, etc. ; thirdly,
for the second death, that of eternal dam
nation. Death was the penalty affixed
to Adam's transgression, Gen. 2 : 17 ;
3:19; and all his posterity are trans
gressors, and share the curse inflicted
upon him. CHRIST is "our life." All
believers share his life, spiritually and
eternally ; and though sin and bodily
death remain to afflict them, their sting
is taken away, and in the resurrection
the last enemy shall be trampled under
foot, Bom. 5:12-21 ; 1 Cor. 15.

Natural death is described as a yield
ing up of the breath, or spirit, expiring,
Psa. 104:29 ; as a return to our original
dust, Gen. 3:19; Eccl. 12:7 ; as the soul's
laying off the body, its clothing, 2 Cor.
5:3, 4, or the tent in which it has dwelt,
2 Cor. 5:1 ; 2 Pet. 1:13, 14. The death
of the believer is a departure, a going
home, a falling asleep in Jesus, Phil.
1:23; Matt. 26:24; John 11:11.

The term death is also sometimes used
for any great calamity, or imminent dan
ger threatening life, as persecution, 2 Cor.
1:10. " The gates of death, ' ' Job 38 : 17,
signify the unseen world occupied by de
parted spirits. Death is also figuratively
used to denote the insensibility of Chris
tians to the temptations of a sinful world,
Col. 3:3.

DE'BIB, a word, an oracle, Judg. 1:11,
a place called also KIRJATH-SEPKEB., a

DEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DEE

city of books ; and KIRJATH-SANNAH, a
city of literature, Josh. 15: 15, 49. Judg
ing from the names, it appears to have
been some sacred place among the Ca-
naanites, and a repository of their rec
ords. It was a city in the south-west
part of Judea, conquered from the Ana-
kim by Joshua, but recaptured by the
Canaanites, and resubdued by Othniel,
and afterwards given to the priests, Josh.
10 : 38, 39 ; 15 : 15-17 ; 21 : 15. Its site is
wholly lost. There was another Debir
in Gad, and a third 011 the border of
Benjamin, Josh. 13:26; 15:7.

DEB'ORAH, I., a prophetess, and wife
of Lapidoth, judged the Israelites, and
dwelt under a palm-tree between Ramah
and Bethel, Judg. 4:4, 5. She sent for
Barak, directed him to attack Sisera,
and promised him victory. Barak, how
ever, refused to go unless she accompa
nied him, which she did, but told him
that the success of the expedition would
be imputed to a woman and not to him.
After the victory, Deborah composed a
splendid triumphal song, which is pre
served in Judg. 5.

II. The nurse of Rebekah, whom she
accompanied from Aram into Canaan,
Gen. 24. At her death, near Bethel, she
was buried with honorable marks of af
fection, Gen. 35:8. There is something
very beautiful in this simple and artless
record, which would scarcely find a place
in our grand histories, treating only of
kings, statesmen, and renowned war
riors. They seldom take the trouble of
erecting a memorial to obscure worth
and a long life of humble usefulness.

DEBT'OR, one under obligations,
whether pecuniary or moral, Matt.
23 : 16 ; Rom. 1 : 14 ; Gal. 5:3. If the
house, cattle, or goods of a Hebrew
would not meet his debts, his land
might be appropriated for this purpose
until the year of Jubilee, or his person
might be reduced into servitude till he
had paid his debt by his labor, or till the
year of Jubilee, which terminated He
brew bondage in all casos, Lev. 25:29-
41; 2 Kin. 4:1; Neh. 5:3-5.

DEC'ALOGUE, the ten principal com
mandments, Exod. 20 : 3-17, from the
Greek words deka, ten, and logos, word.
The Jews call these precepts, The Ten
Words. The usual division of the ten
commandments among Protestants, is
that which Josephus tells us was em
ployed by the Jews in his day.

DECAP'OLIS, (from the Greek words,
de/ca, ten, aiulpolis, a city,) a country in
Palestine, which contained ten principal
cities, on both sides of the Jordan, chief
ly the east, Matt. 4 : 25 ; Mark 5 : 20 ;
7:31. According to Pliny, they were,
Scythopolis, Philadelphia, Raphanas, Ga-
dara, Hippos, Dios, Pella, Gerasa, Cana-
tha, and Damascus. Josephus inserts
Otopos instead of Cariatha. Though
within the limits of Israel, the Decapolis
was inhabited by many foreigners, and
hence it retained a foreign appellation.
This may also account for the numerous
herds of swine kept in the district, Matt.
8:30 ; a practice which was forbidden by
the Mosaic law.

DE'DAN, I., the grandson of Gush,
Gen. 10:7 ; and II., the son of Jokshan,
Abraham's son by Kcturah, Gen. 25:3.
Both were founders of tribes frequently
named in Scriptuie. The descendants of
the Cushite Dcclan are supposed to have
settled in southern Arabia, near the Per
sian gulf, in which there is an island
called by the Arabs Daclen. The de
scendants of the Abrahamite Dedan liv
ed in the neighborhood of Idumaia, Jer.
49 : 8. It is not clear, in all cases where
the name occurs, which of the tribes is
intended. It was probably the Cushite
tribe which was emplbyed in trade. The
"travelling companies" of Dcdan are
mentioned by Isaiah, 21 : 13. They are
also named with the merchants of Tar-
sliish by Ezckiel, 38:13, and were cele
brated on account of their trade with the
Phoenicians.

DEDICATION, a religious ceremony
by which any person, place, or thing
was devoted to a holy purpose. Thus
the tabernacle and the first and second
temples were dedicated to God, Ex. 40 ;
1 Kin. 8 ; Ezra 6. The Jews also prac
tised a certain dedication of walls, houses,
etc., Deut. 20:5 ; Neh. 12:27. The "feast
of the dedication" was a yearly com
memoration of the cleansing and reded-
ication of the temple, when polluted by
Antiochus Epiphanes, John 10:22.

DEEP and DEPTHS. The deep, or the
great deep, signifies in Scripture, hell, the
place of punishment, the bottomless pit,
Luke 8:31, compare Rev. 9:1; 11:7;
the grave, Rom. 10:7 ; the deepest parts
of the sea, Psa. 69 : 15 ; 107 : 26 ,; chaos
in the beginning of the world, Gen. 1:2.
See HELL.

DEER, a wild quadruped, of a middle
115

DEF

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DEL

THE FALLOW-DEER.

size between the stag and the roebuck ;
its horns turn inward, and are large and
flat. The fallow-deer is naturally very
timorous : it was reputed clean, and good
for food, Deut. 14:5. Young deer are
noticed in Proverbs, Songs, and Isaiah,
as beautiful creatures, and very swift,
Prov. 5:19. See HIND.

DEFILE', DEFILEMENT. Many
were the blemishes of person and con
duct which, under the Jewish ceremo
nial law, were esteemed defilements :
some were voluntary, some involuntary ;
some were inevitable, being defects of
nature, others the consequences of per
sonal transgression. Under the gospel,
defilements are those of the heart, of the
mind, the temper, the conduct. Moral de
filements are as numerous, and as strong
ly prohibited under the gospel as ever,
though ceremonial defilements have ceas
ed, Matt. 15:18; Rom. 1 : 24. See CLEAN.

DEGREES', PSALMS orf is the title pre
fixed to fifteen psalms, from Psa. 120 to
Psa. 134 inclusive. Of this title com
mentators have proposed a variety of ex
planations. The most probable are the
following : First, pilgrim songs, sung by
the Israelites while going up to Jerusalem
to worship ; compare Psa. 122:4 ; but to
this explanation the contents of only a
few of these psalms are appropriate, as
for instance, of Psa. 122. Secondly, oth
ers suppose the title to refer to a species
of rhythm in these psalms ; by which
116

the sense ascends, as it were, by degrees,
one member or clause frequently repeat
ing the words with which the preceding
member closes. Thus in Psa. 121,

1. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills,
From whence cometh my help.

1. My help cometh from the Lord,
Who made heaven and earth.

3. He will not suffer thy foot to be moved 5
Thy keeper will not slumber.

4. ~Lo,not slumber nor sleep will the keepef

of Israel.

I But this solution does not well apply to
' all these psalms.

DEHAVITES, a people beyond the
Euphrates, who furnished colonists for
Samaria, 2 Kin. 17:24; Ezra 4:9; sup
posed to be the Daha3, on the east of the
Caspian sea, and under the Persian gov
ernment.

DELI'LAH, a Philistine woman, whom
Samson loved, and who betrayed him to
the enemies of Israel, Judg. 16.

DEL'UGE, that universal flood which
was sent upon the earth in the time of
Noah, and from which there were but
eight persons saved. Moses' account of
this event is recorded in Gen. 6-8. See
ARK OF NOAH. The sins of mankind were
the cause of the deluge ; and most com
mentators agree to place it A. M. 1656,
B. c. 2348. After the door of the ark
had been closed upon those that were to
be saved, the deluge commenced : it
rained forty days ; ' ' the fountains of the
great deep were broken up, and the win
dows of heaven were opened." All men
and all creatures living on the land per
ished, except Noah and those with him.
For five months the waters continued to
rise, and reached fifteen cubits above the
highest summits to which any could fly
for refuge ; " a shoreless ocean tumbled
round the world." At length the wa
ters began to abate; the highest land
appeared, and the ark touched ground
upon mount Ararat. In three months
more the hills began to appear. Forty
days after, Noah tested the state of the
earth's surface by sending out a raven ;
and then thrice, at intervals of a week,
a dove. At length he removed the cov
ering of the ark, and found the flood had
disappeared ; he came forth from the ark,
reared an altar, and offered sacrifices to
God, who appointed the rainbow as a
pledge that he would no more destroy
mankind with a flood.

DEM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DEV

Since all nations have descended from
the family then preserved in the ark, it
is natural that the memory of such an
event should be perpetuated in various
national traditions. Such is indeed the
fact. These traditions have been found
among the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Phoe
nicians, Greeks, Hindoos, Chinese, Jap
anese, Scythians, and Celts, and in the
western hemisphere among the Mexi
cans, Peruvians, and South sea island
ers. Much labor has been expended in
searching for natural causes adequate
to the production of a deluge ; but we
should beware of endeavoring to account
on natural principles for that which the
Bible represents as miraculous.

In the New Testament, the deluge is
spoken of as a stupendous exhibition of
divine power, like the creation and the
final burning of the world. It is applied
to illustrate the long suffering of God,
and assure us of his judgment on sin,
2 Pet. 3:5-7, and of the second coming
of Christ, Matt. 24:38.

DE'MAS, a fellow-laborer with Paul at
Thessalonica, who afterwards deserted
him, either discouraged by the hard
ships of the work, or allured by the love
of the world, Col. 4 : 14 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 10 ;
Phile. 24.

DEME'TRIUS, I., a goldsmith of Eph-
esus, who made models of the famous
temple of Diana at Ephesus, which he
sold to foreigners, Acts 19 : 24-41. Ob
serving the progress of the gospel, not
in Ephesus only, but in the regions
around, he assembled his fellow-crafts
men, and represented that, by this new
doctrine, not only their trade would suf
fer, but the worship of the great Diana
of Ephesus was in danger of being en
tirely forsaken. This produced an up
roar and riot in the city, which the town-
clerk with difficulty appeased by linn-
ness and persuasion.

II. A disciple, and probably a minis
ter, of high repute, 3 John 12. He may
have been formerly the silversmith of
Ephesus ; but this can be neither proved
nor disproved.

DEB/BE, a small town of Lycaonia, in
Asia Minor, to which Paul and Barnabas
fled from Lystra, A. D. 41, Acts 14 : 20.
It lay at the foot of the Taurus moun
tains on the north, sixteen or twenty
miles east of Lystra. The two mission
aries gained many disciples here, and
among them perhaps Gaius, who after

wards labored with Paul, Acts 14:21;
20:4.

DES'ERT. The Scriptures, by "des«
ert," generally mean an uncultivated
place, a wilderness, or grazing tract.
Some deserts were entirely dry and bar
ren ; others were beautiful, and had
good pastures. David speaks of the
beauty of the desert, Psa. 65 : 12, 13.
Scripture names several deserts in the
Holy Land. Other deserts particularly
mentioned, are "that great and terrible
wilderness ' ' in Arabia Petriea, south of
Canaan, Num. 21 : 20 ; also the region
between Canaan and the Euphrates, Ex.
23 : 31 ; Deut. 11 : 24. The pastures of
this wilderness are clothed in Avinter and
spring with rich and tender herbage ;
but the heat of summer soon burns this
up, and the Arabs are driven to seek
pasturage elseAvhere.

DEUTEPtON'OMY, or the repetition
of the law, the fifth book of the Penta
teuch, so called by the Greeks, because
in it Moses recapitulates what he had
ordained in the preceding books, Deut.
1:1-6; 29:1; 31:1; 33. This book con
tains the history of what passed in the
wilderness from the beginning of the
eleventh month, to the seventh day of
the twelfth month, in the fortieth year
after the Israelites' departure from
Egypt, that is, about six weeks, u. c.
1451. That part which mentions the
death of Moses was added afterwards,
very probably by Joshua.

The book of Deuteronomy is the sub
lime and precious valedictory address of
the inspired "man of God," now ven
erable for his age and experience, and
standing almost in the gate of heaven.
He gives the people of God his fatherly
counsel and blessing, and then goes up
into mount Pisgah alone to die. He re
counts the dealings of God with them ;
recapitulates his laws ; shows them why
they should love him, and how they
should serve him. It is full of tender
solicitude, wise instruction, faithful
warning, and the zealous love of a pa
triot and a prophet for the people of
God, whom he had borne on his heart
so long. It is often quoted \)j> later in
spired writers, and by our Lord, Matt.
4:4, 7, 10.

DEVTL, a fallen angel ; and particu*
larly the chief of them, the devil, or Sa
tan. He is the great principle of evil in
the world ; and it is his grand object to
117

DEV

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DIA

counteract the good which God desires
to do. He exerts himself, especially with
his angels, to draw away the souls of
men from embracing salvation through
Jesus Christ.

His name signifies the calumniator,
©r false accuser ; as the Hebrew Satan
means the adversary. But the Scrip
tures give him various other appella
tions descriptive of his character. He is
called, "The prince of this world," John
12 : 31 ; " The prince of the power of the
air, ' ' Eph. 2:2; " The god of this world, ' '
2 Cor. 4:4; "The dragon, that old ser
pent, the devil," Rev. 20:2 ; "That wick
ed one," 1 John 5: 18; "A roaring lion,"
1 Pet. 5:8; "A murderer," "a liar,"
John 8:44; "Beelzebub," Matt. 12:24;
"Belial," 2 Cor. 6.15; "The accuser of
the brethren," Rev. 12:10. He is every
where shown to be full of malignity, cru
elty, and deceit, hating God and man.
He is ceaselessly active in his efforts to
destroy souls, and uses innumerable de
vices and wiles to adapt his temptations
to the varying characters and conditions
of men, enticing wicked men, and even
good men at times, as well as his own
angels, to aid in his work. Almost the
whole world has been under his sway.
But he is a doomed foe. Christ shall
bruise the serpent's head ; shall dispos
sess him from the world, as he has done
from individuals, and at length confine
him for ever in. the place prepared for
him and his angels, Matt. 25:41.

The word "devils" occurs frequently
in the gospels ; but it is the translation
of a different Greek word from that used
to denote the devil, and might be ren
dered ' ' demons. ' ' The Bible applies the
other word only to Satan — "the devil,
and his angels," who are like their
leader in nature and in actions. There
are many examples in the New Testa
ment of persons possessed by demons.
These are often called demoniacs. Some
have argued that these were afflicted by
natural diseases, such as epilepsy, in
sanity, etc., and were not possessed by
evil spirits. But our Saviour speaks to
and commands the demons who actuated
the possessed, which demons answered
and obeyed, and gave proofs of their
presence by tormenting those whom they
were obliged to quit. Christ alleges, as
proof of his mission, that the demons are
cast out ; he promises his apostles the
same power that he himself exercised
118

against those wicked spirits. Campbell
says, " When 1 rind mention made of the
number of demons in particular posses
sions, their actions so particularly distin
guished from the actions of the man pos
sessed, conversations held by the former
in regard to the disposal of them after
their expulsion, and accounts given how
they were actually disposed of — when I
find desires and passions ascribed partic
ularly to them, and similitudes taken
from the conduct which they usually
observe, it is impossible for me to deny
their existence."

DEW. The dews in Palestine and
some other oriental countries are very
copious, and serve very greatly to sus
tain and promote vegetation in seasons
when little or no rain falls. Maundrell
tells us that the tents of his company,
when pitched on Tabor and Hermon,
"were as wet with dew as if it had rain
ed on them all night," Judg. 6:38 ; Song
5 : 2. Dew was especially heavy near the
mountains, and just before and after the
rainy season. It was prized as a precious
boon of Providence, Gen. 27:28; Deut.
33 : 28 ; 1 Kin. 17 : 1 ; Job 29:19 ; Hag.
1:10; Zech. 8:12. The dew furnishes
the sacred penmen with many beautiful
allusions, Deut. 32 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 12 ;
Psa. 110 : 3 ; Prov. 19 : 12 ; Hos. 14 : 5 ;
Mic. 5:7.

ANTIQUE STONE SUN-DIAZ..

»

DI'AL, an instrument much used be«
fore the invention of clocks, to tell the
time of day by the progress of the sun's
shadow. The dial of Ahaz, 2 Kin. 20: 11 ;
Isa. 38 : 1-9, seeme to have been peculiar
either in structure or size, and was per
haps borrowed from Babylon or Damas-

DIA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DIO

cus, 2 Kin. 16 : 10. The causing the
shadow upon it to go back ten degrees,
to assure king Hezekiah of his recovery
from sickness, was probably effected not
by arresting and turning backwards the
revolution of the earth, but by a mirac
ulous refraction of the sun's rays, ob
served only in Judea, though the fame
of it reached Babylon, 2 Chr. 32:31.

DIAMOND, the hardest and most
brilliant of gems, very rare and costly.
The largest diamonds known in the
world, procured from India and Brazil,
are guarded among the royal treasures
of England, Russia, etc., and valued at
immense sums. Common diamonds are
uued not only for ornaments, but for cut
ting and graving hard substances, Jer.
17:1. The Hebrew word here used is
called "adamant" in Ezek. 3:9; Zech.
7 : 12. See ADAMANT. There is another
Hebrew word also translated "dia
mond," Ex. 28:18; 39:11 ; Ezek. 28:13,
and thought by some to mean the topaz.
The diamond is carbon in its purest and
crystalline form.

DIAN'A, or AR'TEMIS, a celebrated god
dess of the Romans and Greeks, and one
of their twelve superior deities. In the
heavens she was Luna, (the moon,) on
earth Diana, in the unseen world Hecate.
She was invoked by women in childbirth
under the name of Lucina. She was usu
ally represented with a crescent on her
head, a bow in her hand, and dressed in
a hunting-habit, because she was said to
preside over forests and hunting. Diana
was said to be the daughter of Jupiter
by Latona, and twin sister of Apollo.
As Hecate, she was regarded as sangui
nary and pitiless; as goddess of hunt
ing and the forests, she was chaste, but
haughty and vindictive ; as associated
with the moon, she was capricious and
wanton. The Diana of Ephesus was like
the Syrian goddess Ashtoreth, and ap
pears to have been worshipped with im-
?ure rites and magical mysteries, Acts
9:19. Her image, fabled to have fallen
down from Jupiter in heaven, seems to
have been a block of wood tapering to
the foot, with a female bust above cov
ered with many breasts, the head crown
ed with turrets, and each hand resting
on a staff. It was of great antiquity, and
highly venerated.

The temple of this goddess was the
pride and glory of Ephesus. It was 425
feet long, and 220 broad, and had 127

columns of white marble, each 60 feet
high. Its treasures were of immense
value. It was 220 years in building,
and was one of the seven wonders of the
world. In the year when Alexander the
Great was born, B. c. 356, it was burned
down by one Herostratus, in order to
immortalize his name, -but was after
wards rebuilt with even greater splen
dor. The "silver shrines for Diana,"
made by Demetrius and others, were
probably small models of the same for
domestic use, and for sale to travellers
and visitors. Ancient coins of Ephesus .
represent the shrine and statue of Diana,
with a Greek inscription, meaning "oi
the Ephesians," Acts 19:28, 34, 35.

DI'BON, DI'MON, Isa. 15 ; 9, and Dr-
BON-GAD', Num. 33 : 45, 46, a town of
Gad, Num. 32 : 34, but afterwards of
Reuben, Josh. 13:17. It lay in a plain
just north of the Arnon, and was the
first encampment of the Israelites upon
crossing that river. Later we find it in
the hands of the Moabites, Isa. 15:2;
Jer. 48 : 22. Traces of it remain at a
place now called Diban.

DIK'LAH, a tribe descended from Jok-
tan, Gen. 10:27, and dwelling in South
ern Arabia, or perhaps near the head of
the Persian gulf.

DI'NAH, daughter of Jacob by Leah,
Gen. 30:21, his only daughter named in
Scripture. While the family were so
journing near Shalem, she heedlessly
associated with the Canaanitish maid
ens, and fell a victim to the seductive
arts of Shechem, a young prince of the
land ; but was perfidiously and savagely
avenged by Simeon and Levi, her full
brothers, to the great grief of Jacob
their father, Gen. 34 ; 49 : 5, 7. She
seems to have gone with the family to
Egypt, Gen. 46:15.

"DIONYS'IUS, a member of the court
of the Areopagus at Athens, converted
under the preaching of Paul, Acts 17 :34.
Tradition says that he was eminent for
learning, that he was ordained by Paul
at Athens, and after many labors and
trials, suffered martyrdom by fire. The
works ascribed to him are spurious, be
ing the product of some unknown writer
in the fourth or fifth century.

DIOT'REPHES, an influential mem
ber, perhaps minister, of some early
church, censured by John for his jealous
ambition, and his violent rejection of
the best Christians, 3 John 9, 10.
119

DIS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DOE

DISCERN'ING OF SPIRITS, 1 Cor.
12:10, a miraculous gift of the Holy
Ghost to certain of the early church,
empowering them to judge of the real
character of those who professed to love
Christ, and to he inspired to teach in his
name, 1 John 4:1 ; 2 John 7. Compare
Acts 5: 1-10; 1-3:6-12.

DISCI'PLE, a scholar, Matt. 10:24. In
the New Testament it is applied princi
pally to the followers of Christ ; some
times to those of John the Baptist, Matt.
9:14, and of the Pharisees, Matt. 22:16.
It is used in a special manner to point
out the twelve, Matt. 10: 1 ; 11 : 1 ; 20: 17.
A disciple of Christ may now be defined
as one who believes his doctrine, rests
upon his sacrifice, imbibes his spirit, im
itates his example, and lives to do his
work.

DISCOVER, Mic. 1:6, to uncover, or
lay bare.

DISEAS'ES were introduced into the
world by sin, and have been greatly
increased by the prevalence of corrupt,
indolent, and luxurious habits. Besides
the natural causes of diseases, evil spir
its were charged with producing them
among the .Hebrews, Job 2:7; Mark
9 : 17 ; Luke 13 : 16 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 7. The
pious Jews recognized the hand of God
in sending them, Psa. 39:9-11 ; 90:3-12 ;
and in many cases special diseases were
sent in punishment of particular sins,
as Abimelech, Gehazi, Jehoram, Uzziah,
Miriam, Herod, the Philistines, etc.,
and those who partook of the Lord's
supper unworthily, 1 Cor. 11:30. Christ
manifested his divine goodness and pow
er by healing every form of disease ; and
in these cases, as in that of king Asa,
2 Chr. 16 : 12, it is shown that all the
skill of physicians is in vain without
God's blessing. The prevalent diseases
in Bible lands were malignant fevers,
cutaneous diseases, palsy, dysentery, and
ophthalmia. Almost every form of bod
ily disease has a counterpart in the mal
adies of the soul.

DISPENSATION, the charge of pro
claiming the gospel of Christ, 1 Cor.
9 : 17 ; Eph. 3 : 2. Also the scheme or
plan of God's dealings with men. In
the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian
dispensations, God has commenced, en
larged, and perfected his revelation of
himself and his grace to this world, Eph.
1:10; Col. 1:25. The whole develop
ment of his great plan has been gradual,
120

and adapted at every stage to the exist
ing state of the human family.

DIVINATION. The Eastern people
were fond of divination, magic, and the
pretended art of interpreting dreams
and acquiring a knowledge of futurity.
When Moses published the law, this
disposition had long been common in
Egypt and the neighboring countries ;
and to correct the Israelites' inclination
to consult diviners, wizards, fortune-tell
ers, and interpreters of dreams, it was
forbidden them under very severe pen
alties, and the true spirit of prophecy
was promised to them as infinitely supe
rior, Ex. 22:18 ; Lev. 19:26, 31 ; 20 : 27.
Those were to be stoned who pretended
to have a familiar spirit, or the spirit
of divination, Deut. 18 : 9-12 ; and the
prophecies are full of invectives against
the Israelites who consulted such, as
well as against false prophets, who se
duced the people, Isa. 8:19; 47:11-14;
Ezek. 13:6-9. A fresh impulse to these
superstitions was gained from inter
course with the Chaldeans, during the
reign of the later kings of Judah and
the captivities in Babylon, 2 Kin. 21:6 ;
2 Chr. 33:6. See MAGIC, SORCERERS.

Divination was of several kinds: by
water, fire, earth, air ; by the flight of
birds, and their singing ; by lots, dreams,
arrows, clouds, entrails of sacrifices, pre
tended communication with spirits, etc.,
Ezek. 21:21.

DIVORCE' was tolerated by Moses for
sufficient reasons, Deut. 24:1-4 ; but our
Lord has limited it to the single case of
adultery, Matt. 5:31, 32.

DOC'TOR OF THE LAW may perhaps
be distinguished from SCRIBE, as rather
teaching orally, than giving written
opinions, Luke 2 : 46. It implies one
learned in the divine law. Doctors of
the law were mostly of the sect of the
Pharisees, but are distinguished from
that sect in Luke 5:17, where it appears
that the novelty of our Saviour's teach
ing drew together a great company both
of Pharisees and doctors of the law.

DODANIM, or RODANIM, 1 Chr. 1:7,
a people descended from Japhet through
Javan, Gen. 10:4. They are associated,
by the above passage, and by dim ety
mological inferences, with the island of
Rhodes or some location on the north
coast of the Mediterranean.

DO'EG, an Edomite, overseer of Saul's
flocks. At Nob he witnessed the relief

DOG

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

DRA

kindly furnished to David when fleeing
from Saul, by Ahimelech the high-priest,
and carried a malicious and distorted re
port of it to his master. The king gladly
seized the opportunity to wreak his pas
sion on a helpless victim ; and when the
Jews around him refused to slay the
priests of God, infamously used the will
ing services of this alien and heathen.
Doeg not only slew Ahimelech and
eighty-four other priests, but put the
town in which they dwelt to the sword,
1 Sam. 21 ; 22. David forebodes his
wretched fate, Psa. 52 ; 120 ; 140.

DOGS were held in great contempt by
the Jews, but were worshipped, as well
as cats, by the Egyptians. Among the
Jews, to compare a person to a dog was
the most degrading expression possible,
1 Sam. 17:43; 24:14; 2 Sam. 9:8. The
state of dogs among the Jews was the
same that now prevails in the East,
where, having no owners, they run
about the streets in troops, and are fed
by charity or caprice, or live on such
offal as they can pick up. As they are
often on the point of starvation, they
devour corpses, and in the night even
attack living men, Psa. 59 : 6, 14, 15 ;
1 Kin. 14: 1 1. In various places in Scrip
ture the epithet ' ' dogs ' ' is given to cer
tain classes of men, as expressing their
insolent rapacity, Matt. 7:6 ; Psa. 22: 16 ;
Phil. 3:2, and their beastly vices, Deut.
23:18; 2 Pet. 2:22; Rev. 22:15.

DOR, a royal city of the Canaanites,
on the Mediterranean between Cassarea
and mount Carmel ; after the conquest
it was assigned to Manasseh, Josh. 11 :2;
12:23; 17:11; 1 Kin. 4:11; 1 Chr. 7:29.
There is now a small port there, with
about 500 inhabitants.

DOR'CAS in Greek, the same as TABI-
THA in Syriac, that is, gazelle, the name
of a pious and charitable woman at Jop-
pa. whom Peter raised from the dead,
Acts 9: 36-42.

DO'THAN, or DOTHA'IN, the place
where Joseph was sold to the Ishmael-
ites, Gen. 37:17, and where the Syrians
were smitten with blindness at Elisha's
word, 2 Kin. 6:13. It was on the cara
van-route from Syria to Egypt, about
eleven miles north of Samaria.

DOVES were clean according to the
Mosaic ritual, and were offered in sacri
fice, especially by the poor, Gen. 15:9;
Lev. 5:7; 12:6-8; Luke 2:24. Several
kinds of doves or pigeons frequented the
6

THE EASTERN CARRIER-DOVE.

Holy Land ; and the immense flocks of
them sometimes witnessed illustrate a
passage in Isaiah, 60:8. They are sym
bols of simplicity, innocence, and fidel
ity, Hos. 7:11 ; Matt. 10:16. The dove
was the chosen harbinger of God's re
turning favor after the flood, Gen. 8, and
was honored as an emblem of the Holy
Spirit, Matt. 3:16. See TURTLEDOVE.

DOVES' DUNG. It is said, 2 Kin.
6:25, that during the siege of Samaria,
"the fourth part of a cat>," little more
than half a pint, ' ' of doves' dung was
sold for five pieces of silver," about two
and a half dollars. As doves' dung is
not a nourishment for man, even in the
most extreme famine, the general opin
ion is, that it was a kind of chick-pea,
lentil, or tare, which has very much the
appearance of doves' dung. Great quan
tities of these are sold in Cairo to the
pilgrims going to Mecca ; and at Damas
cus there are many shops where nothing
else is done but preparing chick-peas.
These, parched in a copper pan, and
dried, are of great service to those who
take long journeys.

DOW'RY. In eastern countries the
bridegroom was required to pay the fa
ther of his betrothed a stipulated por
tion, in money or other valuables, pro
portioned to the rank and station of the
family to which she belonged ; this was
the dowry. Jacob purchased his wives
by his services to their father, Gen.
29:18-27; 34:12; Ex. 22: 16-17; ISam.
18:25; Hos. 3:2.

DRAG'ON answers, in the English Bi
ble, to the Hebrew word signifying a sea-
monster, huge serpent, etc. Thus in
Deut, 32:33, Jer. 51:34, and Rev. 12, it
evidently implies a huge serpent ; in
Isa. 27 : 1 ; 51 : 9 ; Ezek. 29 : 3, it may
121

DRA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

DRU

mean the crocodile, or any large sea-
monster ; while in Job 30:29 ; Lain. 4:3 ;
Mic. 1:8, it seems to refer to some wild
animal of the desert, most probably the
jackal. The animul known to modern
naturalists under the name of dragon, is
a harmless species of lizard, found in Asia
and Africa.

DRAG'ON-WELL, Neh. 2:13; proba
bly the fountain of Gihon, on the west
side of Jerusalem.

DBAM, Ezra 2:69, a gold coin of Per
sia, worth about five dollars.

DRAUGHT, a cess-pool or receptacle
for filth, 2 Kin. 10 : 27 ; Matt. 15 : 17.
Also, all the fishes taken at one drawing
of a net, Luke 5:9.

DREAM. The orientals, and in partic
ular the Jews, greatly regarded dreams,
and applied for their interpretation to
those who undertook to explain them.
We see the antiquity of this custom in
the history of Pharaoh's butler and bak
er, Gen. 40 ; and Pharaoh himself and
Nebuchadnezzar are also instances. God
expressly forbade his people to observe
dreams, and to consult explainers of
them. He condemned to death all who
pretended to have prophetic dreams,
even though what they foretold came to
pass, if they had any tendency to pro
mote idolatry, Deut. 13:1-3. But they
were not forbidden, when they thought
they had a significant dream, to address
the prophets" of the Lord, or the high-

?riest in his ephod, to have it explained,
'he Lord frequently made known his
will in dreams, and enabled persons to
explain them, Gen. 20:3-7; 28:12-15;
1 Sam. 28:6; Dan. 2; Joel 2:28; Matt.
1 : 20 ; Acts 27 : 22. Supernatural dreams
are distinguished from visions, in that
the former occurred during sleep, and
the latter when the person was awake.
God spoke to Abimelech in a dream, but
to Abraham by vision. In both cases he
left on the mind an assurance of the cer
tainty of whatever he revealed. Both
are now superseded by the Bible, our
sure and sufficient guide through earth
to heaven.

DREGS. See LEES.

DRESS'ES. See GARMENTS.

DRINK'-OFFERING, a small quantity
of wine, part of which was to be poured
on the sacrifice or meat-offering, and the
residue given to the priests, Ex. 29:40 ;
Lev. 23:18 ; Num. 15:5, 7. It may have
been appointed as an acknowledgment
122

that all the blessings of the earth ar®
from God, Gen. 35:14.

DROM'EDARY. See CAMEL.
DROUGHT was an evil to which Pal
estine was naturally subject, as no rain
fell from May to September. During
these months of summer, the ground
became parched and cleft, the streams
and springs became dry, and vegetation
was kept from extinction by the dews at
night and by artificial irrigation. If rain
did not come in its season and abun
dantly, the distress was general and
dreadful. A drought therefore is threat*
ened as one of God's sorest judgments,
Job 24 : 19 ; Jer. 50 : 38 ; Joel 1 : 10-20 ;
Hag. 1:11; and there are many allusions
to its horrors in Scripture, Deut. 28:23 ;
Psa. 32:4; 102:4.

DRUNK'ENNESS is referred to in the
Bible both in single instances and as a
habit. Its folly is often illustrated, Psa.
107:27; Isa. 19:14; 24:20; 28:7, 8, its
guilt denounced, Isa. 5:22, its ill results
traced, 1 Sam. 25 : 36 ; 1 Kin. 16 : 9 ;
20:16, and its doom shown, 1 Cor. 6:9,
10. It is produced by wine, Gen. 9:21 ;
21:33; Jer. 23:9; Eph. 5:18, as well as
by "strong drink," 1 Sam. 1:13-15;
Isa. 5:11. Hence the use of these was
forbidden to the priests at the altar, Lev.
10:9; and all are cautioned to avoid
them, Prov. 20 : 1 ; 23 : 30, To tempt
others to drunkenness is a ain accursed
of God, 2 Sam. 11 : 13 ; Hab. 2 : 15, 16.
Its prevalence in a community is insep
arable from the habitual use of any in
ebriating liquor. Hence the efforts made
by the wise and good to secure absti
nence from all intoxicating drinks, 1 Cor.
8:13. See WINE.

DRUSIL'LA, the youngest daughter
of Herod Agrippa I., and sister of the
younger Agrippa and Bernice, celebrated
for her beauty and infamous for her li
centiousness. She was first espoused to
Epiphanes, son of Anticchus king of Co-
magena, on condition of his embracing
the Jewish religion ; but as he after
wards refused to be circumcised, Drusilla
was given in marriage by her brother to
Azizus king of Emessa. When Felix
came as governor of Judea, he persuaded
her to abandon her husband and her re
ligion, and become his wife. Paul bore-
testimony before them to the truth of
the Christian religion, Acts 24:24. She
and her son afterwards perished in an
eruption of Vesuvius.

DUK

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EAG

DUKE. In Gen. 36:15-43, is a long
list of " dukes " of Edom ; but the word
duke, from the Latin dux, merely, signi
fies a leader, and not an order of nobili
ty ; and the word chief or sheikh would
have been preferable in our translation,
IChr. 1:51.

DULCIMER, Dan. 3:5, 10, an instru
ment of music, which the rabbins de
scribe as a sort of bagpipe, composed of
two pipes connected with a leathern sack,
and of a harsh, screaming sound. The
modern dulcimer is an instrument of a
triangular form, strung with about fifty
wires, and struck with an iron key while
lying on the table before the performer.
See Music.

DU'MAH, a tribe and country of the
Ishmaelites in Arabia, Gen. 25 : 14 ; 1 Chr.
1:30 ; Isa. 21:11. This is doubtless the
same which is still called by the Arabs
"Duma the stony" and "the Syrian
Duma," situated on the confines of the
Arabian and Syrian desert, with a for
tress.

DUNG. Among the Israelites, the
dung of animals was used not only for
manure, but, when dried, for fuel. In
districts where wood is scarce, the in
habitants are very careful in collecting
the dung of camels or asses ; it is mixed
with chopped straw, and dried. It is
not unusual to see a whole village with
portions of this material adhering to the
walls of the cottages to dry ; and towards
the end of autumn it is piled in conical
heaps or stacks on the roof. It is em
ployed in heating ovens, and for other
similar purposes, Ezek. 4 : 12-16. The
use of dung for manure is intimated in
Isa. 25:10.

DU'RA, the plain in Babylon where
Nebuchadnezzar set up his golden im
age, Dan. 3:1.

DUST, Josh. 7:6. Dust or ashes put 1
upon the head was a sign of mourning ; !
sitting in the dust, a sign of affliction, :
Lam. 3:2'J; Isa. 47:1. "Dust" is also i
put for the grave, Gen. 3:19 ; Job 7:21.
It signifies a multitude, Gen. 13:16, and
a low and mean condition, 1 Sam. 2:8.
We have two remarkable instances of
casting dust recorded in Scripture, and
they seem ^ to illustrate a practice com
mon in Asia : those who demanded jus
tice against a criminal were accustomed
to throw dust upon him, signifying that
he deserved to be cast into the grave.
Shimei cast dust upon David when he

fled from Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 16:13. The
Jews treated the apostle Paul in a simi
lar manner in the same city : ' ' They
cried out, ' Away with such a fellow from
the earth ; for it is not fit that he should
live.' And as they cried out, and cast
off their clothes, and threw dust into the
air, the chief captain commanded him to
be brought into the castle," Acts 22:22-
24. To shake off the dust of the feet
against another was expressive of entire
renunciation, Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11;
Acts 13 : 51. The threatening of God,
recorded in Deut. 28:24, "The Lord
shall make1 the rain of thy land povvdei
and dust: from heaven shall it conn
down upon thee, until thou be destroy
ed," means that instead of fertilizing
rains, clouds of fine dust, raised from
the parched ground and driven by fierce
and burning winds, shall fill the air.
Of -such a rain of dust, famine and dis
ease would be the natural attendants.
See WIND.

E.

EA'GLE, Job 39 : 27-30, a large and
very powerful bird of prey, hence called
the King of birds. There are several
species of eagle described by naturalists,

and it is probable that this word in the
Bible comprehends more than one of
these. The noble eastern species, called
by Mr. Bruce "the golden eagle," meas
ures eight feet four inches from wing to
wing ; and from the tip of his tail to the
point of his beak, when dead, four feet
123

EAK,

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EAS

seven inches. Of all known birds, the
eagle flies not only the highest, Frov.
23:5 ; Jcr. 49:10 ; Obad. 4, but also with
the greatest rapidity. To this circum
stance there are several striking allusions
in the sacred volume, 2 Sam. 1:23 ; Job
9 : 26 ; Lam. 4 : 19. Among the evils
threatened to the Israelites in case of
their disobedience, the prophet names
one in the following terms : "The Lord
shall bring a nation against thee from
far, from the end of the earth, as swift
as the eagle flieth," Deut. 28:49. The
inarch of Nebuchadnezzar against Jeru
salem, is predicted in similar terms :
"Behold, he shall come up as clouds,
and his chariots as a whirlwind : his
horses are swifter than eagles," Jer.
4 : 13 ; 48 : 40 ; 49 : 22 ; Hos. 8 : 1. This
bird was a national emblem on Persian
and Roman standards, as it now is on
United States' coins.

The eagle, it is said, lives to a great
age ; and like other birds of prey, sheds
his feathers in the beginning of spring,
after which his old age assumes the ap
pearance of youth. To this David al
ludes, when gratefully reviewing the
mercies of Jehovah : ' ' Who satisiieth
thy mouth with good things, so that thy
youth is renewed like the eagle's," Psa.
103 : 5 ; Isa. 40 : 3 1 . The careful pains of
the eagle in teaching its young to fly, beau
tifully illustrate God's providential care
over Israel, Ex. 19:4; Deut. 32:11, 12.

The eagle is remarkable for its keen
sight and scent. Its flesh, like that of
all birds of prey, was unclean to the
Jews ; and is never eaten by any body,
unless in cases of necessity, Matt. 24:28 ;
Luke 17: 37.

EAR/ING, an old agricultural term for
ploughing. Thus, in Isa. 30 : 24, it is
said, "The oxen also, and the young
asses which ear," that is, plough, "the
ground." So also in Gen. 45:6; Exod.
34:21; Deut. 21:4; 1 Sam. 8:12.

EAR'NEST, a pledge of the perform
ance of a promise ; or part of a debt,
paid in assurance of the payment of the
whole ; or part of the price, paid down
to confirm a bargain ; or part of a ser
vant's wages, paid at the time of hiring,
to ratify the engagement. In the New
Testament it describes the gifts of God
to his people here, as the assurance and
commencement of the far superior bless
ings of the life to come, 2 Cor. 1 : 22 ; 5 : 5 ;
Eph. 1:13, 14.

124

EAR'-RINGS. See RINGS.
EARTH. In both Hebrew and Greek
the same word is used to denote the
earth as a whole, and a particular land.
Only the context can enable us to decide
in which of these senses it is to be taken
in a given passage. Thus in Matt. 27:45
we might, so far as the original word is
concerned, render either "there was
darkness over all the land," or over all
the earth. The expression "all the
earth ' ' is sometimes used hyperbolically
for a large portion of it, Ezra 1:2. The
word is used of the whole world, or its
surface, in distinction from the heavens ;
of the mould or arable land of the world ;
of the people who inhabit the world, etc.
In a moral sense, earthly is opposed to
what is heavenly, spiritual and holy,
John 3 : 31 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 47 ; Col. 3:2;
James 3 : 15.. ' ' The lower parts of the
earth," means the unseen world of the
dead, Psa. 63:9; Isa. 44:23; Eph. 4:9.

EARTH'QUAKE, a convulsion of the
earth common in volcanic regions, &nd
well known in all parts of the world ;
probably occasioned by the action of in
ternal heat or fire. Scripture speaks of
several earthquakes, Num. 16 ; 1 Kin.
19:11, 12. One occurred in the twenty-
seventh year of Uzziah king of Judah,
and is mentioned in Amos 1:1; Zech.
14 : 5. A very memorable earthquake
Avas that at our Saviour's death. Matt.
27 : 51, which some suppose extended
throughout the world. Palestine has
been often visited by earthquakes. So
late as 1837 one occurred in the vicinity
of the sea cf Galilee, by which about a
third part of Tiberias was destroyed, and
thousands of people perished there and
in the towns near by. Earthquakes were
among the calamities foretold as con
nected with the destruction of Jerusa
lem, Matt. 24:7 ; and history proves the
truth of the prediction.

The word earthquake is also used fig
uratively to denote God's power and
wrath, as in Psa. 18:7; 46:2; 104:32,
etc. ; and as an emblem of a great civil
or national catastrophe, Matt. 24:7, 29;
Rev. 16:18, 19.

EAST. The Hebrews, in speaking of
the different quarters of the heaven, al
ways suppose the face to be turned tow
ards the east. Hence "before," or "for
wards," means the east; "behind" is
the west, the right-hand is south, and
the left-hand, north. Besides the ordi-

EAS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EAT

nary meanings of the word east, Josh.
4:19; Psa. 103:12, the Jews often used
it to designate a large region lying north
east and south-east as well as east of Pal
estine, including Syria and Arabia near
at hand, and Babylonia, Assyria, Arme
nia, etc. , with the whole region from the
Caspian sea to the Arabian gulf. Gen.
29 : 1 ; Num. 23 : 7 ; Judg. 6 : 3 ; 7 : 12 ;
8:10. The wise men who visited the
infant Saviour dwelt somewhere in this
region; and being "in the east," saw
his star — not east of them, but in the
direction to guide them to Jerusalem,
Matt. 2:1, 2.

EAST WIND. See WIND.

EAST'ER is improperly put for PASS
OVER, Acts 12 : 4 ; Passover being the
name of the ancient Jewish festival here
referred to ; while Easter-, from the Sax
on goddess Eostre, is the modern name
of a Christian festival, in commemora
tion of the events of Passover- week, and
fixed at the same period of the year.

EAT'ING. The Jews would have con
sidered themselves polluted by eating
with people of another religion, or with
any who were ceremonially unclean or

disreputable — as with Samaritans, John
4:9, publicans, Matt. 9:11, or Gentiles
Acts 10:28 ; Gal. 2:12. Eating together
was an established token of mutual con-
iidence and friendship, a pledge of friend
ly relations between families, which theii
children were expected to perpetuate.
The rites of hospitality were held sacred ;
and to this day, among the Arabs, a fugi«
tive is safe for the time, if he gains the
shelter of even an enemy's tent. The
abuse of hospitality was a great crime.
Psa. 41:9.

To "eat" a book, is to make its pre
cepts, promises, and spirit one's own,
Jer. 15:16 ; Ezek. 3:1 ; John 4:14 ; Rev.
10 : 9. So to eat Christ's flesh and drink
his blood, is to receive him as a Saviour,
and by a living faith to be imbued with
his truth, his -Spirit, and his heavenly
life, John 6:32-58.

EATING, MODE OF. The Hebrews an
ciently sat at their meals, Gen. 43:83 ;
1 Sam. 9 : 22 ; 2*0 : 25 ; Psa. 128 : 3 ; but
afterwards adopted the practice of reclin
ing on table-beds or divans, like the Per
sians, Chaldeans, Romans, etc., Amos
6:4. The accempanying engraving of a

Roman triclinium, three beds, will illus
trate several points obscure to the mod
ern reader of the Bible. It will be seen
that three low tables are so placed as
to form three sides of a hollow square

accessible to the waiters. Around these
tables are placed, not seats, but couches,
or beds, one to each table, fr.rmed of
mattresses stufl'ed, and often highly or*-
namented, Est. 1:6 ; 7:1, 8. The guests
125

EAT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EAT

reclined with their heads to the tahle,
each one leaning on his left elbow, and
therefore using principally his right hand
in taking food. Observe also that the
feet of the person reclining being tow
ards the external edge of the bed, they
were much more readily reached by any
one passing than any other part of the
person so reclining, Luke 7 : 36-50 ; John
12:3.

This mode of reclining at table ren
dered it easy for our Lord to wash the
feet of his disciples at the last supper,
John 13:5-12, and "wipe them with the
towel wherewith he was girded. ' ' It also
explains the position of John at the same
supper ; for if he reclined next in front
of the Saviour, he lay as it were in his
bosom, John 13:23, 25, and might read
ily lean back his head upon the Saviour's
breast.

It is unknown, however, how far or
how long this custom displaced the prim
itive eastern mode still prevalent in Pal
estine and vicinity. The ordinary table
was no more than a circular skin or car
pet spread upon the floor, around which
the family sat on the floor, or on rugs or
cushions. Sometimes there Avas a small
table in the centre, raising the principal
dish a little above the floor.

The meals of the Jews were generally
two, loosely distinguished as dinner and
supper, Luke 14:12; John 21:12. The
first meal was usually light, consisting of
milk, cheese, bread, or fruits, and eaten
at various hours from early morning to
the middle of the forenoon. In the ear
ly history of the Hebrews, the principal
meal, corresponding with our dinner,
was eaten about noon, Gen. 43 : 25 ;
1 Kin. 20 : 16. At a later period, at
least on festive occasions, it was taken
after the heat of the day was over.
This was the " supper." The Jews were
wont to wash their hands before eating,
a custom rendered necessary by their
mode of eating, but made by the Phari
sees a test of piety, Mark 7:2, 3 ; Luke
11 -38. Devout Jews, not only in their
sacred feasts, but in their daily enjoy
ments at the family meal, recognized the
Giver of all good, and implored his bless
ing on their food, 1 Sam. 9:13; Matt.
14:19; 15:36; 26:26; Luke 9: 16; John
6:11; 1 Tim. 4 : 3. Some families re
peated the twenty-third Psalm as they
seated themselves at meals. The food
consisted of flesh, fish, or fowls, butter,
126

honey, bread, and fruits. See FOOD. An»
imal food was often cut into small pieces,
or stewed, and served up in one large
dish with melted butter, vegetables, etc.

MODERN SYRIANS AT DINNER.

Knives, forks, and spoons were unknown
as table-furniture ; and the food was con
veyed to the mouth by the right hand,
Prov. 19:24. Each person took a por
tion from the dish either with his thumb
and fingers, or with the help of a small
piece of thin bread. Several hands were
occasionally plunged into the same dish
at once, John 13:26. The head of the
family was wont to send a double por
tion of food to a stranger, as an honor,
and to furnish him a greater variety,
Gen. 43:31; 1 Sam. 1:4; 9:22-24; and
often would select the choicest morsels
and present them to his guest with his
own fingers. Compare Ruth 2:14, and
John 13:26. This is still customary in
the East. After eating, the hands were
again cleansed by pouring water upon
them, 2 Kin. 3 : 11. See FEAST, WASH
ING.

The following description of a dinner
at Hebron is from Dr. Robinson. "They
were dining in the true oriental style.
A very large circular tray of tinned cop
per, placed upon a, coarse wooden stool
about a foot high, served as the table.
In the centre of this stood a large dish
with a mountain of pillaw, composed of
rice boiled and buttered, with small
pieces of meat strewed through and
upon it. This was the chief dish, al
though there Avere also other smaller
dishes, both of meat and vegetables.

EBA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EDE

Around this table ten persons, including
the three governors — of Gaza, Hebron,
and Jerusalem — were seated, or rather,
squatted on their feet. Each had before
him a plate of tinned copper and a wood
en spoon. Some used the spoon without
the plate ; but the most preferred to eat
with the fingers of the left hand, with
out either spoon or plate. When any
one had finished, he immediately rose,
and went and washed his hands by hav
ing water poured over them in an ad
joining room. The vacant place at table
was immediately filled by a new comer."
E'BAL, Deut. 27 ; 28 ; a mountain in
Ephraim, over against mount Gerizim,
from which it is 'separated by a valley
about five hundred yards wide and three
miles long, in which stands the town of
Shechem. Both mountains are much
alike in length, height, and form, and
their altitude is stated not to exceed
seven hundred and fifty or eight hun
dred feet from the level of the valley.
As you journey from Jerusalem, and
turn to pass through the valley west-
north-west to Shechem, mount Ebal is
on the right hand and mount Gerizim
on the left. Some have described the
mount of cursing as sterile and desolate,
and Gerizim as smiling and fertile. But
at present there is little difference be
tween their opposing fronts, which are
alike steep and barren. Mount Gerizim,
however, is said to have a more fertile
background, and to be a little higher
than mount Ebal. The base of the lat
ter is full of sepulchral excavations. -See
GERIZIM, SHECHEM.

EBED'-MELECH, an Ethiopian ser
vant of king Zedekiah, who was instru
mental in saving the prophet Jeremiah
from famishing in a filthy dungeon, and
was therefore preserved when Jerusalem
was taken by Nebuzaradan, Jer. 38:7-
13; 39:15-18. The Lord knoweth them
that are his.

EBENE'ZER, stone of help, the place
where Samuel erected a monument, in
grateful remembrance of the divine help,
given in answer to prayer, in a great bat
tle with the Philistines. The same place
had before witnessed the defeat of Israel
and the capture of tne ark, 1 Sam. 4:1;
5:1; 7:5-12.

E'BEE. See HEBER.

EB'ONY, the wood of a tree of no
great size, growing in India and Africa ;
it Is black, hard, heavy, and fine-grain

ed, and receives a beautiful polish. It
was anciently highly prized, Ezek. 27:15,
and is still much used for musical instru
ments and fancy articles.

ECCLESIAS'TES, thepreacJier, the name
of a book of the Old Testament, usually
ascribed to Solomon. Compare 1 Kin.
3:12andEccl.l:lC; 1 Kin. 10:21, 27 and
Eccl. 2:4-9; 1 Kin. 11:3, 4 and Eccl.
7:26, 28. It appears to have been writ
ten by Solomon in his old age, when
freed from the entanglements of idola
try, luxury, and lust, u. c. 977. It is a
discourse upon the true wisdom ; with
many isolated precepts, illustrated from
his own unexampled experience and
from the most sagacious observation of
the course of life ; the whole demon
strating the vanity of all earthly good,
and showing that there is a better life
to come, and that the only true wisdom
is to " fear God and keep his command
ments." This, he says, is the conclusion
of the whole matter, Eccl. 12:13. In
reading this book, care should be taken
not to deduce opinions from detached
sentiments, but from the general scope
and combined force of the whole.

E'DEN, a province in Asia, in which
was Paradise. "The Lord God planted
a garden eastward in Eden, and there he
put the man whom he had formed,"
Gen. 2:8. The topography of Eden is
thus described : ' ' And a river went out
of Eden to water the garden, and from
thence it was parted, and became into
four heads. The name of the first is
Pison," etc.

^This obscure passage has received many
different explanations and applications,
none of which are fully satisfactory ; and
now it is impossible to say with certainty
where Eden lay. Most writers have sought
for it in some elevated and central region,
the heights of which would give rise to
various rivers flowing off in different di
rections through lower grounds to their
outlets. Such a region exists in the high
lands of Armenia, west of mount Ararat
and 5,000 feet above the sea. Here, with
in a circle but a few miles in diameter,
four large rivers rise : the Euphrates, and
Tigris, or Hiddekel, flowing south into
the Persian gulf ; the Araxes, flowing
north-east into the Caspian sea ; and the
Phasis, or the Halys, flowing north-west
into the Black sea. This fourth river
may have been the Pishon of Eden ; and
the Araxes may well be the Gihon, since
127

EDO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EGY

both words mean the same, and describe
its dart-like swiftness. This elevated
country, still beautiful and fertile, may
have been the land of Eden ; and in its
choicest portion, towards the east, the
garden may once have smiled.

Another location of Eden is now pre
ferred by many interpreters — near the
spot where the Euphrates and Tigris
form a junction after their long wander
ings, a hundred and twenty miles north
of the Persian gulf, and where the river
Ulai flows in from the north-east. This
region may have been greatly changed
by the lapse of many thousand years,
and may now bear little resemblance to
the luxuriant and beautiful plain of
primeval times. Yet long after the
flood the plain of Shinar in the same
region attracted the admiration of the
sons of Gush, Gen. 10:8-10; 11:2. As
two of the rivers of Eden bear the fa
miliar names of the Euphrates and Ti
gris, it seems probable that it was in
one or the other of the regions above
named. Wherever it was, it is there no
more since the fall and the curse. The
first chapters of the Bible show Paradise
withdrawn from man's view, and no pil
grimage can discover it upon earth. The
last chapters of the Bible restore to our
view a more glorious and enduring Par
adise: "Blessed are they that do his
commandments, that they may have
right to the tree of life. ' '

E'DOM, red, a name of Esau, Isaac's
eldest son, appropriate on account of his
natural complexion, but given, it would
seem, from the current name of the food
for which he sold his birthright — " that
same red," Gen. 25 : 25, 30. See ESAU
and IDUMEA.

ED'REI, one of the capitals of Bashan,
near which Og and his forces were de
stroyed, Num. 21 : 33-35 ; Deut. 1:4;
3:1-3. It afterwards fell within the lim
its of Manasseh, Josh. 13:31. Its ruins
cover a large space ; it was a place of some
note in the early ages of Christianity and
in the era of the crusades. It is now call
ed Draa, and lies about thirty-five miles
east of the outlet of the sea of Galilee.

EG'LON, a king of Moab, who, with
the help of Ammon and Amalek, sub
dued the southern and eastern tribes of
the Jews. He made Jericho his seat of
government, and held his power eighteen
years, but was then slain by Ehud, and
his people expelled, Judg. 3:12-33.
128

E'GYPT, a celebrated country in the
north of Africa, at the eastern part of
the Mediterranean sea. The Hebrews
called it Mizraim, Gen. 10:6, and hence
it is now called by the Arabs, Mizr. The
Greeks and Romans called it Jigyptus,
whence Egypt ; but the origin of this
name is unknown.

The habitable land of Egypt is for the
most part a great valley, through which
the river Nile pours its waters, extending
in a straight line from north to south, and
skirted on the east and west by ranges of
mountains, which approach and recede
from the river more or less in different
parts. Where this valley terminates,
towards the north, the Nile divides it
self, about forty or fifty miles from the
seacoast, into several aims, which in
close the so called Delta. The ancients
numbered seven aims and mouths ; the
eastern was that of Pelusium, now that
of Tineh ; and the western that of Ca-
nopus, now that of Aboukir. As these
branches all separate from one point or
channel, that is, from the main stream,
and spread themselves more and more
as they approach the coast, they form
with the latter a triangle, the base of
which is the seacoast ; and having thus
the form of the Greek letter A, delta, this
part of Egypt received the name of the
| Delta, which it has ever since retained.
The prophet Ezekiel describes Egypt as
extending from Migdol, that is, Magdo-
lum, not far from the mouth of the Pe-
lusian arm, to Syene, now Essuan, name
ly, to the border of Ethiopia, Ezek.
29 : 10 ; 30 : 6, margin. Eesuan is also
assigned by Greek and Arabian writers
as the southern limit of Egypt. Here
the Nile issues from the granite rocks of
the cataracts, and enters Egypt proper.
The length of the country, therefore, in
a direct line, is about four hundred and
fifty miles, and its area about eleven
thousand square miles. The breadth of
the valley, between Essuan and the Del
ta, is very unequal ; in some places the
inundations of the river extend to the
foot of the mountains ; in other parts
there remains a strip of a mile or two in
breadth which the water never covers,
and which is therefore always dry and
barren. Originally the name Egypt des
ignated only the valley and the Delta ;
but at a later period it came to include
also the region between this and the Eed

EGY

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EGY

ANCIENT STATUES OF MEMNON, IN THE PLAIN OF THEBES

The country around Syene and the
Cataracts is highly picturesque ; the oth
er parts of Egypt, and especially the
Delta, are uniform and monotonous.
The prospect, however, is extremely dif
ferent, according to the season of the
year. From the middle of spring, when
the harvest is over, one sees nothing but
a grey and dusty soil, so full of cracks
and chasms that he can hardly pass
along. At the time of the autumnal
equinox, the country presents nothing
but an immeasurable surface of reddish
or yellowish water, out of which rise
date-trees, villages, and narrow dams,
which serve as a means of communica
tion. After the waters have retreated,
and they usually remain only a short
time at this height, you see, till the end
of autumn, only a black and slimy mud.
But in winter, nature puts on all her
splendor. In this season, the freshness
and power of the new vegetation, the
variety and abundance of vegetable pro
ductions, exceed every thing that is
known in the most celebrated parts of
the European continent ; and Egypt is
then, from one end of the country to
6*

the other, like a beautiful garden, a
verdant meadow, a field sown with flow
ers, or a waving ocean of grain in the
ear. This fertility, as is well known,
depends upon the annual and regular
inundations of the Nile. Hence Egypt
was called by Herodotus, ' ' the gift of the
Nile." See NILE.

The sky is not less uniform and mo
notonous than the earth ; it is constant
ly a pure unclouded arch, of a color and
light more white than azure. The at
mosphere has a splendor which the eye
can scarcely bear, and a burning sun,
whose glow is tempered by no shade,
scorches through the whole day these
vast and unprotected plains. It is al
most a peculiar trait in the Egyptian
landscape, that although not without
trees, it is yet almost without shade.
The only tree is the date-tree, which is
frequent ; but with its tall, slender stem,
and bunch of foliage on the top, this tree
does very little to keep off the light, and
casts upon the earth only a pale and un
certain shade. Egypt, accordingly, has
I a very hot climate ; the thermometer in
| summer standing usually at eighty or
129

EGY

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EGY

ninety degrees of Fahrenheit ; and in
Upper Egypt still higher. The burning
•wind of the desert, Simoom, or Camsin,
is also experienced, usually about the
time of the early equinox. The coun
try is not unfrequently visited by swarms
of locusts. See LOCUSTS.

In the very earliest times, Egypt ap
pears to have been regarded under three
principal divisions ; and writers spoke of
Upper Egypt or Thebais ; Middle Egypt,
Heptanomis or Heptapolis ; and Lower
Egypt or the Delta, including the dis
tricts lying east and west of the river.
The provinces and cities of Egypt men
tioned in the Bible may, in like manner,
be arranged under these three great di
visions:

1. LOWER EGYPT. The north-eastern
point of this was "the river of Egypt,"
(see below,) on the border of Palestine.
The desert between this point, the Red
sea, and the ancient Pelusium, seems to

have been the desert of Shur, Gen 20:1,
now El-Djefer. Sin, •• the strength [key]
of Egypt," Ezek. 30:15, was probably
Pelusium. The land of GOSIIEN appears
to have lain between Pelusium, its branch
of the Nile, and the Red sea, having been
skirted on the north-east by the desert of
Shur ; constituting perhaps a part of the
province Rameses, Gen. 47:11. In this
district, or adjacent to it, are mentioned
also the cities Pithom, Raamses, Pi-Be-
seth, and On or Heliopolis. In the prop
er Delta itself, lay Tahapanes, that is,
Taphne or Daphne ; Zoan, the Tanis of
the Greeks ; Leontopolis, alluded to per
haps in Isa. 19:18. West of the Delta
was Alexandria.

2. MIDDLE EGYPT. Here are mention
ed Moph or Memphis, and Hanes, the
Heracleopolis of the Greeks.

3. UPPER EGYPT. The southern part
of Egypt, the Hebrews appear to have
called Pathros, Jer. 44:1, 15. The Bible

TEMPLE OF ABOO-S1MBEL, NUBIA, HALF BURIED IN SAND ; STATTJES SIXTY FEET TIIGH.

mentions here only two cities, namely,
No, or more fully No-Ammon, for which
the Seventy put Diospolis, the Greek
name for Thebes, the most ancient capi
tal of Egypt, (see AMMON ;) and Syene,
the southern city and limit of Egypt.
The chief agricultural productions «f
130

Egypt are wheat, durrah, or small maize,
Turkish or Indian corn or maize, rice,
barley, beans, cucumbers, water-melons,
leeks, and onions ; also flax and cotton.
The date-tree and vine are frequent.
The papyrus is still found in small quan-
tHy, chiefly near Damietta ; it is a reed

EOT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

F> r~< \y
'L. 1

about nine feet high, as thick as a man's !
thumb, with a tuft of down on the top. 1
See BOOK, BULRUSH. The animals of
Egypt, besides the usual kinds of tame
cattle, are the wild ox or buffalo in great
numbers, the ass and camel, dogs in mul
titudes without masters, the ichneumon,
the crocodile, and the hippopotamus.

The inhabitants of Egypt may be con
sidered as including three divisions :
1. The Copts, or descendants of the an
cient Egyptians. 2. The Fellahs, or
husbandmen, who are supposed to repre
sent the people in Scripture called Phul.
3. The Arabs, or conquerors of the coun
try, including the Turks, etc. The Copts
are nominal Christians, and the clerks
and accountants of the country. They
have seen so many revolutions in the
governing powers, that they concern
themselves very little about the successes
or misfortunes of those who aspire to
dominion. The Fellahs suffer so much
oppression, and are so despised by the
Bedaween or wandering Arabs, and by
their despotic rulers, that they seldom ac
quire property, and very rarely enjoy it in
security ; yet they are an interesting race,
and devotedly attached to their native
country and the Nile. The Arabs hate
the Turks ; yet the Turks enjoy most offi
ces of government, though they hold their
superiority by no very certain tenure.

The most extraordinary monuments of
Egyptian power and industry were the
pyramids, which still subsist, to excite
the wonder and admiration of the world.
No work of man now extant is so ancient
or so vast as these mysterious structures.
The largest of them covers a square area
of thirteen acres, and is still four hun
dred and seventy-four feet high. They
have by some been supposed to have
been erected by the Israelites during
their bondage in Egypt. But the tenor
of ancient history in general, as well as
the results of modern researches, is
against this supposition. It is generally
believed that they were erected more
than two thousand years before Christ,
as the sepulchres of kings.

But besides these imperishable monu
ments of kings long forgotten, Egypt
abounds in other structures hardly less
wonderful ; on the beautiful islands above
the cataracts, near Syene, and at other
in Upper Egypt ; and especially in
5 valley of the Nile near The

the whole va

including Carnac, Luxor, etc.

bes,
The tern-

AVENUE IN THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS, AT
KARNAC, THEBES.

pies, statues, obelisks, and sphinxes that
cover the ground astonish and awe the
beholder with their colossal height, their
massive grandeur, and their vast ex
tent ; while the dwellings of the dead,
tombs in the rock occupied by myriads
of mummies, extend far into the adja-
cant mountains. The huge columns of
these temples, their vast walls, and many
of the tombs, are covered with sculptures
and paintings which are exceedingly val
uable as illustrating the public and the
domestic life of the ancient Egyptians.
See SIIISHAK. With these are mingled
many hieroglyphic records, which have
begun to yield their long-concealed
meaning to the inquisitions of modern
science. Some of these are mere sym
bols, comparatively easy i9 understand.
But a large portion of them are now
found to be written with a sort of picto
rial alphabet— each symbol representing,
the sound with which its own name
commences. Thus OSIR, the name of the
Egyptian god Osiris, would be represent
ed by the picture of a reed, a child, and
a mouth ; because the initial sounds of
the Coptic words for these three objects,
namely, Oke, Si, and Ro, make up the
131

EGY

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EGY

SCULPIUREn TABLET, ON A TEMPLE IN UPPER EGYPT.

name osm. There is, however, great am
biguity in the interpretation of these rec
ords ; and in many cases the words, when
apparently made out, are as yet unintel
ligible, and seem to be part of a priestly
dialect understood only by the learned.

The early history of ancient Egypt is
involved in great obscurity. All ac
counts, however, and the results of all
modern researches, seem to concur in
representing culture and civilization as
having been introduced and spread in
Egypt from the south, and especially
from Meroe ; and that the country in the
earliest times was possessed by several
contemporary kings or states, which at
length were* all united into one great
kingdom. The common name of the
Egyptian kings was Pharaoh, which sig
nified sovereign power. History has
preserved the names of several of these
kings, and a succession of their dynas
ties. But the inclination of the Egyp
tian historians to magnify the great an
tiquity of their nation, has destroyed
their credibility. See PHARAOH.

This ancient and remarkable land is
often mentioned in Scripture. A grand-
132

son of Noah s.eems to have given it hi*
name, Gen. 10:6. In the day of Abra
ham it was the granary of the world,
and the patriarch himself resorted thith
er in a famine, Gen. 12:10. His wife
had an Egyptian handmaid, Hagar the
mother of Ishmael, who also sought a
wife in Egypt, Gen. 21:9, 21. Another
famine, in the days of Isaac, nearly
drove him to Egypt, Gen. 26:2 ; and Ja
cob and all his household ended their
days there, Gen. 39-50. After the escape
of Israel from their weary bondage in
Egypt, we read of little intercourse be
tween the two nations for many years.
In the time of David and Solomon, men
tion is again made of Egypt. Solomon
married an Egyptian princess, 1 Kin.
3:7; 9; 11. But in the fifth year of his
son Rehoboam, Judah was humbled at
the feet of Shishak, king of Egypt, 2 Chr.
12 ; and for many generations afterwards
the Jews were alternately in alliance and
at war with that nation, until both were
subjugated to the Assyrian empire, 2 Kin.
17; 18:21; 23:29; 24; Jer. 25; 37:5;
44 ; 46.

Egypt was conquered by Cambyses,

EHU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ELA

and became a province of the Persian
empire about 525 B. c. Thus it contin
ued until conquered by Alexander, 850
B. c., after whose death it formed, along
with Syria, Palestine, Lybia, etc., the
kingdom of the Ptolemies. After the
battle of Actium, 30 B. c., it became a
Roman province. In the time of Christ,
great numbers of Jews were residents of
Alexandria, Leontopolis, and other parts
of Egypt ; and our Saviour himself found
an asylum there in his infancy, Matt.
2:13. Since that time it has ceased to
be an independent state, and its history
is incorporated with that of its different
conquerors and possessors. In A. D. 640,
it was conquered by the Arabs ; and in
later periods has passed from the hands
of the caliphs under the power of Turks,
Arabs, Kurds, Mamelukes; and since
1517, has been governed as a province of
the Turkish empire. Thus have been
fulfilled the ancient predictions recorded
in God's word, Ezek. 29:14, 15; 30:7,
12, 13; 32:15. Its present population
is about two millions.

The religion of Egypt consisted in the
worship of the heavenly bodies and the
powers of nature ; the priests cultivated
at the same time astronomy and astrol
ogy, and to these belong probably the
wise men, sorcerers, and magicians men
tioned in Ex. 7:11, 22. They were the
.most honored and powerful of the castes
into which the people were divided. It
was probably this wisdom, in which Mo
ses also was learned, Acts 7:22. But the
Egyptian religion had this peculiarity,
that it adopted living animals as sym
bols of the real objects of worship. The
Egyptians not only esteemed many spe
cies of animals as sacred, which might
not be killed without the punishment of
death, but individual animals weie kept
in temples and worshipped Avith sacrifi
ces, as gods.

"The river of Egypt," Num. 34:5;
Josh. 15 : 4, 47 ; 1 ^Kin. 8 : 65 ; 2 Kin.
24 : 7 ; Isa. 27 : 12 ; Ezek. 47 : 19 ; 48 : 28,
(and, according to some, Gen. 15:18,
though in this passage a different word
is used signifying a permanent stream,)
designates the brook El-Arish, emptying
into the south-east corner of the Medi
terranean at Rhinocolura.

E'HUD, a Benjamite, who delivered
Israel from the Moabites, by first slay
ing Eglon their king, and then -raising
an army and defeating his people. He

judged Israel with honor for many years,
Judg. 3:12-31; 4:1.

EK'RON, the most northern city of
the Philistines, allotted to Judah by
Joshua, 15:45, but afterwards given to
Dan, 19:43, though it does not appear
that the Jews ever peaceably possessed
it. It is memorable for its connection
with the captivity of the ark and its
restoration to the Jews, 1 Sam. 5:10;
6:1-18. The fly-god was worshipped
here, 2 Kin. 1:2. Its ruin was foretold,
Amos 1:8; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5, 7.
Robinson found its site at the Moslem
village Akir, some ten miles north-east
of Ashdod. There are no ruins.

EL, strength, one of the names of God,
especially in poetry, Gen. 33:18-20. It
is very often found in proper names, as
Bethel, Daniel, Elijah, etc. Eloi, like
Eli, means, My God.

E'LAH, I., a valley in which David
slew Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:2, 3, 19. It
was probably about eleven miles south
west from Jerusalem.

II. Son and successor of Baasha, king
of Israel, B. c. 926. After reigning two
years, he was slain while intoxicated,
by Zimri, one of his officers, who suc
ceeded him as king. Zimri destroyed
all the 'family of Baasha, according to
the prediction of Jehu, 1 Kin. 16:6-10.

E'LAM, the region afterwards called
Persia, Gen. 14:1. It was called Elam
after a son of Shem, Gen. 10:22. It.cor-
rcsponded to the Elymais of Greek and
Roman writers, which comprehended a
part of Susiana, now Khusistan, or more
probably included the whole of Susiana.
The city Susa, or Shushan, was in it,
Dan. 8:2. See also Acts 2:9.

E'LATH, or E'LOTH, a city of Idu-
mea, situated at the northern extremity
of the eastern gulf of the Red sea, which
was anciently called the Elanitic gulf,
and now the gulf of Akaba. Ezion-
Gaber was also situated here, and very
near Elath, Deut. 2:8; 1 Kin. 9:26.
This gulf, although known to the an
cients, has been almost unknown to
modern geographers until the time of
Burckhardt. This enterprising traveller
explored it, and gave the first full ac
count of it. The great sand valley call
ed El-Arabah, and towards the north El-
Ghor, runs from this gulf to the Dead
sea. Elath was annexed to Judah by
David, who established there an exten>
sive commerce, 2 Sam. 8:14. Solomon
133

ELD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ELI

also built ships there, 2 Chr. 8:17, 18.
In the reign of Joram the Edomites re
covered it, but lost it again to Uzziah,
2 Kin. 8:20; 14:22; and he to Rezin,
16:6. Under the rule of the Romans it
was a flourishing commercial town, with
the ordinances of Christianity. In 630
A. D. it fell under the power of Moham
med, and is now in ruins. The fortress
of Akaba, near by, now often visited by
travellers from mount Sinai to Palestine,
is only important for the protection of
pilgrims to Mecca.

EL'DAD, and ME'DAD, two of the
seventy elders appointed to aid Moses in
governing the people. The spirit of
prophecy coming upon them, they proph
esied in the camp at a distance from
Moses. Joshua censured them for this
as an irregularity, but they were nobly
vindicated by Moses, Num. 11:24-29.

ELDERS or ISRAEL, the heads of tribes,
who, before the settlement of the He
brew commonwealth, had a government
and authority over their own families
and the people. Moses and Aaron treat
ed the elders as representatives of the
nation, Ex. 3:16; 4:29; 12:21. When
the law was given, God directed Moses
to take the seventy elders, as well as
Aaron, and Nadab and Abihu his sons,
that they might be witnesses, Ex. 24:1,
9. Ever afterwards we find this num
ber of seventy, or rather, seventy-two,
elders ; six from each tribe.

In allusion to the Jewish elders, the
ordinary governors and teachers of the
Christian church are called elders, or
presbyters, Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5,
7; IPet. 5:1; 2 John 1.

ELEA'LEH, a town of the Amorites,
near Heshbon their capital, assigned to
the tribe of Reuben, Num. 32:3, 37, and
long afterwards threatened as a city of
Moab, Isa. 15:4; 16:9; Jer. 48:34. Its
ruins, now El-Aal, are a mile or more
north-east of Heshban.

ELEA'ZAR, I., the third son of Aaron,
and high-priest after him, Ex. 6 : 23 ;
-Num. 20:25-28. The high-priesthood
continued in his family through seven
generations ; till the time of Eli, when
we find it transferred to the line of Itha-
mar. In the reigns of Saul and David,
it was restored to the line of Eleazar,
and so continued till after the captivity.

II. A son of Abinadab, honored with
the charge of the ark while it was in his
father's house, 1 Sam. 7:1.
134

III. One of David's champions, 2 Sam.
23:9; 1 Chr. 11:11-18.

E'LI, a high-priest of the Jews, the
first in the line of Ithamar, 1 Sam. 2:27.
He was also a judge of Israel forty years,
and was eminent for piety and useful
ness, but criminally negligent of family
discipline. For this the judgments of
God fell upon his house, 1 Sam. 3:11-18.
In battle with the Philistines his two
sons were slain, and Israel defeated ; but
it was the capture of the ark of God that
broke his heart, 1 Sam. 4. The divine
threatening was fully performed in the
day of Abiathar, which see.

ELIAB, the oldest brother of David,
towards whom his conduct was passion
ate and jealous, thus confirming the
judgment of Him who looks not on the
appearance, but the heart, 1 Sam. 16:6,
7; 17:28.

ELIAKIM, I., a king of Judah, 2 Kin.
23:34. See JEHOIAKIM.

II. An officer of king Hezekiah's court,
appointed with others to treat with Rab-
shakeh, general of the Assyrian forces
then besieging Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 18 ;
19 ; Isa. 36 ; 37. See SENNACHERIB.
ELI/ AS, see ELIJAH.
ELIASHIB, a high-priest in the days
of Nehemiah, who took part in rebiiild-
ing the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3 : 1.
The same person probably wras after
wards censured for profaning the tem
ple, by giving the use of one of its cham
bers to a heathen and an Ammonite, his
relative, Deut. 23 : 3, 4 ; Neh. 12 : 10 ;
13:1-9.

ELIE'ZER, I., of Damascus, the law
ful heir of Abraham, should he die child
less, Gen. 15:2. He is generally assum
ed to be the ' ' eldest servant, ' ' who was
sent, sixty-five years afterwards, to ob
tain a wife for Isaac, Gen. 24. But as
the name of the latter is not given ; as
Abraham had near relatives, Lot and
others ; and as there is no evidence that
he ever lived in Damascus, some think
Eliezer must have been a near relative
of Abraham residing at Damascus ; and
that ' ' steward of my house ' ' and ' ' born
in my house ' ' — literally son of my house.
Gen.' 15:2, 3— mean the same thing, the
lawful family heir.

II. Several others of this name are
mentioned, Ex. 18:4; 1 Chr. 15:24;
27 : 16 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 37 ; Luke 3 : 29.

EL'IHU, a native of Buz, Gen. 22:2L
which was probably a city of Edom, Jer.

ELI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ELI

25:23, perhaps Bozrah, Jer. 49:7, 8, 13.
He came to condole with Job in his ca
lamities. Young, ardent, sagacious, and
devout, he listened attentively to the
discourses of Job and his three friends ;
and at length broke in, with profuse
apologies, to set them all right, Job 32.
His address to Job is friendly and sooth
ing, yet faithful ; he censures him for
justifying himself, rather than God. The
adversaries of Job he blames for con
demning him as a hypocrite, in their
ignorance of the wonders of God's prov
idence. In several sentences he beauti
fully expresses his faith in the pardon
ing and restoring grace of God towards
sinners, Job 33:23, 24, 27-30, passages
in probably the oldest book of the Bible
in the very spirit of the parable of the
prodigal son.

ELI'JAH, the prophet, a native of
Tishbeh in Gilead, 1 Kin. 17:1. His
parentage and early history are un
known. His bold faithfulness provoked
the wrath of Ahab and Jezebel, especial
ly when he threatened several years of
drought and famine as a punishment for
the sins of Israel, B. c. 908. By the
divine direction the prophet took refuge
on the bank of the brook Cherith, where
he was miraculously fed by ravens.
Thence he resorted to Zarephath, in Pho3-
nicia ; where one miracle provided him
with sustenance, and another restored
to life the child of his hostess. Return
ing to king Ahab, he procured the great
assembling at mount Carmel, where God
"answered by lire," and the prophets of
Baal were destroyed. Now too the long
and terrible drought was broken, and a
plentiful rain descended at the prophet's
prayer. Finding that not even these
mighty works of God would bring the
nation and its rulers to repentance, Eli
jah was almost in despair. He fled into
the wilderness, and was brought to Ho-
reb, the mount of God, where he was
comforted by a vision of God's power
and grace. Again he is sent on a long
journey to Damascus, to anoint Hazael
as king of Syria. Jehu also he anoints
to be king of Israel, and Elisha he sum
mons to become a prophet. Six years
later, he denounces Ahab and Jezebel
for their crimes in the matter of Naboth ;
and afterwards again is seen foretelling
the death of king Ahaziah, and calling fire
from heaven upon two bands of guards
sent to arrest him. Being now forewarn

ed of the approach of his removal from
earth, he gives his last instructions to
the school of the prophets, crosses the Jor
dan miraculously, and is borne to heaven
in a iiery chariot without tasting death,
leaving his mantle and office to Elisha,
IKin. 17-19; 21; 2 Kin. 1;2.

His translation occurred about B. c.
896. Previously, it is supposed, he had
written the letter which, eight years
afterwards, announced to king Jehoram
Ins approaching sickness and death,
2 Chr. 21:12-19.

Elijah was one of the most eminent
and honored of the Hebrew prophets.
He was bold, faithful, stern, self-deny
ing, and zealous for the honor of God.
His whole character and life are marked
by peculiar moral grandeur. He bursts
upon our view without previous notice ;
he disappears by a miracle. He bears
the appearance of a supernatural mes
senger of heaven, who has but one work
to do, and whose mind is engrossed in its
performance. His history is one of the
most extraordinary on record, and is
fraught with instruction. It was a high
honor granted to Moses and Elijah, that
they alone should appear on the mount
of Transfiguration, many centuries after
they had gone into heaven — to bear wit
ness of its existence, and commune with
the Saviour concerning his death, Luke
9:28-35.

John the Baptist was foretold under
the name of Elias, or Elijah, from his
resemblance in character and life to the
ancient prophet of Israel, Mai. 4:5, 6;
Matt. 17:10-13.

E'LIM, a station of the Israelites, on
their way to mount Sinai, Ex. 15 : 27 ;
16 : 1 ; Num. 33 : 9, generally taken to
be the present Wady Ghurundel, a broad
valley running south-west to the sea,
about forty miles south-east of Suez.
Here are fountains and a brook, many
bushes and shrubs, and a few tamarisks
and palms.

ELIM'ELECH, a Bethlehemite, hus
band of Naomi, Ruth 1:2.

EL'IPIIAZ, a native of Teman, and
friend of Job, Job 2:11. Compare Gen.
36:10. He seems to have been older
than Bildad and Zophar, and was the
first to address Job, chs. 4, 5, 15, 22.

ELIS'ABETH, a devout woman, "of
the daughters of Aaron," the wife of
Zacharias, and mother of John the Bap
tist, Luke 1:5-25, 36, 39-80.
135

ELI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EMB

ELI'SHA, the pupil and successor of
Elijah, a prophet of Israel during the
reign of Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and
Joash, B. c. 903-838. He was a native
of Abel-meholah, where he was at work
ploughing when Elijah called him to he-
come a prophet, 1 Kin. 19:16. Some
years afterwards he witnessed the mirac
ulous ascension of Elijah, divided the Jor
dan with his mantle, and took his place
at the head of the schools of the proph
ets. During his long ministry he acted
an important part in the public affairs of
Israel. Many miracles also were wrought
at his word ; some of these were, heal
ing the waters of Jericho ; supplying the
widow's cruse with oil, and the allied
armies of Judah, Israel, and Edom with
water ; gaining a son for the woman of
Shunem, and restoring him to life ; heal
ing the leprosy of Naaman ; detecting
and punishing Gehazi. His history is
recorded in 2 Kin. 2-9; 13:14-21. He
died lamented by king Joash and the
people ; and a year afterwards, a corpse
deposited in the same sepulchre was at
once restored to life.

ELI'SHAH, a son of Javan, Gen. 10:4.
"The isles of Elishah," which sent pur
ple and scarlet stuffs to Tyre, Ezek.
27:7, are supposed to mean Greece and
the adjacent islands.

ELISH'EBA, the wife of Aaron, Ex.
6:23. Elisabeth is the same name in
Greek, Luke 1:5.

EL'LASAR, Gen. 14:1, 9, perhaps the
same country as Thelassar, 2 Kin. 19: 12 ;
Isa. 37:12. The Arabic version calls it
Armenia.

ELM, Hos. 4: 13. The original Hebrew
word here, else where translated oak, prob
ably denotes the terebinth. See OAK.

E'LOI, see EL.

E'LUL, a Hebrew month, the twelfth
of the civil year, and sixth of the ecclesi
astical, Neh. 6:15. It included the time
from the new moon of September to that
of October

EL'YMAS, a Jewish sorcerer in the
retinue of Sergius Paulus, the Roman
proconsul at Paphos in Cyprus. He was
sharply reproved by Paul, and struck
with instant blindness for opposing the
religious inquiries of the proconsul, who
was abandoning idolatry and supersti
tion, and embracing the gospel, Acts
13:6-12. His blindness was to continue
" for a season," and may have led to his
spiritual illumination.
136

EMBALM'ING. The process of em-
balming dead bodies among the Egyp
tians was as follows : The embalmers,
who were looked upon as sacred officers,
drew the brains through the nostrils
with a hooked piece of iron, and filled
the skull with astringent drugs ; they
drew all the entrails, except the heart
and kidneys, through a hole cut in the
left side, washed them in palm-wine,
and replaced them, tilling the cavity
with astringent and preservative drugs.
The body was anointed repeatedly with
oil of cedar, myrrh, cinnamon, etc., about
thirty days, and was then put into nitre
for about forty days ; by which process
it was preserved from decay, retaining
at the same time a lifelike appearance.
When Moses says that forty days were
employed in embalming Jacob, he prob
ably speaks of the forty days of his con
tinuing in the salt of nitre, not includ
ing the thirty days spent in the previous
ceremonies ; so that, in the whole, they
mourned seventy days for him in Egypt,
Gen. 50:2, 3.

The body was afterwards taken out of
the salt, washed, wrapped up in long lin
en bandages, dipped in myrrh, and closed
with gum. It was then restored to the
relatives, who inclosed it in a coffin, and
kept it in their houses, or deposited it

in a tomb. Thus the body of Joseph
was preserved, to be conveyed into the
land of promise af .er nearly twf> centu-

EME

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ENG

ries, Gen. 60 ; 26. Great numbers of
mummies are still found in Egypt, in
the subterraneous vaults where tliey
were deposited two or three thousand
years ago.

The common people of that country
were embalmed by means of bitumen, a
cheap material and easily managed.
With this the corpse and its envelopes
were smeared, with more or less care
and diligence. Sepulchres have been
'opened in which thousands of bodies
had been deposited in rows, one on an
other, without coffins, preserved in this
manner.

The usual embalming of the Jews was
less elaborate and effectual. It consisted
mainly in wrapping the body in many
folds of linen, with a profusion of aro
matic spices — myrrh, aloes, etc. Thus
the body of the Saviour was embalmed
entire by Joseph and Nicodemus, while,
ignorant of this, the two Marys and their
friends were prepared to render him a
similar honor when the Jewish Sabbath
was past, John 19:38-40. The practice,
even in this form, does not appear to
have been prevalent among the Jews.
See BURIAL.

EM'EKALD, a precious stone of a fine
green color, found anciently in Ethiopia,
but in modern times only in South Amer
ica, Ex. 28 : 18 ; Ezek. 27 : 1 6 ; 28 : 13. Jo-
sephus, however, and the Seventy make
it a gem like a burning coal — the Indian
ruby.

EM'ERODS, that is, hemorrhoids, the
name of a painful disease occasioned by
tumors, probably the piles, Deut. 28:27 ;
ISam. 5:12.

E'MIM, a gigantic and warlike race,
who in the time of Abraham occupied
the country beyond the Jordan, after
wards possessed by the Moabites, Gen.
14:5; Deut. 2:10.

EMMAN'UEL, a compound Hebrew
word or name, signifying God with us.
It is applied to the Messiah, our Sav
iour, who, as having united the divine
with the human nature, and having
come to dwell with men, is God with us,
Isa. 7:14; 8:8; Matt. 1:23.

EM'MAUS, the village where our Lord
revealed himself to two of his disciples,
on the afternoon of his resurrection-day.
It lay about seven and a half miles, six
ty furlongs, north-west from Jerusalem,
Luke 24 : 13-33. Some manuscripts, how
ever, read one hundred and sixty fur

longs, instead of sixty ; andEusebiiis and
Jerome locate Emmaus at the ancient
Nicopolis, twenty miles west-north-west
of Jerusalem, where a village called
Amwas still exists. Dr. Robinson in
clines to this location.

EN, a fountain, compounded with many
names of towns and places ; as En-dor,
En-gedi, En-eglaim, En-shemesh, that
is, the fountain of Dor, etc.

ENCHANTMENTS, deceptive arts and
charms practised by designing men, and
classed in the Bible with sorcery, magic,
divination, witchcraft, and necromancy,
or professed communication with depart
ed spirits. All these are expressly for
bidden and denounced in Scripture, Ex.

22 : 18 ; Lev. 19 : 26, 31 ; 20 : 27 ; Deut.
18:10, 11. The pretended power and
skill of enchanters was ascribed to infer
nal agency, and the art was essentially
hostile to true religion. Their seeming
wonders were usually wrought by jug
gling tricks or sleight of hand, or by mys
teries of science, known to but few. The
magicians of Egypt are said to have done
several things "with their enchant
ments," Ex. 7-9; Acts 19:19.

EN'-DOR, a city of Manasseh, Josh.
17:11, four miles south of mount Tabor,
near Nain, in the way to Scythopolis,
Psa. 83 : 9, 10. Here the witch lived
whom Saul consulted, 1 Sam. 28. The
pretence of this sorceress that she could
call up the spirits of the dead from their
repose, was evidently false. She was
amazed and appalled when the form of
Samuel really appeared, sent by God
himself to put her to shame, and bring
to king Saul his last warning.

EN-EGLA'IM, Ezek. 47 : 10, a town
on the Dead sea, west of the Jordan's
mouth.

EN-GAN'NIM, I., a town of Judah,
probably near Bethel, Josh. 15:34.

II. A city of the priests, in Issachar,
now Jenin, fifteen miles south of mount
Tabor, Josh. 19:21; 21:29.

EN-GED'I, fountain of the kid, 1 Sam.
24:1, 2; called also Hazezon-Tamar, that
is, the city of palm-trees, there being great
numbers of palm-trees around it, Gen.
14:7 ; 2 Chr. 20:1, 2. It stood near the
middle of the western shore of the Dead
sea, twenty-five or thirty miles south
east of Jerusalem, in the edge of the
loftiest part of the wilderness of Judea,
a region full of rocks and caverns, 1 Sam.

23 -.29 ; Ezek. 47 : 10. See cut in SEA, 117

137

ENO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

The heights of En-gedi are fifteen hun
dred feet above the Dead sea. At four
hundred feet from the sea a tine and co
pious fountain, still bearing its ancient
name, flows down to the sea, watering
in its course a fruitful valley and a plain
half a mile square, in both of which ru
ins are found. The mountain side was
formerly terraced, and the whole spot
was an oasis of fertility, Song 1 : 14.

E'NOCH, I., a son of Cain, in honor
of whom the first city named in the
Bible was called Enoch, Gen. 4:17.

II. "The seventh from Adam," and
the father of Methuselah ; eminent as a
patriarch who lived near to God, through
faith in a Redeemer to come, Heb. 11:5,
13. It was a testimony to his rare piety
in an ungodly age that he was translated
without seeing death, like Elijah. He
had lived only three hundred and sixty-
five years, A. M. 622-987, Gen. 5:18-24.
Jude, ver. 14, 15, quotes a traditionary
prophecy of Enoch, showing his belief in
a judgment to come. There is an apoc
ryphal book bearing the name of Enoch,
in which similar language occurs. It
Avas probably written by some devout
Christian of the first century, and is only
valuable for the light it throws on the
belief of the early church. It was never
received as canonical.

E'NON, the place where John bap
tized, was near Salim, on the west side
of the Jordan, John 1:28; 3:26. It is
supposed to have been eight or ten miles
south of Beth-shean, and near the Jor
dan.

E'NOS, the grandson of Adam. He
lived nine hundred and five years, A. M.
235-1140. Adam, Seth, and Enoch died
before him ; and Noah was contempo
rary with him eighty-four years, Gen.
4:26 ; 5:6-11 ; Luke 3:38. In his days
' ' began men to call upon the name of
the Lord" in organized and systematic
public worship ; or according to the mar
ginal reading, then began men to call
themselves by the name of the Lord ;
that is, for the purpose of marking the
distinction between men of God and the
ungodly.

EN-RO'GEL, fuller's fountain, so named
because here the fullers were wont to
cleanse their cloths by treading them
with their feet. This is believed to be
the "well of Nehemiah," now called
Bir Eyub, Job's welL It is in the val
ley of the Kidron, just below its junc-
138

tion with the valley of the son of Hin-
nom, on the south-east corner of Jerusa
lem, Josh. 15:7 ; 18:16. It is mentioned
in the Bible in connection with the con
spiracy of Absalom, 2 Sam 17 : 17, and
afterwards with that of Adonijah, 1 Kin.
1:9. This well is situated in what is
now the prettiest and most fertile spot
around Jerusalem. It is one hundred
and twenty-five feet deep ; is walled up
with large squared stones, which on one
side rise and form an arch, and is appar
ently of great antiquity. •

EPAPHRAS, supposed to have found
ed the church at Colosse, and denomi
nated by Paul his ' ' dear fellow-servant, ' '
and ' ' a faithful minister of Jesus Christ, ' '
Col. 1:7; 4:12. He was for a time an
inmate of Paul's house of imprisonment
at Rome.

EPAPHRODI'TUS, a member of the
church at Philippi, charged with the
supplies which that church contributed
for the relief of Paul while imprisoned
at Rome, Phil. 2:25; 4:18. This labor
of love brought on him a serious illness
at Rome, on which occasion we see how
much he was esteemed and beloved both
by Paul and the Philippians, Phil. 2:25-
30. On his return he was the bearer of
the epistle to them.

EPE'NETUS, saluted by Paul in his
epistle to Rome, Rom. 16:5, and called
"the first-fruits of Achaia," that is, one
of his first converts there. Many manu
scripts and versions read Asia instead of
Achaia.

E'PHAH, I., a measure of capacity

EPH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EPH

used among the Hebrews, containing
three pecks and three pints. The ephah
was a dry measure, as of barley, Ruth
2 : 17 ; and meal, Num. 5 j 15 ; Judg.
6: 19 ; and was of the same capacity with
the bath in liquids. See BATH.

II. The son of Midian, and grandson
of Abraham, Gen. 25:4, who settled and
gave his name to a region in Arabia sup
posed to have been near Midian, Isa.
60:6.

ETHER, a son of Midian, Gen. 25:4,
located beyond the Jordan, 1 Kin. 4 : 10.

EPHE'SIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. This
epistle was written by Paul, at Rome,
probably A D. 62. The ablest modern
critics are not agreed as to the church
to whom it was addressed, whether to
that in Ephesus, that in Laodicea, or to
both of these in connection with the
other churches in that region. It does
not appear, however, that any impor
tant point of doctrine or instruction de
pends on the decision of this question.
The epistle is now addressed to and is
intelligible by every one who studies it
The first part of it is a grateful discourse
upon the vast scheme of divine grace,
and the blessings flowing from it. The
latter part inculcates Christian consist
ency and steadfastness, and a faithful
discharge of all relative duties. It is
one of the richest and most valuable of
the epistles, having a singular fulness of
matter, depth of doctrine, sublimity of
style, and warmth of emotion, which
render it precious to the Christian of
every land.

EPH'ESUS, the capital of Ionia, a cel
ebrated city of Asia Minor, situated near
the mouth of the Cayster, about forty
miles south-east of Smyrna. It was
chiefly celebrated for the worship and
temple of Diana, which last was account
ed one of the seven wonders of the world.
See DIANA. Paul first visited Ephesus
about A. D. 54, Acts 18 : 19, 21 This first
brief visit was followed by a longer one
towards the close of the same year, and
continuing through the two following
years, Acts 19 : 10 ; 20:31. The church
thus early established, enjoyed the la
bors of Aquila and Priscilla, of Tychicus
and Timothy. It was favored with one
of the best of Paul's epistles; its elders
held an interview with him at Miletus,
before he saw Rome, and he is supposed
to have visited them after his first im
prisonment. Here the apostle John is

said to have spent the latter part of his
life, and written his gospel and epistles ;
and having penned Christ's message to
them in the isle of Patmos, to have re
turned and died among them. Christ
gives the church at Ephesus a high de
gree of praise, coupled with a solemn
warning, Rev. 2:1-5, which seems not
to have prevented its final extinction,
though it remained in existence six hun
dred years. But now its candlestick is
indeed removed out of its place. The
site of that great and opulent city is des
olate. Its harbor has become a pestilen
tial marsh ; the lovely and fertile level
ground south of the Cayster now lan
guishes under Turkish misrule ; and the
heights upon its border bear only shape
less ruins. The outlines of the immense
theatre. Acts 19:29, yet remain in the
solid rock ; but no vestige of the temple
of Diana can be traced.

EPH'OD, an ornamental part of the
dress worn by the Hebrew priests. It
j was worn above the tunic and the robe,
(meil;) was without sleeves, and open
below the arms on each side, consisting
of two pieces, one of which covered the
front of the body and the other the back,
joined together on the shoulders by gold
en buckles set with gems, and reaching
down to the middle of the thigh. A gir
dle was inwoven with it, by which it was
fastened around the body, Ex. 28:6-12.
There were two kinds of ephod : one
plain, of linen, for the priests, 1 Sam.
22 : 18 ; another embroidered, for the
high-priest. Young Samuel wore an
ophod, though only a Levite and a
child, 1 Sam. 2:18. David, in transfer
ring the ark to Jerusalem, was "girt
with a linen ephod," 2 Sam. 6:14. The
Jews had a peculiar superstitious regard
for this garment, and employed it in
connection with idolatrous worship. Gid
eon's ephod became a snare to Israel ;
and Micah made one, that his idol might
be duly worshipped, Judg. 8:27; 17:5;
18:17.

EPH'PHATHA, be opened, a Syro-chal-
daic word, which our Saviour pronounc
ed when he cured one deaf and dumb,
Mark 7 -34.

E'PHRAIM, the second son of Joseph,
bom in Egypt, Gen. 41 : 52. Although
the youngest, he yet had the chief bless
ing of his grandfather Jacob, and the
tribe was always more distinguished
than that of Manasseh, Gen. 48:8-20;
139

EPH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EPI

Num. 2 : 18-21. The portion of Ephraim
was large and central, and embraced
some of the most fertile land in all Ca
naan. It extended from the Mediterra
nean across to the Jordan, north of the
portions of Dan and Benjamin, and in
cluded Shiloh, Shechem, etc. A range
of mountainous country, which runs
through it, is called ' ' the mountains of
Ephraim," or "mount Ephraim." This
extends also farther south into the por
tion of Judah, and is there called " the
mountains of Judah." Samaria, the cap
ital of the ten tribes, being in Ephraim,
this latter name is often used for the
kingdom of Israel, Isa. 11: 13 ; Jer. 31 :6 ;
50:19.

The FOREST of Ephraim, where Absa
lom lost his life, was on the east side
of the Jordan, near Mahanaim, 2 Sam.
18:6-8.

The TOWN called Ephraim, to which
the Saviour withdrew from his enemies,
John 11:54, was probably the same place
mentioned in 2 Chr. 13 : 19, and called
Ophrah in Josh. 18 : 23 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 17.
See also 2 Sam. 13:23. It is supposed
to be the present Taiyibeh, on a hill
overlooking the Jordan valley, five miles
north-east of Bethel.

EPH'RATH, or EPH'RATAII, I. , the sec
ond wife of Caleb, and mother of Hur,
1 Chr 2:19; supposed by some to have
given her name to the city of Ephrath
or Beth-lehem, 1 Chr. 2 : 50, 51 ; 4:4.
Compare Gen. 35:16, 19. Elimelech was
an Ephrathite of Bethlehem, Ruth 1:2 ;
4:11 ; BO also was David, 1 Sam. 17:12.

II. A name of Ephraim and Ephraim-
ites, 1 Sam. 1 : 1 ; 1 Kin. 11 : 26 ; Psa.
132:6.

EPH'RON, a Hittite, dwelling at He
bron in the time of Abraham, Gen. 23.
The charming account of his transaction
with Abraham, and the frequent subse
quent mention of his name, point him
out as a prince in the land.

EPICURE'ANS, a celebrated sect of
ancient philosophers They were mate
rialists, and virtually atheists— believing
that the atoms of nature existed from
eternity, and that from their incidental
union all things are formed, both visi
ble and invisible- They denied a divine
Providence and man's immortality, and
believed there was no after-judgment,
and no soul but what was material, like
the body, and perishable with it at death.
Their rule of life was self-gratification —
140

the pursuit of pleasure, properly regn-
lated and governed. Vicious indulgences
were condemned only inasmuch as they
on the whole lessen one's happiness.
The philosopher Epicurus, their founder,
was a learned and moral man, who lived
in exemplary harmony with his princi
ples, and died at Athens, B. c. 271, at
the age of seventy-three. His follow
ers, however, easily disregarded the lim
itations he imposed, and pursued pleas
ure without restraint At Paul's time
they had become exceedingly corrupt,
and of course their philosophy and their
life both led them to oppose with vio
lence his great truths concerning God,
the resurrection, and the judgment ever
lasting, Acts 17.16-34.

EPIS'TLE, a letter ; but the term is ap
plied particularly to the inspired letters
in the New Testament, written by the
apostles on various occasions, to approve,
condemn, or direct the conduct of Chris
tian churches. The Holy Spirit has thus
provided that we should have the great
doctrines of the true gospel not only his
torically stated by the evangelists, but
applied familiarly to the various emer
gencies of daily life. It is not to be sup
posed that every note or memorandum
written by the hands of the apostles, or
by their direction, was divinely inspired,
or proper for preservation to distant ages.
Compare 1 Cor. 5:9; Col. 4:16. Those
only have been preserved by the over
ruling hand of Providence which were
so inspired, and from which useful di
rections had been drawn, and might in
after-ages be drawn, as from a perpetual
directory, for faith and practice — always
supposing that similar circumstances re
quire similar directions. In reading an
Epistle, we ought to consider the occa
sion of it, the circumstances of those to
whom it was addressed, the time when
written, the general scope and design
of it, as well as the intention of par
ticular arguments and passages. We
ought also to observe the style and man
ner of the writer, his mode of expres
sion, the peculiar effect he designed to
produce on those to whom he wrote, to
whose temper, manners, general princi
ples, and actual situation, he might ad
dress his arguments, etc.

Of the books of the New Testament,
twenty-one are epistles ; fourteen of them
by Paul, one by James, two by Peter,
three by John, and one by Jude. Being

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EST

placed in our canon without reference to
their chronological order, they are pe
rused under considerable disadvantages ;
and it would be well to read them occa
sionally in connection with what the his
tory in the Acts of the Apostles relates
respecting the several churches to which
they are addressed. This would also give
us nearly their order of time, which
should also be considered, together with
the situation of the writer ; as it may
naturally be inferred that such composi
tions would partake of the writer's re
cent and present feelings. The epistles
addressed to the dispersed Jews by John
and James, by Peter and Jude, are very
diiferent in their style and application
from those of Paul written to the Gen
tiles ; and those of Paul no doubt con
tain expressions and allude to facts much
more familiar to their original readers
than to later ages.

ERAS'TUS, a Christian friend and fel
low-laborer of Paul, a Corinthian, and
chamberlain — that is, steward or treasur
er — of the city. He followed Paul to Eph-
esus, and attended Timothy in a mission
to Macedonia, Acts 19: 22. He was again
at Corinth when Paul wrote to the Ro
mans, 1 6 ; 23 ; and remained there when
Paul went as a prisoner to Rome, 2 Tim.
4:20.

E'RECH, one of Nimrod's cities in the
plain of Shinar, Gen. 10:10. A recent
explorer finds its probable site in the
mounds of primeval ruins now called
Irka or Irak, a few miles east of the
Euphrates, midway between Babylon and
the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris.

E'SAR-HAD'DON, son of Sennacherib,
and his successor as king of Assyria,
2 Kin. 19:37; Isa. 37:38, B. c. 890. It
is only said of him in Scripture that he
sent colonists to Samaria, Ezra 4:2. He
is supposed to be the Sardanapalus of
profane historians, the last king of As
syria, infamous for his luxury and effem
inacy. The city being besieged and
nearly taken, he collected his favorites
and treasures in his palace and set it on
fire, so that all perished together in the
flames.

E'SAU, the son of Isaac, and twin
brother of Jacob, Gen. 25. He was the
elder of the two, and was therefore le
gally the heir, but sold his birthright to
Jacob. We have an account of his ill-
advised marriages, Gen. 26:34; of his
loss of his father's chief blessing, and

his consequent anger against Jacob, Gen.,
27 ; of their subsequent reconciliation,
Gen. 32 ; 33 ; and of his posterity, Gen,
30. He is also called Edom ; and settled
in the mountains south of the Dead sea,
extending to the gulf of Akaba, where
he became very powerful. This country
was called from him the land of Edom,
and afterwards Iduma^a, which see.
ESDRAE'LON, PLAIN OF. See JEZREEL.
ESH'BAAL, 1 Chr. 8:33, the fourth
son of Saul, generally called Ishbosheth.
The word BAAL, the name of an idol,
was not pronounced by scrupulous Jews ;
they substituted BOSIIETII, confusion. For
Meribbaal, they said Mephibosheth, etc.
See ISHBOSHETH.

ESH'COL, I., an Amorite prince near
Hebron, who joined Abraham in pursu
ing the eastern host who had ravaged
Sodom and taken Lot captive, Gen.
14:13-14.

II. The small and well-watered valley
from which the Hebrew spies obtained
the specimen of grapes, which they sus
pended from a staft' borne by two men
for safe carriage to Moses, Num. 13:22-
27; 32.9; Deut. 1:24. This valley is
believed to be one which closely adjoins
Hebron on the north, and still furnishes
the finest grapes in the country, as well
as pomegranates, figs, olives, etc.

ESH'TAOL, a town on the western
border of Judah, afterwards given to
Dan, Josh. 15:33; 19:41 It is named
in the history of Samson, Judg. 13 : 25 ;
10:31.

ESHTEM'OA, a city of the priests in
Judah, Josh. 15 : 50 ; 21 : 14 ; 1 Sam.
30:28; traced by Robinson in the mod
ern village Semua, south of Hebron.

ESPOU'SALS. See BETROTHING, MAR
RIAGE.

ES'THER, a Persian name given to
Hadassah, a daughter of Abihail, of the
tribe of Benjamin. The family had not
returned to Judea after the permission
given by Cyrus, and she was born prob
ably bey.ond the Tigris, and nearly five
hundred years before Christ. Her par
ents being dead, Mordecai, her father's
brother, took care of her education.
After Ahasuerus had divorced Vashti,
search was made throughout Persia for
the most beautiful women, and Esther
was one selected. She found favor in
the eyes of the king, and he married her
with royal magnificence, bestowing lar-
gssses and remissions of tribute on his
141

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ETH

us in a position which j ETH'ANIM, constantly flawing, a month
a signal favor to her ] so named before the captivity, because
the autumnal rains then begin to fill the
dry river channels. It was afterwards
called Tishri, and answers nearly to our
October. On this month Solomon's tem
ple was dedicated, 1 Kin. 8:2.

ETHIO'PIA, one of the great king*
doms in Africa, frequently mentioned in
Scripture under the name of Gush, the
various significations of which in the
Old Testament have been mentioned
under the article CUSH, which see. Ethi
opia proper lay south of Egypt, on the
Nile ; and was bounded north by Egypt,
at the cataracts near Syene ; east by the
Red sea, and perhaps a part of the Ind
ian ocean ; south by unknown regions of
the interior of Africa ; and west by Libya
and deserts. It comprehended of course
the modern countries of Nubia or Sen-
naar, and Abyssinia. The chief city in
it was the ancient Meroe, situated on the
island or tract of the same name, be
tween the Nile and the Astaboras, now
the Tacazze, not far from the modern
Shendi, Isa. 18; Zeph. 3:10.

The name of Seba was given to the
northern part of Ethiopia, afterwards
Meroe, by the eldest son of Gush, Gen.
10:7. This country was in some parts
mountainous, and in others sandy ; but
was to a great extent well-watered and
fertile. Ebony, ivory, spices, gold, and
precious stones were among its articles
of traffic. Its history is much involved
with that of Egypt, and the two coun
tries are often mentioned together in the
Bible, Isa. 20:3-6; 43:3; 45:14; Ezek.
30; Dan. 11:43.

Zerah "the Ethiopian" who invaded
Judah in the reign of Asa, B. c. 944,
2 Chr. 14:9-15, is thought by some to
have been an Egyptian king of an Ethi
opian, dynasty ; by others, to have been
a king of Ethiopia on both sides of the
Red sea ; that is, of the Arabian as well
as African Gush. This would explain
how he could obtain access to the land of
Palestine without passing through Egypt.
But the whole question is involved in un

people She was thus in a
enabled her to do

people, then very numerous in Persia,
Their deliverance is still celebrated by
the Jews in the yearly festival called Pn-
rim, which was instituted at that time.
The husband of Esther is supposed to
have been the Xerxes of secular history .

ESTHER, THE BOOK OF, has always been
esteemed canonical, both by Jews and
Christians, though certain additions to
it, found in some versions and manu
scripts, are apocryphal. Who was its
writer is not certainly known. It has
been ascribed to Ezra, to a high-priest
named Jehoiakim, and to Mordecai. This
last opinion is supported by the internal
evidence ; the book having every ap
pearance of having been written in Per
sia, by an eye-witness of the scenes it
describes, B. c. 509. It presents a graph
ic picture of the Persian court and cus
toms, and is intensely Jewish in its spir
it. The chief value of the book is to
illustrate the wonder-working providence
of God, his control of human passions,
his righteous judgment of sinners, and
his care for his covenant people — whom,
even when captives in a strange land,
he can exalt above all their foes.

E'TAM, a town in Judah near Bethle
hem and Tekoa ; a favorite resort of Sol
omon, and fortified by Rehoboam, 1 Chr.
4:3, 32; 2 Chr. 11:6. Its supposed sive
is now occupied by a ruined village call
ed Urtas, a mile and a half south-west
of Bethlehem, not far from Solomon's
Pools. "The rock Etam" to which
Samson withdrew, Judg. 15:8-19, may
have been in this vicinity, perhaps the
Frank mountain two miles east.

E'THAM, a station of the Israelites
soon after leaving Egypt, Ex. 13:20;
Num. 33:6. It lay near the head of the
west gulf of the Red sea, and the wilder
ness east of it was often called by the
same name.

E'THAN, I., one of four men renowned
for wisdom, though excelled by Solomon,
IKin. 4:31; IChr. 2:6. He appears to
have been a son of Zerah or Ezra, and
grandson of the patriarch Judah.

II. A Levite, son of Kishi, and one of
the three masters of the temple music,

1 Chr. 6 : 44 ; 15 : 17-19. He would seem
to be the same as Jeduthun, 1 Chr. 25: 1 ;

2 Chr. 35:15.

III. A person to whom Psa. 89 is in
scribed.

142

certainty. The Ethiopian queen Candace,
whose treasurer is mentioned in Acts
8:27, was probably queen of Meroe,
where a succession of females reigneo
who all bore this name. As this courtier
is said to have gone up to Jerusalem ' ' to
worship," he was probably a Jew by re
ligion, if not by birth. There appear to

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EUR

have been many Jews in that country.
The gospel gained adherents among
them ; and early in the fourth century
the entire Bible was translated into the
ancient Ethiopic Janguage, from the
Greek.

EU'NICE, the mother of Timothy and
daughter of Lois ; she was a Jewess,
though her husband was a Greek, Acts
16:1 ; 2 Tim. 1:5. She transmitted to
her son the lessons of truth she herself
had received from a pious mother ; and
Paul, on his arrival at Lystra, found
them rooted and grounded in the truth
as it is in Christ.

EU'NUCH. In the courts of oriental
monarchs, the charge of the female and
interior apartments is committed to eu
nuchs. Hence the word came to signify
merely a court officer. Such were Poti-
phar, Joseph's master, Gen. 39:17, and
the treasurer of queen Candace, Acts
8:27. Our Saviour speaks of some who
"have made themselves eunuchs for the
kingdom of heaven's sake ;" that is, who
have voluntarily abstained from marriage,
in order more effectually to labor for the
kingdom of God, Matt. 19:12; and the
apostle Paul commends the same absti
nence in certain exceptional cases in
times of persecution, 1 Cor. 7:26, 27.
See GAZA.

EUO'DIAS. Sec SYNTYCHE.

EUPHRA'TES, a famous river of Asia,
which has its source in the mountains
of Armenia, runs along the frontiers of
Cappadocia, Syria, Arabia Deserta, Chal-
dea, and Mesopotamia, and falls into the
Persian gulf. According to the recent
researches of Chesney, it receives the
Tigris at a place called Kurnah, the
united stream being called Shat-el-Arab.
Five miles below the junction of these
two mighty rivers, the Shat-el-Arab re
ceives from the north-east the Kerkhah,
which has a course of upwards of five
hundred miles. Sixty-two miles below
the mouth of the Kerkhah, another large
river, the Kuran, comes in from the
east. At present it enters the Shat-el-
Arab forty miles above its mouth ; but
formerly it flowed into the Persian gulf
by a separate channel, east of the main
stream. According to that view which
places the garden of Eden near the junc
tion of the Tigris with the Euphrates,
these might be regarded as the four riv
ers of Paradise. We might well sup
pose that the Kuran, in very ancient

times, as now, entered the Shat-el-Arab ;
and perhaps still farther from its mouth.
Scripture often calls the Euphrates sim
ply "the river," Ex. 23:31; Isa. 7:20;
8:7; Jer. 2: 18; or "the great river,"
and assigns it for the eastern boundary
of that land which God promised to the
Hebrews, Deut. 1:7; Josh. 1:4. It over
flows in summer like the Nile, when the
snow on the mountains of Armenia be
gins to melt. The source of the Euphra
tes, as well as that of the Tigris, being
in the mountains of Armenia, the near
est springs of both are but a few miles
apart.

The Euphrates is a river of conse
quence in Scripture geography, being
the utmost limit, east, of the territory
of the Israelites. It was indeed only
occasionally that the dominion of the
Hebrews extended so far ; but it would
appear that even Egypt, under Pharaoh
Necho, made conquests to the western
bank of the Euphrates. The river is
about eighteen hundred miles long. Its
general direction is south-east; but in
a part of its course it runs westerly,
and approaches the Mediterranean near
Cilicia. It is accompanied in its general
course by the Tigris. There are many
towns on its banks, which are in general
rather level than mountainous. The
river does not appear to be of very
great breadth, varying, however, from
sixty to six hundred yards. Its current,
after reaching the plains of Mesopota
mia, is somewhat sluggish, and in this
part of its course many canals, etc.,
were dug, to prevent injury and secure
benefit from the yearly overflows. At
Seleucia, and Hilleh the ancient Baby
lon, it approaches near ihe Tigris, and
some of its waters are drawn off by ca
nals to the latter river. Again, how
ever, they diverge, and only unite in
the same channel about one hundred
and twenty miles from the Persian gulf.
It is not well adapted far navigation,
yet light vessels go up about one thou
sand miles, and the modern steam-boat
which now ascends from the ocean, meets
the same kind of goat-skin floats on
which produce was rafted down the river
thousands of years ago.

EUROC'LYDON, the wave-stirring easier,
a tempestuous wind which came down
on Paul's ship on the south shore of
Crete, and at length wrecked her upon
Malta, Acts 27. The small island Clau-
143

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EXO

da, south of which she passed, and the
"Syrtis" on the African coast, into
which the seamen feared she would be
driven, ver. 17, lay south-west of Crete.
The result shows that the general course
of the wind was east-north-east. It
would now be called there a Levanter.

EU'TYCHUS, a young man who was
killed at Troas by falling from the win
dow of a room in the third story, where
Paul was preaching. His life was mirac
ulously restored, Acts 20:6-12.

EVAN'GELIST, one who proclaims
good news, either by preaching or writ
ing. There were originally evangelists
or preachers who, without being tixSd
to any church, preached wherever they
were led by the Holy Spirit, like some
missionaries in our own day, Eph. 4:11.
(Such was Philip, Acts 21:8. Timothy
also is exhorted to "do the work of an
evangelist," 2 Tim. 4:5. We commonly
call Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John,
"the Evangelists," because they were
the writers of the four gospels, which
bring to all men the glad tidings of eter
nal salvation.

EVE, the first mother of our race, and
the cause of our fall. Her history is so
closely connected with that of Adam,
that the remarks made in the article
ADAM apply also to her. Her name Eve
is from a word signifying life, Gen. 3:20.
She was made, we are told in Gen. 2:18-
22, both for man and of him ; subordi
nate and weaker, and yet to be loved as
his own body. The history of woman
in all ages has been a striking fulfil
ment of the distinct penalties pronounc
ed upon her. Gen. 3:18.

EVE'NING. The Hebrews reckoned
two evenings in each day; as in the
phrase, ' ' between the two evenings. ' ' Ex.
12:6; Num. 9:3; 28:4, margin. In this
interval the passover was to be killed,
and the daily evening sacrifice offered,
Ex. 29:39-41, Hebrew. According to
the Caraites, this time between the even
ings is the interval from sunset to com
plete darkness, that is, the evening twi
light. Compare Deut. 16:6. According
to the Pharisees and the rabbins, the first
evening began when the sun inclined to
descend more rapidly, that is, at the
ninth h®ur; while the second or real
evening commenced at sunset. See DAY.

E'VIL-MERO'DACH, the son and suc
cessor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Baby
lon, B. c. 561. His friendly treatment
144

of Jehoiachin the captive king of Judah,
in releasing him from prison and vari
ously distinguishing him above other
captives, is mentioned to his praise,
2 Kin. 25:27 ; Jer. 52:31-34. His reign
and life were cut short by a conspiracy,
headed by Neriglissar his sister's hus
band, who succeeded him.

EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclesiasti
cal penalty, by which they who incur
the guilt of any heinous sin, are separat
ed from the church, and deprived of its
spiritual advantages. Thus the Jews
' ' put out of the synagogue ' ' those they
deemed unworthy, John 9:22; 12:42;
16:2. There were two degrees of excom
munication among them: one a tem
porary and partial exclusion from eccle
siastical privileges, and from society ; the
other a complete excision from the cov
enant people of God and their numerous
privileges, and abandonment to eternal
perdition. See ANATHEMA.

The right and duty of excommunica
tion when necessary were recognized in
the Christian church by Christ and his
apostles, Matt. 18:15-18; 1 Cor. 5:1-13;
16:22; Gal. 5:12; 1 Tim. 1:20; Titus
3:10. The offender, found guilty and
incorrigible, was to be excluded from the
Lord's supper and cut off from the body
of believers. This excision from Chris
tian .fellowship does not release one from
any obligation to obey the law of God
and the gospel of Christ ; nor exempt
him from any relative duties, as a man
or a citizen. The censure of the church,
on the other hand, is not to be accom
panied, as among papists, with enmity,
curses, and persecution. Our Saviour
directs that such an offender be regarded
"as a heathen man and a publican;"
and the apostles charge the church to
' ' withdraw from ' ' those who trouble
them, and "keep no company with
them," "no, not to eat ;" but this is to
be understood of those offices -of civility
and fraternity which a man is at liberty
to pay or to withhold, and not of the
indispensable duties of humanity, found
ed on nature, the law of nations, and
the spirit of Christianity, 2 Thess. 3:6,
15 ; 2 John 10, 11.

EX'ODUS, going out, the name of the
second book of Moses and of the Bible ; so
called because it narrates the departure
of the Israelites from Egypt. It com
prises a period of about one hundred and
forty-five years, from the death of Jo-

EXO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EXO

seph to the erection of the tabernacle in
the desert, A. M. 2369-2514. The vari
ous topics of the book may be thus
presented: (1.) The oppression of the
Israelites, under the change of dynasty
which sprung up after the death of Jo
seph : ' ' There arose up another king,
who knew not Joseph," chap. 1 : 8.
The reference many believe is to the
invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, who
are spoken of in secular history as hav
ing invaded Egypt probably about this
period, and who held it in subjection
for many years. They are termed shep
herd-kings, and represented as coming
from the east. (2.) The youth, edu
cation, patriotism, and flight of Moses,
chap. 2-6. (3.) The commission of Mo
ses, the perversity of Pharaoh, and the
infliction of the ten plagues in succession,
chap. 7-11. (4.) The institution of the
Passover, the sudden departure of the
Israelites, the passage of the Red sea,
and the thanksgiving of Moses and the
people on the opposite shore, after the
destruction of Pharaoh and his host,
chap. 12-15. (5.) The narration of va
rious miracles wrought in behalf of the
people during their journey ings towards
Sinai, chap. 15-17. (6.) The promulga
tion of the law on mount Sinai. This
includes the preparation of the people
by Moses, and the promulgation, first of
the moral law, then of the judicial law,
and subsequently of the ceremonial law,
including the instructions for the erec
tion of the tabernacle and the comple
tion of that house of God, chap. 19-40.

The scope of the book is not only to
preserve the memorial of the departure
of the Israelites from Egypt, but to pre
sent to view the church of God in her
afflictions and triumphs; to point out
the providential care of God over her,
and the judgments inflicted on her ene
mies. It clearly shows the accomplish
ment of the divine promises and prophe
cies delivered to Abraham : that his pos
terity would be numerous, Gen. 15:5;
17:4-6; 46:27; Num. 1:1-3, 46; and
that they should be afflicted in a land
not their own, whence they should depart
in the fourth generation with great sub
stance, Gen. 15:13-16 ; Exod. 12:40, 41.
Their exodus in many particulars well
illustrates the state of Christ's church in
the wilderness of this world, until her
arrival in the heavenly Canaan. See
1 Cor. 10 ; and also the epistle to the

Hebrews. The book of Exodus brings
before us many and singular types of
Christ : Moses, Deut. 18 : 15 ; Aaron,
Heb. 4:14-16; ver. 4, 6; the paschal
lamb, Ex. 12:46; John 19:36; 1 Cor.
5:7, 8; the manna, Ex. 16:15; 1 Cor.
10 : 3 ; the rock in Horeb, Ex. 17 : 6 ;
1 Cor. 10:4; the mercy-seat, Ex. 37:6;
Rom. 3:25; Heb. 4:16; the tabernacle,
Ex. 40, "The Word tabernacled among
us," John 1:14.

This departure from Egypt, and the
subsequent wanderings of the children
of Israel in the desert, form one of the
great epochs in their history. They
Were constantly led by Jehovah, and the
whole series of events is a constant suc
cession of miracles. From their break
ing up at Rameses, to their arrival on
the confines of the promised land, there
was an interval of forty years, during
which one whole generation passed away,
and the whole Mosaic law was given, and
sanctioned by the thunders and light
nings of Sinai. There is no portion of
history extant which so displays the in
terposition of an overruling Providence
in the affairs both of nations and of in
dividuals, as that which recounts these
wanderings of Israel.

The four hundred and thirty years re
ferred to in Ex. 12:40, date, according
to the received chronology, from the
time when the promise was made to
Abraham, Gen. 15 : 13. From the ar
rival of Jacob in Egypt to the exodus of
his posterity, was about two hundred and
thirty years. The threescore and fifteen
souls had now become 600,000, besides
children. They took with them great
numbers of cattle, and much Egyptian
spoil. It was only by the mighty hand
of God that their deliverance was effect
ed ; and there seems to have been a spe
cial vindication of his glory in the fact
that the Nile, the flies, the frogs, fishes,
cattle, etc., which were made the means
or the subjects of the plagues of Egypt,
were there regarded with idolatrous ven
eration.

After the tenth and decisive plague
had been sent, the Israelites were dis
missed from Egypt in haste. They are
supposed to have been assembled at Ra
meses, or Heroopolis, in the land of Go-
shen, about thirty-five miles north-west
of Suez, on the ancient canal which unit
ed the Nile with the Red sea. They set
off on the fifteenth day of the first month,
145

EXO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EXO

the day after the Passover, that is, about
the middle of April. Their course was
south-east as far as Etham ; but then,
instead of keeping on directly to Sinai,
they turned to the south, Ex. 14:2, on
the west side of the Red sea, which they
reached three days after starting, prob
ably near Suez. Here, by means of a
strong east wind, God miraculously di
vided the waters of the sea in such a
way that the Israelites passed over the
bed of it on dry ground ; while the Egyp
tians, who attempted to follow them, were
drowned by the returning waters, The
arm of the sea at Suez is now only three
or four miles wide, and at low water may
be forded. It is known to have been for
merly wider and deeper; but the drift
ing sands of ages have greatly filled and
146

altered it. The miracle here wrought
was an amazing one, and revealed the
hand of God more signally than any of
the ten plagues had done. According
to the Bible, God caused a "strong east
wind ' ' to blow ; the deep waters were
sundered, and "gathered together;"
"the floods stood upright as a heap;"
" the children of Israel walked upon dry
land in the midst of the sea, and the wa
ters were a wall unto them on their right
hand and on their left." These effects
continued all night till the morning
watch, and without obstmcting the
progress of the Hebrews ; whereas in
the morning the pursuing Egyptians
were covered by the sea, and ' ' sank like
lead in the mighty waters. ' ' These were
wonders towards the effecting of which

EXO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EXO

any wind must have been as insufficient
as Naaman's mere washing in Jordan
would have been to the healing of his
leprosy. It should here be stated also,
that some geographers think this mir^
acle took place below mount Atakah,
ten or twelve miles south of Suez, where
the sea is about twelve miles wide. This
opinion is liable to several objections,
.though it cannot be proved to be false.
At this late day the precise locality may
be undiscoverable, like the point of a
soul's transition from the bondage of
Satan into the kingdom of God ; but in
both cases the work is of God, and the
glory of it is his alone.

Having offered thanksgiving to God
for their wonderful deliverance, the Is
raelites advanced along the eastern shore
of the Red sea and through the valleys
and desert to mount Sinai. This part of
their route may be readily traced, and
Marah, Elim, and the desert of Sin have
been with much probability identified.
They arrived at mount Sinai in the third
month, or June, probably about the mid
dle of it, having been two months on
their journey. Here the law was given,
and here they abode during all the
transactions recorded in the remainder
of Exodus, in Leviticus, and in the first
nine chapters of Numbers, that is, until
the twentieth day of the second month
(May) in the following year, a period of
about eleven months.

Breaking up at this time from Sinai,
they marched northwards through the
desert of Paran, or perhaps along the
eastern arm of the Red sea and north
through El-Arabah, to Kadesh-barnea,
near the south-east border of Canaan.
Rephidim near mount Sinai, and Tabe-
rah, Kibroth-hattaaveh, and Hazeroth,
on their journey north, were the scenes
of incidents which may be found de
scribed under their several heads. From
Kadesh-barnea, spies were sent out to
view the promised land, and brought
back an evil report, probably in August
of the same year. The people murmur
ed, and were directed by Jehovah to turn
back and wander in the desert, until the
carcasses of that generation should all fall
in the wilderness, Num. 14:25. This they
did, wandering from one station to an
other in the great desert of Paran, lying
south of Palestine, and also in the great
sandy valley called El-Ghor and chiefly
El-Arabah, which extends from the Dead

sea to the gulf of Akaba, the eastern arnt
of the Red sea. *See JORDAN. Where and
how these long years were spent we ar&
not informed, nor by what routes they
traversed the desert, nor how they werej
furnished with food except manna. Mo«
ses says they "compassed mount Sei*
many days, ' ' always under the guidance
of the pillar of fire and cloud, Num. 9:22;
he also gives a list of seventeen stations,
mostly unknown, where they rested or
dwelt before reaching Ezion-gaber, Num.
33:19-35; and then mentions their re
turn to Kadesh, ver. 36, 37, in the first
month, Num. 20:1, after an interval of
almost thirty -eight years. While thus a
second time encamped at Kadesh, Moses
sent to the king of Idumaea, to ask lib
erty to pass through his dominions, that
is, through the chain of mountains
(mount Seir) lying along the eastern
side of the great valley El-Arabah. See
IDUM^EA. This was refused ; and Israel,
feeling too weak to penetrate into Pal
estine from the south, in face of the
powerful tribes of Canaanites dwelling
there, was compelled to take the south
ern passage around Edom, Num. 21:4.
Soon after turning, they came to mount
Hor, where Aaron died and was buried,
Num. 20:20-28. Proceeding southward
along the valley El-Arabah to Ezion-ga
ber, at the head of the eastern gulf of
the Red sea, they here passed through
the eastern mountains, and then turned
north along the eastern desert, by the
route which the great Syrian caravan of
Mohammedan pilgrims now passes in
going to Mecca. They arrived at the
brook Zered, on the southern border of
Moab, just forty years after their depart
ure from Egypt.

See a tabular view of the various en
campments of the Israelites, under WAN
DERINGS.

EXOR'CISTS, from a Greek word sig
nifying to conjure, to use the name of
God or certain magical ceremonies with
design to expel devils from places or bod
ies which they possess. The apostles
were enabled to cast out evil spirits in
Christ's name, Matt. 10:1 ; Mark 16:17:,
Luke 10 : 17 ; and designing men, both
before and after the Saviour's death, pre
tended to exercise the same power, Matt.
12:27 ; Mark 9:38 ; Luke 9:49, 50 ; Acts
19 : 13-17. Exorcists were thought to
have gained this power by secret studies
respecting the nature of demons, and
147

EXP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EYE

the powers of certain herbs, drugs, and
stones, and were accustomed to use va
rious forms of adjuration and incanta
tion in their unlawful art ; but the whole
was delusion and imposture, and strictly
forbidden. See DIVINATION.

EXPIATION, an act by which satis
faction is made for a crime, and the lia
bility to punishment for it is cancelled.
It supposes penitence and faith on the
sinner's part. Among the Jews, expia
tion was effected by a divinely appointed
and typical system of sacrifices, all point
ing to Christ. The New Testament shows
Him to be the true sin-offering for man
kind, "the Lamb of God," "our Pass
over," offering "his own blood," and
putting away "sin by the sacrifice of
himself," John 1:29; 1 Cor. 5:7; Eph.
1:7; Heb. 9:26.

THE DAY OP EXPIATION, or ATONEMENT,
was a yearly solemnity, observed with
rest and fasting on the tenth day of Tis-
ri, five days before the feast of taberna
cles, Lev. 23 : 7 ; 25 : 9. The ceremonies
of this all-important day are minutely
described in Lev. 16. On this day alone
the high-priest entered the Most Holy
Place, Heb. 9:7 ; but the various rites of
the day required him to enter several
times. First with the golden censer
and a vessel filled with incense. Then
with the blood of the bullock, which he
had offered for his own sins and those of
all the priests, in which he dipped his
finger, and sprinkled it seven times be
low and once above the mercy-seat. This
done, he left the basin of blood behind,
and withdrew again. The third time he
entered with the blood of the ram which
he had offered for the sins of the nation,
with which he sprinkled towards the veil
of the tabernacle eight times ; and hav
ing mixed it with the blood of the bul
lock, he sprinkled again towards the
horns of the altar of incense seven times,
and once above it towards the east ; after
which, having again left the sanctuary
and taken with him the basins of blood,
he poured out the whole on the floor of
the altar of burnt-offering. The fourth
time he entered to bring out the censer
and vessel of incense ; and having re
turned, he washed his hands and per
formed the other services of the day.
The ceremony of the scape-goat also took
place on this day. Two goats were set
apart, one of which was sacrificed to the
Lord, while the other, called the azazel
148

or scape-goat, which was determined by
lot to be set at liberty, was sent into the
desert burdened with the sins of the peo
ple. All these solemn rites pointed to
Christ, and in every age there were many
believers who had spiritual discernment
of their sacred meaning, Heb. 9-11.
They looked unto Him whom they had
pierced, and mourned. As this day of
expiation was the great fast-day of the
Jewish church, so godly sorrow for sin
characterizes the Christian's looking uri-
to the Lamb of God, and "the rapture
of pardon" is mingled with "penitent
tears."

EYE. The same Hebrew word means
both eye and fountain. Besides its com
mon use, to denote the organ of sight,
it is often used figuratively in the Bible.
Most of these passages, however, require
no explanation. The custom of sealing
up the eyes of criminals, still practised
in the East, is thought to be alluded to
in Isa. 6 : 10 ; 44 : 18. The expression,
"As the eyes of servants look unto the
hand of their masters," Psa. 123 : 2, is
elucidated by a knowledge of the fact
that many eastern servants are taught
to stand always upon the watch, and are
in general directed by a nod, a wink, or
some slight motion of the fingers imper
ceptible to strangers. Many Scripture
phrases intimate the soul-like nature of
the eye, quickly and truly expressing
the thoughts of the heart : such as " the
bountiful eye" and the "evil eye,"
Prov. 22:9; 23:6; " haughty eyes " and
"wanton eyes," Prov. 6:17; Isa. 3:16.
' ' The lust of the eyes," 1 John 2 : 16, ex
presses a craving for any of the gay vani
ties of this life. The threatening against
"the eye that mocketh at his father,"
Prov. 30:17, is explained by the habit of
birds of prey, which attack the eyes of
a living enemy, and quickly devour those
of the dead. A ' ' single ' ' eye, Matt. 6 : 22,
is one which is clear, and sees every object
as it is.

There are allusions in the Bible, and
in many ancient and modern writers, to
the practice of painting the eyelids, to
make the eyes appear large, lustrous,
and languishing. Jezebel, 2 Kin. 9:30,
is said to have "painted her face," lit
erally, "put her eyes in paint." This
was sometimes done to excess, Jer. 4 : 30 ;
and was practised by abandoned wom
en, Prov. 6:25. A small probe of wood,
ivory, or silver, is wet with rose-water,

EZE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

EZR

and dipped in an impalpable powder ;
this is then drawn between the lids of
the eye nearly closed, and leaves a nar
row black border which is thought a

great ornament. The powder for this
purpose, called kohol, is made by burn
ing a kind of aromatic resin, and some
times of lead ore and other substances,
for the benefit of the eyes. In Persia
this custom is as common among the
men as among the women ; so also in
ancient Egypt, as the Theban monu
ments show. ' l The femal es of Arabia, ' '
Niebuhr says, "color their nails blood-
red, and their hands and feet yellow, with
the herb Al-hemia. (See CAMPHIRE.)
They also tinge the inside of their eye
lids coal-black with kochel, a coloring
material prepared from lead ore. They
not only enlarge their eyebrows, but
also paint other figures of black, as or
naments, upon the face and hands.
Sometimes they even prick through the
skin, in various figures, and then lay
certain substances upon the wounds,
which eat in so deeply, that the orna
ments thus impressed are rendered per
manent for life. All this the Arabian
women esteem as beauty. ' '

EZE'KIEL, son of Buzi, a prophet of
the sacerdotal race, was carried captive
to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, with Je-
hoiachin king of Judah, B. c. 598, and
placed by the river Chebar. See NINE
VEH. He began his ministry in the thir

tieth year of his age, according to the
general account ; but perhaps in the thir
tieth year after the covenant was renew
ed with God in the reign of Josiah, Ezek.
1:1, which answers to the fifth year of
Ezekiel's captivity. The elderg of Israel
resorted to him for direction, Ezra 8:1 ;
14 : 1 ; 20 : 1 ; 33 : 31. He prophesied
twenty years, B. c. 595-575, till the four
teenth year after the final captivity of
Jerusalem. During the first eight years
he was contemporary with Jeremiah.
Daniel also lived at the same time,
Ezek. 14:14, 16; 28:3, though most of
his predictions are of a later date.

The BOOK OF EZEKIEL abounds with
sublime visions of the divine glory, and
awful denunciations against Israel for
their rebellious spirit against God, and
the abominations of their idolatry, chap.
1-24. It contains also similar denuncia
tions against Tyre and other hostile na
tions, chap. 25-32. The latter part of
the book contains oracles respecting the
return and restoration of the people of
God, chap. 33-48.

EZ'ION-GE'BER, or EZION-GABER, a
city at the northern extremity of the
Elanitic or eastern gulf of the Red sea,
and close by Elath. The Israelites rest
ed here in the last year of their wander
ings from Egypt to Canaan, Num. 33:35 ;
Deut. 2:8. At this port Solomon equip
ped his fleets for the voyage to Ophir,
1 Kin. 9:26. A similar enterprise of Je-
hoshaphat failed, 1 Kin. 22:48; 2 Chr.
20:36. See ELATH and EXODUS.

EZ'RA, a celebrated priest and leader
of the Jewish nation. He was " a ready
scribe in the law," a learned, able, and
faithful man, and appears to have en
joyed great consideration in the Persian
court. During the eighty years em
braced in his narrative, most of the reign
of Cyrus passed, and the whole reign of
Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius Hystaspis,
Xerxes, and eight years of Artaxer-
xes Longimanus. From this last king
he received letters, money, and every
desirable help, and went at the head of
a large party of returning exiles to Je
rusalem, B. c. 457. Here he instituted
many reforms in the conduct of the peo«
pie, and in the public worship, Ezra
8-10 ; Neh. 8. After this he is gener
ally believed to have collected and re
vised all the books of the Old Testament
Scripture, which form the present canon.

The BOOK OF EZRA contains a history
149

-FAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FAN

of the return of the Jews from the time
of Cyrus ; with an account of his own
subsequent proceedings, B. c. 450. There
are two apocryphal books ascribed to
him under the name of Esdras, which is
only the ftreek form of the name Ezra.

F.

FA'BLE, an idle, groundless, and
worthless story, like the mythological
legends of the heathen and the vain
traditions of the Jews. These were often
not only false and weak, but pernicious,'
ITim. 4:7; Tit. 1:14; 2 Pet. 1:16.

FACE, and presence, expressed by the
same word in Hebrew, are often put for
the person himself, Gen. 48:11; Exod.
33 : 14 ; Isa. 63 : 9. No man has seen the
face of God, that is, had a full revelation
of his glory, Exod. 33:20; John 1:18;
1 Tim. 6 : 16. To see him ' ' face to face, ' '
is to enjoy his presence, Gen. 32 : 30 ;
Num. 14 : 14 ; Deut. 5 : 4, and have a
clear manifestation of his nature and
grace, 1 Cor. 13:12.

FAIR-HA'VENS, a roadstead or small
bay, near the town of Lasea, midway on
the southern coast of Crete, where Paul
wished to winter when on the voyage to
Rome, Acts 27:8. The sailors preferred
Phenice as safer, and were wrecked in
consequence. It still retains nearly its
old name.

FAITH is the assent of the under
standing to any truth. Religious faith
is assent to the truth of divine revela
tion and of the events and doctrines con
tained in it. This may be merely his
torical, without producing any effect on
our lives and conversation ; and it is then
a dead faith, such as even the devils have.
But a living or saving faith not only
believes the great doctrines of religion as
true, but embraces them with the heart
and affections ; and is thus the source of
sincere obedience to the divine will, ex
hibited in the life and conversation. Faith
in Christ is a grace wrought in the heart
by the Holy Spirit, whereby we receive
Christ as our Saviour, our Prophet,
Priest, and King, and love and obey him
as such. This living faith in Christ is
the means of salvation — not meritorious
ly, but instrumentally. Without it there
can be no forgiveness of sins, and no ho
liness of life ; and they who are justified
by faith, live and walk by faith, Mark
150

16 : 16 ; John 3 : 15, 16 ; Acts 16 : 31 ;
1 John 5: 10.

True faith is an essential grace, and a
main-spring of Christian life. By it the
Christian overcomes the world, the flesh,
and the devil, and receives the crown of
righteousness, 1 Tim. 4:7, 8. In virtue
of it, worthy men of old wrought great
wonders, Heb. 11; Acts 14:9; 1 Cor.
13:2, being sustained by Omnipotence
in doing whatever God enjoined, Matt.
17:20; Mark 9: 23; 11:23,24. In Rom.
1:8, faith is put for the exhibition of
faith, in the practice of all the duties
implied in a profession of faith.

FAITH' FUL, in many passages in the
Bible, means ' ' believing. ' ' Thus in Gal.
3 : 9, believers are said to be blessed with
Abraham, because of his preeminent dis
tinction above all men for steadfast faith
in God. This appellation is given in
Scripture to true Christians, to indicate
not only their saving faith in Christ, but
their trustworthy and consistent Chris
tian character, Acts 16:15; 1 Cor. 4:17;
Eph. 6:21 ; Col. 4:9; 1 Pet. 5:12. "A
faithful saying ' ' is one that cannot prove
false, ITim. 1:15; 2 Tim. 2:11.

FAITH'FULNESS is an infinite attri
bute of Jehovah ; adapted to make per
fect both the confidence of those who
believe his word and rely on his prom
ises, and the despair of those who doubt
his word and defy his threatenings, Deut.
28 : 26 ; Num. 23 : 19 ; Psa. 89 : 33, 34 ;
Heb. 10:23.

FAM'INE. Scripture records several
famines in Palestine, and the neighbor
ing countries, Gen. 12:10; 26:1; Ruth
1 : 1 ; 2 Kin. 6 : 25 ; Acts 11 : 27. The
most remarkable one was that of seven
years in Egypt, while Joseph was gov
ernor, Gen. 41. It was distinguished
for its duration, extent, and severity;
particularly as Egypt is one of the coun
tries least subject to such a calamity, by
reason of its general fertility. Famine
is sometimes a natural effect, as when
the Nile does not overflow in Egypt, or
rains do not fall in Judea, at the custom
ary season ; or when caterpillars, locusts,
or other insects, destroy the fruits. But
all natural causes are under the control
of God ; and he often so directs them as
to chastise the rebellious with want,
2 Kin. 8:1, 2; Ezek. 6:11; Matt. 24:7.
The worst famine is a spiritual one,
Amos 8: 11.

FAN, an instrument used for winnow*

FAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FEA

ing grain. In the East, fans are of two
kinds : one a sort of fork, having three
or four prongs, and a handle four feet
long ; with this they throw up the grain
to the wind, that the chaff may be blown
away : the other sort of fan is formed to
produce wind when the air is calm, Isa.
30:24. This process illustrates the com
plete separation which Christ the Judge
will effect between the righteous and the
wicked, Jer. 15 : 7 ; Matt. 3 : 12. See
THRESHING.

FAR'THING. Two different Eoman
brass coins are translated by this word :
one of these, the assarion, Matt. 10:29,
Luke 12:6, was worth less than a cent ;
the other, the kodrantes, Matt. 5 : 26, was
probably nearly four mills.

FASTTNG has, in all ages, and among
all nations, been practised in times of
sorrow, and affliction, Jonah 3:5." It
may be regarded as a dictate of nature,
which under these circumstances refuses
nourishment, and suspends the crav
ings of hunger. In the Bible no ex
ample is mentioned of fasting, proper
ly so called, before Moses. His forty
days' fast, like that of Elijah and of our
Lord, was miraculous, Deut. 9:9 ; 1 Kin.
19:8; Matt. 4:2. The Jews often had
recourse to this practice, when they had
occasion to humble themselves before
God, to confess their sins and deprecate
his displeasure, Judg. 20 : 20 ; 1 Sam.
7 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 12 : 1C ; Nch. 9:1; Jer.
36 : 9. Especially in times of public
calamity, they appointed extraordinary
fasts, and made even the children at the
breast fast, Joel 2:16; but see Dan.
10:2, 3. They began the observance of
their fasts at sunset, and remained with
out eating until the same hour the next
day. The great day of expiation was
probably the only annual and national
fast-day among them.

It does not appear by his own practice
or by his commands, that our Lord insti
tuted any particular fast. On one occa
sion, he intimated that his disciples
would fast after his death, Luke 5:34,
35. Accordingly, the life of the apos
tles and first believers was a life of self-
denials, sufferings, and fastings, 2 Cor. I
5:7 ; 11:27. Our Saviour recognized the
custom, and the apostles practised it as j
occasion required, Matt. 6 : 16-18 ; Acts |
13:3; 1 Cor. 7:5.

FAT. The fat portions of animals j
offered in sacrifice were always to be j

consumed, as being the choice part and
especially sacred to the Lord. The blood
was also sacred, as containing the life of
the animal. The Jews were forbidden
to eat either, Lev. 3:16, 17; 7:23-27.

FATHER, is often synonymous with
ancestor, founder, or originator, as Gen.
4:20, 21; John 8:56; Rom. 4:16. Jo
seph was a father to Pharaoh, Gen.
45 : 8, as his counsellor and provider.
God is the FATHER of men, as their Crea
tor, Deut. 32:6; Isa. 63:16; 64:8; Luke
3:38. But as we have forfeited the
rights of children by our sins, it is only
through Christ that we can call God by
that endearing name, "our Father,"
John 20:17; Rom. 8:15-17.

In patriarchal times, a father was mas
ter and judge in his own household, and
exercised an authority almost unlimited
over his family. Filial disobedience or
disrespect was a high offence. Under
the law, certain acts of children were
capital crimes, Ex. 21:15, 17 ; Lev. 20:9 ;
and the father was required to bring his
son to the public tribunal, Deut. 21 : 18-
21. See MOTHER.

FEASTS. God appointed several fes
tivals, or days of rest and worship,
among the Jews, to perpetuate the mem
ory of great events wrought in favor of
them: the Sabbath commemorated the
creation of the world ; the Passover, the
departure out of Egypt; the Pentecost,
the law given at Sinai, etc. At the three
great feasts of the year, the Passover,
Pentecost, and that of Tabernacles, all
the males of the nation were required to
visit the temple, Ex. 23:14-17; Deut.
16:16, 17 ; and to protect their borders
from invasion during their absence, the
shield of a special providence was always
interposed, Ex. 34:23, 24. The other
festivals were the Feast of Trumpets, or
New Moon, Purim, Dedication, the Sab
bath year, and the year of Jubilee. These
are described elsewhere. The observance
of these sacred festivals was adapted not
merely to freshen the remembrance of
their early history as a nation, but to
keep alive the influence of religion and
the expectation of the Messiah, to deep
en their joy in God, to dispel animosi
ties and jealousies, and to form new asso
ciations between the different tribes and
families. See also Day of EXPIATION.

In the Christian church, we have no
festival that clearly appears to have
been instituted by our Saviour, or his
151

FEL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FEL

apostles ; but as we commemorate his
death as often as we celebrate his supper,
he has hereby seemed to institute a per
petual feast. Christians have always
celebrated the memory of his resurrec
tion by regarding the Sabbath, which we
see, from Rev. 1:10, was in John's time
commonly called "the Lord's day."

Feasts of love, Jude 12, were public
banquets of a frugal kind, instituted by
the primitive Christians, and connected
by them with the celebration of the
Lord's supper. The provisions were
contributed by the more wealthy, and
were common to all Christians, whether
rich or poor, who chose to partake. Por
tions were also sent to the sick and ab
sent members. These love-feasts were
intended as an exhibition of mutual
Christian affection; but they became
subject to abuses, and were afterwards
generally discontinued, 1 Cor. 11:17-34.

The Hebrews were a hospitable people,
and were wont to welcome their guests
with a feast, and dismiss them with an
other, Gen. 19:3; 31:27; Judg. 6:19;
2 Sam. 3:20; 2 Kin. 6:23. The return
ing prodigal was thus welcomed, Luke
15:23. Many joyful domestic events
were observed with feasting: birthdays,
etc., Gen. 21:8; 40:20; Job 1:4; Matt.
14 : 6 ; marriages, Gen. 29 : 22 ; Judg.
14 : 10 ; John 2 : 1-10 ; sheep-shearing
and harvesting, Judg. 9 : 27 ; 1 Sam.
25:2, 36; 2 Sam. 13:23. A feast was
also provided at funerals, 2 Sam. 3:35;
Jer. 16:7. Those who brought sacrifices
and offerings to the temple were wont to
feast upon them there, with joy and
praise to God, Deut. 12:6, 7; 1 Sam.
16:5; 2 Sam. 6:19. They were taught
to invite all the needy to partake with
them. Deut. 16:11 ; and even to make
special feasts for the poor, Deut. 12:17-
19 ; 14 : 28, 29 ; 20 : 12-15 ; a custom
which the Saviour specially commended,
Luke 14: 12-14.

The manner of holding a feast was
anciently marked with great simplicity.
But at the time of Christ many Roman
customs had been introduced. The feast
or "supper" usually took place at five
or six in the afternoon, and often con
tinued to a late hour. The guests were
invited some time in advance ; and those
who accepted the invitation were again
notified by servants when the hour ar
rived, Matt. 22:4-8; Luke 14:16-24.
The door was guarded against uninvited
152

persons; and was at length closed for
the day by the hand of the master of the
house, Matt. 25 : 10 ; Luke 13 : 24. Some
times very large numbers were present,
Esth. 1:3, 5; Luke 14:16-24; and on
such occasions a ' ' governor of the feast ' '
was appointed, whose social qualities,
I tact, firmness, and temperance fitted him
j to preside, John 2:8. The guests were
arranged with a careful regard to their
claims to honor, Gen. 43 : 33 ; 1 Sam.
9:22; Prov. 25:6, 7; Matt. 23:6; Luke
14:7 ; in which matter the laws of eti
quette are still jealously enforced in the
East. Sometimes the host provided light,
rich, loose robes for the company ; and if
so, the refusing to wear one was a gross
insult, Ecc. 9:8; Matt. 22:11; Rev. 3:4,
5. The guests reclined around the ta
bles ; water and perfumes were served to
them, Mark 7:2; Luke 7:44-46; and
after eating, the hands were again wash
ed, a servant pouring water over them.
See illustration in BED. During the re
past and after it various entertainments
were provided ; enigmas were proposed,
Judg. 14:12; eastern tales were told;
music and hired dancers, and often ex
cessive drinking, etc. , occupied the time,
Isa. 5:12 ; 24:7-9 ; Amos 6:5. See EAT
ING, FOOD.

FE'LIX, a Roman governor of Judea ;
originally a slave, but manumitted and
promoted by Claudius Caesar, from whom
he received the name of Claudius. He
is described by the historian Tacitus as
cruel, licentious, and base. In Judea he
married Drnsilla, sister of the younger
Agrippa, having enticed her from her
second husband Azizus. Paul having
been sent by Lysias to Caesarea, then the
seat of government, Felix gave him an
audience, and was convinced of his inno
cence.' Nevertheless he kept him a pris
oner, though with many alleviations, in
hopes that his friends would purchase his
liberty by a heavy bribe. Meanwhile
his wife Drusilla, who was a Jewess, de
sired to hear Paul explain the new relig
ion ; and the apostle being summoned
before them, discoursed with his usual
boldness on justice, chastity, and the
final judgment. Felix trembled, but
hastily remanded Paul to confinement,
and stifled his convictions — a melan
choly instance of the power of lust and
the danger of delay. Two years after,
A. D. 60, he was recalled to Rome ; and
left Paul in prison, in order to appease

FER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FIG

the Jews. He was brought to trial,
however, for maladministration, found
guilty, and barely escaped death through
the intercession of his brother Pallas, an
other royal favorite, Acts 23:26; 24.

FER'RET, a sort of weasel, Lev. 11:30.
The Hebrew word means rather a spe
cies of lizard, the gecko, which Moses for
bids as unclean.

FES'TUS, PORTIUS, succeeded Felix in
the government of Judea, A. D. 60. To
oblige the Jews, Felix, when he resign
ed his government, left Paul in bonds at
Crasarea in Palestine, Acts 24:27; and
when Festus arrived, he was entreated
by the principal Jews to condemn the
apostle, or to order him up to Jerusa
lem—they having conspired to assassi
nate him in the way. Festus, however,
answered that it was not customary with
the Romans to condemn any man with
out hearing him ; and promised to hear
their accusations at Ciesarea. Five days
after, on hearing Paul and learning the
nature of the charges against him, he
proposed to him to abide the issue of a
trial before the Jewish Sanhedrim. But
Paul appealed to Caesar; and so secured
himself from the prosecution of the Jews,
and the intentions of Festus. The gov
ernor gave him another hearing during
a congratulatory visit of king Agrippa,
in order to make out a statement to be
forwarded with him to Rome. Finding
how greatly robberies abounded in Ju
dea, Festus very diligently pursued the
thieves ; and he also suppressed a magi
cian, who drew the people after him into
the desert. Josephus speaks well of his
brief administration. He died in Judea,
A. D. 62, and was succeeded by Albinus.
FIG. The fig-tree is common in Pal
estine and the East, and nourishes with
the greatest luxuriance in those barren
and stony situations where little else
will grow. Its large size, and its abun
dance of five-lobed leaves, render it a
pleasant shade-tree ; and its fruit fur
nished a wholesome food, very much
used in all the lands of the Bible. Thus
it was a symbol of peace and plenty,
1 Kin. 4:25 ; Mic. 4:4 ; Zech. 3:10 ; John
1 : 49-51. Figs are of two sorts, the
"boccore," and the "kermouse." The
black and white boccore, or early fig, is
produced in June ; though the kermouse,
the fig properly so called, which is pre
served, and made up into cakes, is rarely
ripe before August. There is also a long

dark-colored kermouse, that sometimes
hangs upon the trees all winter.

The fruit of the fig-tree is one of the
delicacies of the East, and is very often
spoken of in Scripture. The early fig
was especially prized, Isa. 28 : 4 ; Jer. •
24 : 2 ; Nah. 3 : 12, though the summer
fig is most abundant, 2 Kin. 20:7 ; Isa.
38 : 21. It is a peculiarity of the fig-tree
that its fruit begins to appear before
the leaves, and without any show of
blossoms, It has, indeed, small and hid
den blossoms, but the passage in Hab.
3:17, should read, according to the orig
inal Hebrew, ' ' Although the fig-tree
should not bear," instead of "blossom."
Its leaves come so late in the spring as
to justify the words of Christ, "Ye know
that summer is nigh," Matt. 24:32 ; Song
2:13. The fresh fruit is shaped like a
pear. The dried figs of Palestine were
probably like those which are brought
to our own country ; sometimes, how
ever, they are dried on a string. We
likewise read of " cakes of figs," 1 Sam.
25:18; 2 Kin. 20:7; IChr. 12:40. These
were probably formed by pressing the
fruit forcibly into baskets or other ves
sels, so as to reduce them to a solid cake
or lump. In this way dates are still pre
pared in Arabia.

The barren fig-tree which was withered
at our Saviour's word, as an awful warn
ing to unfruitful professors of religion,
seems to have spent itself in leaves. It
stood by the way-side, free to all ; and
as the time for stripping the trees of their
fruit had not come, Mark 11:14, it was
reasonable to expect to find it covered
with figs in various stages of growth.
153

FIR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FIR

Tet there was "nothing thereon, but
leaves only," Matt. 21:19.

FIR, an evergreen tree, of beautiful
appearance, whose lofty height and
dense foliage afford a spacious shelter
and shade. The Hebrew word often
seems to mean the CYPRESS, which see.
It was used for ship-building, Ezek. 27 : 5 ;
for musical instruments, 2 Sam. 6:5 ; for
beams and rafters of houses, 1 Kin. 5:8,
10; 9:11; Song 1:17.

FIRE, in Scripture, is often connected
with the presence of Jehovah ; as in the
burning bush, and on mount Sinai, Ex.
3:2 ; 19:18 ; in Psalm 18, and the ode of
Habakkuk. The second coming of Christ
will be "in flaming lire," 2 Thess. 1:8.
In the New Testament it illustrates the
enlightening, cheering, and purifying
agency of the Holy Spirit, Matt. 3 : 11 ;
Acts 2:3. By sending fire from heaven
to consume sacrifices, God often signified
his acceptance of them : as in the case of
Abel, Gen. 4:4; Abraham, Gen. 15:17 ;
Manoah, Judg. 13:19, 20; Elijah, IKin.
18 : 38 ; and at the dedication of the tab
ernacle and the temple, Lev. 9 : 24 ; 2 Chr.
7:1. This sacred fire was preserved by
the priests with the utmost care, Isa.
31 : 9. In many ancient religions fire was
worshipped ; and children were made to
pass through the fire to Moloch, 2 Kin.
17:17; Jer. 7:31; Ezek. 16:21 ; 23:87.
The Jews had occasion for fires, except
for cooking, only during a small part of
the year. Besides their ordinary hearths
and ovens, they warmed their apart
ments with ' ' a fire of coals " in a bra
zier, Jer. 36:22, 23; Luke 22:30. They
were forbidden to kindle a fire on the
Sabbath, Ex. 35 : 3 — a prohibition per
haps only of cooking on that day, but un
derstood by many Jews even now in the
fullest extent ; it is avoided by employ
ing gentile servants. Another provision
of the Mosaic law was designed to pro
tect the standing corn, etc., in the dry
summer season, Ex. 22:6. The earth is
to be destroyed by fire, 2 Pet. 3:7; of
which the destruction of Sodom, and the
volcanoes and earthquakes which so often
indicate the internal commotions of the
globe, may serve as warnings.

FIR'KIN, John 2:6, a Greek measure,
equivalent to the Hebrew bath, and con
taining seven and a half gallons. The
quantity of wine produced by the mir
acle at Cana was large : but the assem
blage was also large ; the festivities con-
154

tinued, it may be, a whole week, Judg.
14: 12 ; and many would be drawn to the
scene by hearing of the miracle.

FIR'MAMENT, Gen. 1 : 17, the ex
panse of the heavens immediately above
the earth. The Hebrews seem to have
viewed this as an immense crystalline
dome, studded with stars, resting on the
far distant horizon all around the spec
tator, and separating the waters above
us from those on the earth. Through its
windows the rain descended. It is not
necessary to suppose they thought it was
solid, Psa. 19:1 ; Isa. 40:22. It is not the
aim of Scripture to give scientific state
ments of natural phenomena. Teach
ing religion, not astronomy or physics,
it does not anticipate modern discoveries,
but speaks of natural objects and occur
rences in the common language of men
everywhere. Hence, in part, its attrac
tiveness in all ages as a book for the
people.

FIRST-BORN". This phrase is not al
ways to be understood literally ; it is
sometimes taken for the prime, most
excellent, most distinguished of things,
Psa. 89 : 27 ; Rom. 8 : 29 ; Heb. 1 : 4-6.
Thus Jesus Christ is ' ' the first-born of
every creature," Col. 1:15, inasmuch as
he was the ' ' Only-begotten ' ' of the Fa
ther before any creature was produced.
He is "the first-born from the dead,"
Col. 1:18, because he is the beginning,
and the author of the resurrection of all
who die in faith.

After the destroying angel had slain
the first-born of the Egyptians, God or
dained that all the Jewish first-born,
both of men and of beasts for service,
should be consecrated to him ; but the
male children only were subject to this
law. If a man had several wives, he was
obliged to offer the first-born son by each
one of them to the Lord. The first-born
were offered at the temple, and redeem
ed for five shekels. The firstling of a
clean beast was offered at the temple,
not to be redeemed, but to be killed ; an
unclean beast, a horse, an ass, or a cam
el, was either redeemed or exchanged ;
an ass was redeemed by a lamb or five
shekels ; if not redeemed, it was killed,
Ex. 13 : 2, 11, etc. The first-born son
among the Hebrews, as among all other
nations, enjoyed particular privileges.
See BIRTHRIGHT.

FIRST-FRUITS were presents made
to God of part of the fruits of the liar-

FIS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FLA

rest, to express the submission, depend
ence, and thankfulness of the offerers.
The portion given was instead of the
whole, in acknowledgment that all was
due to God. They were offered in the
temple before the crop was gathered,
and when the harvest was over, before
the people began to use their corn. The
first of these first-fruits, offered in the
name of the nation, was a sheaf of bar
ley, gathered on the fifteenth of Nisan,
in the evening, and threshed in a court
of the temple. After it was well clean
ed, about three pints of it were roasted,
and pounded in a mortar. Over this
was thrown a measure of olive-oil and a
handful of incense ; and the priest, tak
ing the offering, waved it before the
Lord towards the four cardinal points,
throwing a handful of it into the fire on
the altar, and keeping the rest. After
this, all were at liberty to get in the
harvest. When the wheat harvest was
over, on the day of Pentecost they of
fered as first-fruits of another kind, in
the name of the nation, two loaves, of
about three pints of flour each, made of
leavened dough, Lev. 23 : 10, 17. In
addition to these first-fruits, every pri
vate person was obliged to bring his first-
fruits to the temple, but Scripture pre
scribes neither the time nor the qantity.

There was, besides this, another sort
of first-fruits paid to God, Num. 15:19,
21 ; Neh. 10 : 37 : when the bread in
the family was kneaded, a portion of it
was set apart, and given to the priest or
Levite of the place ; if there were no
priest or Levite, it was cast into the oven
and there consumed.

Those offerings are also often called
first-fruits, which were brought by the
Israelites from devotion, to the temple,
for the feast of thanksgiving, to which
they invited their relations and friends,
and the Levites of their cities. The
first-fruits and tenths were the most con
siderable revenue of the priests and Le
vites.

Christians have "the first-fruits of the
Holy Spirit," Rom. 8:23 ; that is, more
abundant and more excellent gifts than
the Jews ; these were also a foretaste of
the full harvest. "Christ is risen from
the dead, and become the first-fruits of
them that slept," 1 Cor. 15:20, the fore
runner of all those who, because he lives,
shall live also, John 14:19.

FISH, FISHEE. The Hebrews have

very few names of particular species of
fish. Moses says in general, that all
sorts of river, lake, or sea fish, which
have scales and fins, may be eaten ; all
others shall be to the Hebrews an abom
ination, Lev. 11 : 9-12; Deut. 14:9, 10.
The Nile had an early celebrity, which
it still retains, for the abundance and
excellence of its fish, Ex. 7 : 18-21 ;
Num. 11:5. The sea of Tiberias also
still abounds in fish, Luke 5:5; John
21:6-11. They were a common article
of food among the Jews, Matt. 7 : 10, and
were obtained from the Mediterranean,
Neh. 13:16, and from the Jordan. They
were caught with hooks, Amos 4 : 2,
spears, Job 41:7, and nets, Isa. 19:8-10.
The "great fish," Jon. 1 : 17, which swal
lowed Jonah, may have been of the shark
genus, as this animal is common in the
Mediterranean. The original word, both
in Hebrew and Greek, Matt. 12 : 40,
means a fish, and not specifically a
' ' whale. ' ' See WHALE. Fishermen are
often spoken of in the Bible, and a large
proportion of the twelve apostles of our
Lord were of that occupation. Christ
made them "fishers of men." Matt.
4:18-22.

The early Christians, in times of per
secution, used to engrave the form of a
j fish on their medals, seals, and tombs,
as a tacit confession of their faith ; as
the five letters of the Greek word for
fish, /;ti9uf, are the initial letters of five
words, signifying ' ' Jesus Christ, the Son
of God, the Saviour." This symbol has
thus become the subject of a supersti
tious regard.

FITCH'ES, or VETCH'ES, a species of
wild pea. Two Hebrew words are trans
lated "fitches," one of which probably
means spelt, Ezek. 4 : 9, and the other
giih, a plant resembling fennel, and very
pungent, Isa. 28:25. The seed is black,
and aromatic.

FLAG'ON. The Hebrew word every
where rendered in the English version
flagon, 2 Sam. 6:19 ; 1 Chr. 16:3 ; Song
2:5 ; Hos. 3:1, means rather a cake, espe
cially of dried grapes or raisins, pressed
into a particular form. These are men
tioned as delicacies, by which the weary
and languid are refreshed ; they were
also offered to idols, Hos. 3:1. They
differed from the dried clusters of grapes
not pressed into any form, 1 Sam. 25:18,
and also from the " cakes of figs." We
may refer, in illustration, to the man-
155

FLA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FLY

ner in which with us cheeses are pressed
in various forms, as of pine-apples, etc. ,
and also the manner in which dates are
prepared at the present day by the Arabs.
See FIGS.

FLAX, a well-known plant, upon
which the industry of
mankind has been ex
ercised with the great
est success and utili
ty, Josh. 2:6; Prov.
31:13. Moses speaks
of the flax in Egypt,
Ex. 9 : 31, which coun
try has been celebrat
ed, from time imme
morial, for its produc
tion and manufacture.
The "fine linen of
Egypt," which was
manufactured from
this article, is spoken
of for its superior ex
cellence, in Scripture,
Prov. 7 : 16 ; Ezek.
27 : 7. It is, however,
probable that fine cot
ton is sometimes to be
understood when the Byssus is spoken of.
Most of the linen found wrapped around
Egyptian mummies will hardly compare
with our common sheetings. But some
specimens are found of most remarkable
fineness ; one containing 1 52 threads in
the warp, and 71 in the woof, to each
square inch ; and another, 270 double
threads in the warp, and 110 in the woof,
per inch. See COTTON and LINEN.

The prophet Isaiah, in speaking of the
gentleness of the Messiah, makes use of
a proverbial expression, which is also
quoted by Matthew and applied to Je
sus : "The bruised reed he shall not
break, and the smoking flax he shall not
quench," Isa. 42:3; Matt. 12:20. Here
" flax " is used for the wick of a lamp or
taper, which was usually made of flax.
He will not break a reed already bruised
and ready to be broken, nor extinguish
a flickering, dying lamp, just ready to
expire ; that is, he will not oppress his
humble and penitent followers, but cher
ish the feeblest beginnings of true grace.

FLESH, the substance of which the
bodies of men and animals are com
posed. In the Bible, besides the ordi
nary sense, Job 33:25, it denotes man
kind as a race, Gen. 6:12 ; Psa. 145:21 ;
Isa. 40:5, 6 ; and all living creatures on
156

the earth, Gen. 6 : 17, 19. It is often
used in opposition to "spirit," as we
use body and soul, Job 14:22 ; and some
times means the body as animated and
sensitive, Matt. 26:41, and the seat of
bodily appetites, Prov. 5:11 ; 2 Cor. 7:1.
In the New Testament, "flesh" is very
often used to designate the bodily appe
tites, propensities, and passions, which
draw men away from yielding them
selves to the Lord and to the things of
the Spirit. The flesh, or carnal princi
ple, is opposed to the spirit, or spiritual
principle, Horn. 8; Gal. 5:17.

FLOCKS. See SHEEP.

FLOOD. See DELUGE.

FLUTE, a soft, sweet-toned wind in
strument of music. The word flute is
used only in Dan. 3, and is supposed to
mean a pipe with two reeds, such as are
still to be found in the East. It is blown
at the end. See Music, PIPE.

FLY, a genus of insects, of which
there are a great many species. Moses
declares them and most other insects to
be unclean, Lev. 11 : 42. They abound
in Egypt, and are annoying and vexa
tious in the extreme, attacking the eye
lids, etc., in swarms and with the ut
most pertinacity. How intolerable a
plague of flies may be, is evident from
the fact that whole districts in the Le
vant have been for a time depopulated
by them, the inhabitants being unable
to stand against their incessant attacks,
Ex. 8:24. The Philistines and Canaan-
ites adored Beelzebub, the fly-god, prob
ably as a patron to protect them against
these tormenting insects.

In Isa. 7 : 18, the prophet describing
the armies of Egypt and Assyria, each
under the symbol of one of the prevalent
insects in those countries, says, ' ' And it
shall come to pass in that day that the
Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the
uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt ;"
(or rather, as the same Hebrew word is
rendered in Ex. 16 : 35, the fly that is in
the borders of the streams of Egypt,)
" and for the bee that is in the land of
Assyria." It is thought by some that
the fly here spoken of is the zimb, or
Ethiopian fly, of which Mr. Bruce says,
" It is, in size, very little larger than a
bee, of a thicker proportion, and has
wings which are broader than those of
a bee, placed separate, like those of a
fly ; they are of pure gauze, without
color or spot upon them; the head is

FOO

BllBLE DICTIONARY.

FOO

large. As soon as this plague appears,
and their buzzing is heard, all the cat
tle forsake their Tood, and run wildly
about the plain till they die, worn out
with fatigue, fright, and hunger. No
remedy remains but to leave the black
earth, and hasten down to the sands of
the desert ; and there they remain while
the rains last, this cruel enemy never
daring to pursue them farther." The
camel also is obliged to fly before these
insects ; and the elephant and rhinoceros
coat themselves with a thick armor of
mud.

FOOD. In ancient times the food of
a people was more entirely the product
of their own country than in our day.
Palestine was favored with an abun
dance of animal food, grain, and vegeta
bles. But throughout the East, vegetable
food is more used than animal. Bread
was the principal food. Grain of various
kinds, beans, lentils, onions, grapes, to
gether with olive oil, honey, and the
milk of goats and cows were the ordi
nary fare. The wandering Arabs live
much upon a coarse black bread. A
very common dish in Syria is rice, with
shreds of meat, vegetables, olive oil,
etc., intermixed. A similar dish, made
with beans, lentils, and various kinds of
pulse, was in frequent use at an earlier
age, Gen. 25 : 29-34 ; 2 Kin. 4 : 38-41.
Fish was a common article of food, when
accessible, and was very much used in
Egypt. This country was also famous
for cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions,
and garlics, Num. 11:5. Such is the food
of the Egyptians still. See EATING.

Animal food was always used on fes
tive occasions ; and the hospitable pa
triarchs lost little time in preparing for
their guests a smoking dish from their

flocks of sheep and goats, their herds
of cattle, or their dove-cotes, Gen.
18 : 7 ; Luke 15 : 23. The rich had ani
mal food more frequently, and their
cattle were stalled and fattened for the
table, ISam. 16:20; Isa. 1:11; 11:6;
Mai. 4:2. Among the poor, locusts
were a common means of sustenance,
being dried in the sun, or roasted over
the fire on iron plates.

Water was the earliest and common
drink . Wine of an intoxicating q ual ity
was early known, Gen. 9:20; 14:18;
40:1. Date- wine and similar bever
ages were common ; and the common
people used a kind of sour wine, called
vinegar in Ruth 2:14 ; Matt. 27:48.

FOOL, any person who does not act
wisely, that is, does not follow the warn
ings and requirements of God, which are
founded in infinite wisdom. Hence ' ' a
fool " is put for a wicked man, an enemy
or neglecter of God, Psa. 14:1; Prov.
19:1. So folly is put for wickedness,
2 Sam. 13:12, 13 ; Psa. 38:5, foolish lusts
for wicked lusts, etc. Foolish talking,
foolish questions, are vain, empty, un
profitable conversation, 2 Tim. 2:23.

FOOT. The expressions in Deut. 32 : 35,
"their foot shall slide in due time," and
in the traveller's song, Psa. 121:3, "he
will not suffer thy foot to be moved,"
Psa. 66:9, Jer. 13:16, have reference to
the dangerous character of the narrow
roads or paths of the East, over rocks
and beside precipices where a sliding
foot was often fatal. See also Isa. 8: 14 ;
Luke 2 : 34. Nakedness of feet was a
sign of mourning. God says to Ezekiel,
"Make no mourning for the dead, and
put on thy shoes upon thy feet," Ezek.
24:17. It was likewise a mark of re
spect. Moses put off his shoes to ap
proach the burning bush ; and most
commentators are of opinion that the
priests served in the tabernacle with
their feet naked, as they did afterwards
in the temple. The Turks never enter
their mosques till after they have washed
their feet and their hands, and have put
off the outward covering of their legs.
The Christians of Ethiopia enter their
churches with their shoes off, and the
Indian Brahmins and others have the
same respect for their pagodas and tem
ples. Eastern conquerors used to set
their feet on the necks of conquered
princes, Josh. 10 : 22, an action often
figured in ancient sculptures, Psa. 8:6;
157

FOO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FOX

Isa. 49:23 ; 1 Cor. 15:25 ; Heb. 2:8. See
NINEVEH.

The orientals used to wash the feet of
strangers who came off a journey, be
cause they commonly walked with their
legs bare, and their feet defended only
by sandals, Gen. 24:32; 43:24. So
Abraham washed the feet of the three
angels, Gen. 18:4. This office was usu
ally performed by servants and slaves;
and hence Abigail answers David, who
sought her in marriage, that she should
think it an honor to wash the feet of the
king's servants, 1 Sam. 25:41. Paul
would have a widow assisted by the
church, to be one who had hospitably
washed the feet of saints, 1 Tim. 5:10.
The practice is still met with in Pales
tine. Says Dr. Robinson, at Ramleh,
"Our youthful host now proposed, in
the genuine style.of ancient oriental hos
pitality, that a servant should wash our
feet. This took me by surprise ; for I
was not aware that the custom still ex
isted here. Nor does it indeed towards
foreigners, though it is quite common
among the natives. We gladly accepted
the proposal, both for the sake of the
refreshment and of the scriptural illus
tration. A female Nubian slave accord
ingly brought water, which she poured
upon our feet over a large shallow basin
of tinned copper, kneeling before us and
rubbing our feet with her hands, and
wiping them with a napkin. It was one
of the most gratifying minor incidents
of our whole journey." Our Saviour,
after his last supper, gave a striking les
son of humility, by washing his disci
ples' feet, John 13 : 5, 6, though the
eighth verse shows that he had also a
deeper meaning. See SANDALS.

FOOT'MEN, or runners, were attend
ants on Eastern princes, trained to run
before their chariots, 1 Sam. 8:11. So
Elijah ran before Ahab, 1 Kin. 18:46.
The speed and endurance of some of
these couriers is almost beyond belief,
Jer. 42:5.

FORE-HEAD, Ezek. 9; Rev. 7:3.
The devotees of different idols in India
receive at this day different marks on
the forehead, distinguishing them one
from another. By a similar method the
slaves claimed by different owners were
sometimes designated.

FORNICATION. This word is used
in Scripture not only for the sin of im
purity between unmarried persons, but
158

for idolatry, and for all kinds of infidel
ity to God. In Ezek. 16, the Jewish
church is symbolized as a female infant,
growing up to womanhood, and then
wedded to Jehovah by covenant. When
she breaks her covenant by going after
idols, she is justly reproached as an adul
teress arid a harlot, Jer. 2:20; 3:8, 9;
Hos. 3:1. Adultery and fornication are
frequently confounded. Both the Old
and New Testaments condemn all impu
rity and fornication, corporeal and spirit
ual — idolatry, apostasy, heresy, and in
fidelity. See ADULTERY.

FORTUNATUS, 1 Cor. 16:17, came
from Corinth to Ephesus, to visit Paul.
Paul speaks of Stephanus, Fortunatus,
and Acha'icus as the first-fruits of Achaia,
and as set for the service of the church
and saints. They carried Paul's first
epistle to Corinth.

FOUN'TAINS, or perennial springs of
good water, were of inestimable value
in Palestine, and numerous places took
their name from some fountain in their
vicinity. They have furnished to the
sacred writers some of their finest illus
trations of spiritual things. Thus, God
is "the Fountain of living waters," Jer.
2 : 13. The atonement is a precious foun
tain of cleansing, healing, life-giving
power, Joel 3 : 18 ; Zech. 13:1. The con
solations of the gospel arid the felicity of
heaven are also described by this simili
tude, Psa. 36 : 7-9 ; Rev. 7 : 17. See WELLS.

FOWL. See BIRDS.

FOX. Two words in Hebrew are
translated "fox" in the Bible ; and it is
not easy in every case to determine
what animal is referred to. There were
several varieties of fox in Palestine, all
like the common fox in form and habits.
The fox is cunning, voracious, and mis
chievous, Ezek. 13:4; Luke 13:32. He
is fond of grapes, and does much harm
in vineyards, Song 2:15. The fable of
the fox and the sour grapes is well
known. He is solitary in his habits,
and burrows a home for himself in the
ground, Luke 9:58. The/ac&a/, at the
present day, is much more numerous in
Palestine, and is probably referred to in
many texts where the word "foxes " oc-
curs. It is like a medium-sized dog, with
ahead like the wolf's, and a tail like the
fox's ; of a bright yellow color. To the^
fierceness of the wolf it joins the impudent
familiarity of the dog. It differs from
the fox in its habit of hunting its prey

FRA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FRO

in large packs, and in its cry — a mourn
ful howl, mixed with barking, which
they keep up all night, to the annoy
ance of all within hearing. They live
in holes ; prowl around villages ; rav
age poultry-yards ; feed upon game, liz
ards, insects, grapes, garbage ; and when
they can find nothing else, old leather
and any thing that has once had animal
life. They follow after caravans and
armies, and devour the bodies of the
dead, and even dig them up from their
graves, Psa. 63:10; Lam. 5:18. The
incident in the life of Samson, where
foxes, or perhaps jackals, are referred to,
Judg. 15:4, 5, has a parallel in the an
cient Roman feast of Ceres, goddess of
corn; when torches were bound to the
tails of numbers of foxes, and they ran
round the circus till the fire stopped
and consumed them. This was in re
venge for their once burning up some
fields of corn.

FRANK'INCENSE. See INCENSE.

FRIEND. Abraham is signally hon
ored in being called " the friend of God,"
Isa. 41:8; James 2:23. Christ granted
a similar honor and blessing to his disci
ples, John 15: 15. It is a different word,
however, in Greek, by which he address
ed Judas, Matt. 26:50; the word there
translated friend, means simply compan
ion, and appears to have been used as a
conversational term not implying friend
ship. The same word occurs in Matt.
20:13; 22:12.

FROG, a well-known amphibious ani
mal, famous in connection with the
plagues in Egypt, Ex. 8:1-14. The ma
gicians are said to have brought up frogs
upon the land by their enchantments ;

but as they could not remove them, it is
clear that they did not actually produce
them. They penetrated everywhere—
to the beds of the Egyptians, which were
near the ground; and to their ovens,
which were cavities in the ground.

FRONT'LETS are thus described by
Leo of Modena : the Jews take four
pieces of parchment, and write with an
ink made on purpose, and in square let
ters, these four passages, one on each
piece: (1.) "Sanctify unto me all the
first-born," etc., Ex. 13:2-10. (2.) "And
when the Lord shall bring thee into the
land of theCanaanites," etc.,ver. 11-16.
(3.) " Hear, 0 Israel ; the Lord our God
is one Lord," etc., Deut. 6:4-9. (4.) " If
you shall hearken diligently unto my
commandments," etc., ver. 13-21. This
they do in obedience to the words of
Moses: "These commandments shall be
for a sign unto thee upon thy hand, and
for a memorial between thine eyes. ' '

These four pieces are fastened togeth
er, and a square formed of them, on
which the Hebrew letter EJ Shin is writ

ten ; then a little square of hard calf
skin is put at the top, out of which come

two leathern strings. This square is put
on the middle of the forehead, and the
159

FUL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GAB

strings being girt about the head, are
then brought before, and fall on the
breast. It is called the Tephila of the
head. The most devout Jews put it on
both at morning and noon-day prayer ;
but it is generally worn only at morning
prayer. See PHYLACTERIES.

FULFILLED'. The ordinary mean
ing of this word is sufficiently obvious.
It will ultimately be recorded over
against all the predictions and promises
of Jehovah, every one having been fully
accomplished at the proper time and
place, Josh. 23:14; Matt. 2:17; 8:17;
12: 17. There are in the New Testament
many instances of such an accomplish
ment, where the purposes of men were
very different, and those who figured in
the transaction did not dream of any
thing but some evil project of their own.
Thus in John 19:24, 28, 36, the actual
agents in Christ's crucifixion had no
thought that they were fulfilling the
purposes of God. Sometimes also the
phrase, "that it might be fulfilled," sig
nifies that the occurrence to which it is
applied is a secondary fulfilment, a veri
fication, or simply an illustration of the
original prophetic passage — yet fore
known and foreordained of God. Thus
the words of Hosea 11:1, "I called my
son out of Egypt," refer directly to
the exodus of Israel from that land of
bondage ; but, as we learn from Matt.
2:15, they were not suggested by the
Holy Spirit to the prophet without a
regard to their foreseen application to
the case of Christ. Compare also Matt.
13 : 14, with Isa. 6:9; Luke 4 : 18-21, with
Isa. 61 : 1-3 ; Acts 1 : 16, 20, with Psa.
109:8.

FUL'LEE, a cleanser of cloth. His
process is unknown. Christ's robes at
the transfiguration were white "so as
no fuller on earth can white them,"
Mark 9:3. We read also of fullers'
soap, Mai. 3:2, and of the fullers' foun
tain. See EN-ROGEL.

FU'NERAL. See BURIAL and SEPUL
CHRE.

FUR'LONG is put, in the New Testa
ment, for the Greek, or rather, Roman
stadium, which contained about 201
45-100 yards. The English furlong,
one-eighth of a mile, contains 220 yards ;
and is thus one-twelfth longer than the
Roman stadium, Luke 24:13.

FUR'NACES were often portable, Gen.
15:17. They were used for melting the
1GO

precious metals, Prov. 17:3. The furnace
into which Daniel's three friends were
cast was large, and remained open after
they were cast in, Dan. 3. The fearful
punishment spoken of in Jer. 29:22 is
still used in the East. The word furnace
is used to illustrate a state of oppression,
Deut. 4:20, and of affliction, Isa. 48:10.
FU'RY is attributed to God metaphor
ically, or speaking after the manner of
men ; that is, God's providential actions
are such as would be performed by a
man in a state of anger ; so that, when
he is said to pour out his fury on a per
son, or on a people, it is a figurative ex
pression for dispensing afflictive provi
dences. But we must be cautious not to
attribute human infirmities, passions, or
malevolence to the Deity.

GAAL, Judg. 9:26-41, son of Ebed,
perhaps a descendant of Hamor, the fa
ther of Shechem, Gen. 34:2-6. He joined
the Shechemites when revolting against
Abimelech, son of Gideon, inflamed their
passions, and led them to battle, but was
defeated, and excluded from the city.

GA'ASH, a hill of Ephraim, north of
which stood Timnath-seres, celebrated
for Joshua's, tomb, Josh. 24:30. The
brooks, or valleys of Gaash, 2 Sam.
23:30; 1 Chr. 11:32, were probably at
the foot of the hill.

GAB'BATHA, an elevated place, the
name of a place in front of Pilate's pal
ace, whence he pronounced sentence
against our Saviour, John 19 : 13. In
Greek it was called the pavement. It
was not the usual judgment-hall, which
the Jews could not then enter, but some
place in the vicinity of the crowd with
out, John 18:28; 19:4, 9, 13. It ap
pears to have been a checkered marble
pavement, or mosaic floor, on which his
seat of judgment was erected. Such
ornamented pavements had become com
mon at that day among the wealthy Ro
mans.

GA'BRIEL, a principal angel. He was
sent to the prophet Daniel to explain his
visions ; also to Zacharias, to announce
to him the future birth of John the Bap
tist, Dan. 8:16; 9:21; Luke 1:11, 19.
Six months afterwards, he was sent to
Nazareth, to the Virgin Mary, Luke
1:26-38.

GAD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GAL

GAD, prosperity, fortune, I., son of Ja
cob and Zilpah, Leah's servant, Gen.
30:11. Leah called him Gad, and said,
"A troop cometh." Compare Gen.
49:19; but many Hebrew scholars pre
fer the rendering, good fortune or pros
perity cometh. The tribe of Gad came
out of Egypt in number forty-live thou
sand six hundred and fifty, Gen. 46:16 ;
Num. 1 : 24. After the defeat of the
kings Og and Sihon, Gad and Reuben
desired to have their allotment east of
Jordan, alleging their great number of
cattle. Moses granted their request, on
condition that they should accompany
their brethren, and assist in conquer
ing the land west of Jordan, Num. 82.
The inheritance of the tribe of Gad lay
between Manasseh on the north, Reuben
on the south, the Jordan on the west,
and the Ammonites on the east. The
north-west point stretched to the sea of
Galilee. It was a fine pastoral region,
though its exposure to the incursions of
eastern Arabians compelled the Gadites
to be well armed and on the alert, Gen.
49:19; Deut. 33:20; 1 Chr. 5:18-22, 25,
26; 12:8. The principal cities of Gad
are called cities of Gilead, Josh. 13:25.

II. David's friend, who followed him
when persecuted by Saul, and was often
sent with a divine message to David,
1 Sam. 22:5; 2 Sam. 24:11-19; 1 Chr.
21:9-19 ; 2 Chr. 29:25. Scripture styles
him a prophet, and David's seer. He
appears to have written a history of Da
vid's life ; which is cited in 1 Chr. 29:29.

III. Rendered "troop" in Isa. 65:11,
but generally supposed to be the name
of a heathen god of Fortune ; and per
haps of the planet Jupiter, the star of
good fortune. Compare Josh. 11:17;
15:37. MENI in the same verse, trans
lated "number," is supposed by some
to mean destiny ; by others, the planet
Venus, the goddess of good fortune.

GAD'ARA, now Um-keis, a fortified
chief city of Decapolis, of considerable
importance in the time of Christ, and
having many Greek inhabitants. It lay
south of the river Hieromax, seven miles
south-east of the sea of Galilee, upon the
level summit of a steep limestone hill.
A few ruins are found on the top of the
hill ; many excavated tombs on its sides,
still partly occupied as residences; and
warm-springs at its base. The country
of the Gadarenes extended to the Jordan
Mid the sea of Galilee ; and in the part

of it bordering on the lake occurred ths
miracle recorded in Matt. 8:28; 9:1;
Mark 5 : 1-20 ; Luke 8 : 26-39. A legion
of demons were cast out of two men, and
entered a herd of swine, causing their
destruction. See GEB.GESENES,

GA'IUS, or CAIUS, I., a Macedonian,
who accompanied Paul in his travels,
and whose life was in danger at Ephesus,
Acts 19:29.

II. A Corinthian convert of Paul, who
hospitably entertained the apostle while
laboring at Corinth, Rom. 10:23 ; 1 Cor.
1:14.

III. Of Derbe ; an attendant of Paul
from Corinth, in his last journey to Je
rusalem, Acts 20:4.

The third epistle of John is addressed
"to the well-beloved Gaius ;" whose
character for hospitality comports well
with that of II. above. The name was
a common one wherever the Romans
lived ; and yet it is not certain that more
than one or two different individuals of
this name are spoken of in Scripture.

GALA'TIA, a province of Asia Minor,
lying south and south-east of Bithynia
and Paphlagonia, west of Pontus, north
and north-west of Cappadocia, and north
and north-east of Lycaonia and Phrygia.
Its name was derived from the Gauls ;
of whom two tribes, (Trocmi and Tolis-
toboii,) with a tribe of the Celts, (Tecto-
sages,) migrated thither after the sack
ing of Rome by Brennus ; and mingling
with the former inhabitants, the whole
were called Gallogrscci, B. c. 280. The
Celtic language continued to be spoken
by their descendants at least until the
time of Jerome, six hundred years after
the migration ; and these Gauls of Asia
also retained much of the mercurial
and impulsive disposition of the Gallic
race. Compare Gal. 1:6; 4 : 15 ; 5:7.
Under Augustus, about B. c. 26, this
country was reduced to the form of a
Roman province, and was governed by a
propraetor. Galatia was distinguished
for the fertility of its soil and the flour
ishing state of its trade. It was also the
seat of colonies from various nations,
among whom were many Jews ; and from
all of these Paul appears to have made
many converts to Christianity, 1 Cor. J
16:1. His first visit, Acts 16:6, proba
bly took place about A. D. 51-2 ; and the
second, Acts 18:23, after which his epis
tle to the Galatians appears to have been
written, was several years later. At his
161

GAL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GAL

first visit tie was sick ; yet they received
him "as an angel of God," and most
heartily embraced the gospel. Four or
rive years afterwards Jewish teachers,
professing Christianity, came among
them; they denied Paul's apostolic au
thority, exalted the works of the law,
and perverted the true gospel by inter
mixing with it the rites of Judaism.
Paul, learning their state, probably at
Corinth, A. D. 57-8, wrote his epistle to
the Galatians. He indignantly rebukes
his children in Christ for their sudden
alienation from him and from the truth ;
vindicates his authority and his teach
ings as an apostle, by showing that he
received them from Christ himself ; and
forcibly presents the great doctrine of
Christianity — justification by faith — with
its relations to the law on the one hand,
and to holy living on the other. The
general subject of the epistle is the same
as of the epistle to the Romans, and it
appears to have been written at about
the same time with that. The churches
of Galatia are mentioned in ecclesiastical
history for about nine hundred years.

GAL'BANUM, an ingredient in the
incense burned at the golden altar, in
the Holy Place, Ex. 30:34. It is the
gum of a plant growing in Abyssinia,
Arabia, and Syria, called by Pliny stago-
nitis, but supposed to be the same as the
Bubon Galbanum of Linnceus. The gum
is unctuous and adhesive, of a strong
and somewhat astringent smell.

GAL'ILEE, in the time of Christ, in
cluded all the northern part of Palestine
lying west of the Jordan and north of Sa
maria. Before the exile the name seems
to have been applied only to a small tract
bordering on the northern limits, 1 Kin.
9:11. Galilee, in the time of Christ,
was divided into Upper and Lower, the
former lying north of the territory of
the tribe of Zebulun, and abounding in
mountains ; the latter being more level
and fertile, and very populous ; the
whole comprehending the four tribes of
Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, and Asher.
Lower Galilee is said to have contained
four hundred and four towns and villa
ges, of which Josephus mentions Tibe
rias, Sepphoris, and Gabara, as the prin
cipal ; though Capernaum and Nazareth
are the most frequently mentioned in the
New Testament, Mark 1:9 ; Luke 2:39 ;
John 7:52, etc. "Galilee of the Gen
tiles ' ' is supposed to be Upper Galilee,
162

either because it bordered on Tyre and
Zidon, or because Phenicians, Syrians,
Arabs, and other heathen were numer
ous among its inhabitants. The Galile
ans were accounted brave and industri
ous ; though other Jews affected to con
sider them as not only stupid and un
polished, but also seditious, and there
fore proper objects of contempt, Luke
13:1; 23:6; John 1:47; 7:52. They
appear to have used a peculiar dialect,
by which they were easily distinguished
from the Jews of Jerusalem, Mark 14:70.
Many of the apostles and first converts
to Christianity were men of Galilee,
Acts 1:11; 2:7, as well as Christ him
self ; and the name Galilean was often
given as an insult, both to him and his
followers. The apostate emperor Julian
constantly used it, and in his dying ago
ny and rage cried out, "O Galilean,
thou hast conquered!" Our Saviour
resided here from infancy till he was
thirty years of age, and during much of
his public ministry ; and the cities of
Nazareth, Nain, Cana, Capernaum, with
the whole region of the sea of Galilee,
are sacredly endeared to all his people
by the words he there spoke, and the
wonders he wrought. For the sea of
Galilee, see SEA III.

GALL, a general name for any thing
very bitter. In Job 16:13 ; 20 : 14, 25,
it means the animal secretion usually
called the bile. In many other places,
where a different word is used in the
original, it refers to some bitter and nox
ious plant, according to some, the poppy.
See Deut. 29:18; Jer. 9:15; 23:15. In
Hos. 10:4 ; Amos 6: 12, the Hebrew word
is translated ' ' hemlock. ' ' In Matt. 27 : 34,
it is said they gave Jesus to drink, vin
egar mixed with gall, which in Mark
15:23, is called wine mingled with myrrh.
It was probably the sour wine which the
Roman soldiers used to drink, mingled
with myrrh and other bitter substances,
very much like the " bitters ' ' of modern
times, Psa. 69 : 21. The word gall is often
used figuratively for great troubles, wick
edness, depravity, etc., Jer. 8:14; Amos
6:12; Acts 8:23.

GALLEY, Isa. 33:21. See SHIP.

GAL'LIO, a proconsul of Achaia, un
der the emperor Claudius, in the time of
Paul, Acts 18:12-17. He was the elder
brother of the philosopher Seneca, who
describes him, as uncommonly amiable
and upright. His residence was at Cor-

GAM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GAR

i.nth ; and when the Jews of that city
made an insurrection against Paul, and
dragged him before the judgment-seat,
Gallic refused to entertain their clamor
ous and unjust demands. The Greeks
who were present, pleased with the re
buff the persecuting Jews had received,
fell upon Sosthenes their leader, and beat
him upon the spot, a mode of retribution
which Gallio ought not to have allowed.
Like his brother Seneca, he suffered death
by order of the tyrant Nero.

GAMALIEL, a celebrated Pharisee in
the generation after Christ, a doctor of
the law, and member of the Sanhedrim.
He possessed great influence among the
Jews, and is said by some to have pre
sided over the Sanhedrim during the
reigns of Tiberius, Caius, and Claudius.
The Talmudists say that he was the son
of rabbi Simeon, and grandson of Hillel,
the celebrated teacher of the law, and
that upon his death the glory of the law
departed. His noble intervention before
the Sanhedrim saved the apostles from
an ignominious death, and shows that
he was gifted with great wisdom and tol
erance, if not strongly inclined towards
the gospel, Acts 5:33-40. The apostle
Paul thought it a high honor to have
been one of his pupils, Acts 22: 3, and no
doubt received from him not only a zeal
ous enthusiasm for the Jewish law, but
many lessons of candor, impartiality,
and liberality. His high renown, how
ever, among the Jewish rabbins of later
ages, seems inconsistent with the tradi
tion that he embraced Christianity.

GAM'MADIM is used in the English
Bible, Ezek. 27 : 11, as the name of a
people ; but it rather means simply the
brave, the warlike.

GAR/DENS are often mentioned in
Scripture, though in a sense somewhat
peculiar ; for in the language of the He
brews, everyplace where plants and trees
were cultivated with greater care than
in the open field, was called a garden.
Fruit and shade trees, with aromatic
shrubs, sometimes constituted the gar
den ; though roses, lilies, and various
flowers were often cultivated, and some
gardens were used only for table vegeta
bles, Gen. 2:8-10, 15; 1 Kin. 21:2; Est.
1:5; 7 : 7, 8 ; Eccl. 2 : 5, 6. They were
located, if possible, beside a river or foun
tain, Gen. 13:10; Num. 24:6. In other
places reservoirs were provided, from
which the water was distributed in va

rious ways, as occasion required, Prov.
21:1; Song 4:12-16; Isa. 58:11. Gar
dens were inclosed by walls, or by hedges
of rose-bushes, wild pomegranate-trees,
or other shrubs, many of which in Pales
tine have long and sharp thorns, 2 Sam.
23:6, 7 ; Job 1 : 10 ; Prov. 15 : 19 ; Hos.
2:6. Often, however, they were left un-
inclosed, and were watched when their
fruits began to ripen, Isa. 1:8 ; Jer. 4:16,
17. It is still customary in Egypt, Ara
bia, and Hindostan, to plant a large level
tract with melons, cucumbers, etc., and
place a small hut or booth on a mound
in the centre. In this a solitary keeper
is stationed, who remains day and night
until the fruits are gathered, Job 27 : 18 ;
Isa. 1 : 8. Gardens and groves were often
furnished with pavilions, seats, etc. , and
were resorted to for banqueting and
mirth, Isa. 51 : 3 ; for retirement and
meditation, John 18 : 1 ; for devotional
purposes, Matt. 26:30 ; John 1:48 ; 18:1,
2 ; and for idolatrous abominations,
IKin. 14:23; Isa. 1:29; 65:3; 66:17;
Jer. 2 : 20 ; 3 : 6. A family tomb was
often prepared in a garden, John 19:41.
GAR/LIC, a bulbous vegetable, of pun
gent smell and taste, and highly prized
in the East. The Jews acquired a liking
for it in Egypt, Num. 11:5. One varie
ty, called the eschalot, or shallot, was
introduced into Europe from Ascalon.

GAR'MENTS. The chief garments of
;he Hebrews were the tunic or inner
garment, and the mantle or outer gar
ment. These seem to have constituted
a "change of raiment," Judg. 14:13;
19 ; Acts 9:39. The tunic was of linen,
and was worn next to the skin, fitting
163

GAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GAR

close to the body ; it had armholes, and
sometimes wide and open sleeves, and
reached below the knees ; that worn by
females reached to the ankles. The tu
nic was sometimes woven without seam,
like that of Jesus, John 19:23. The up
per garment or mantle was a piece of
cloth nearly square, and two or three
yards in length and breadth, which was
wrapped round the body, or tied over
the shoulders. A man without this robe
on was sometimes said to be "naked,"
Isa, 20:2-4; John 21:7. This could be
so arranged as to form a large bosom for
carrying things; and the mantle also
served the poor as a bed by night, Ex.
22 : 26, 27 ; Job 22 : 6. See BOSOM and
BED.

Between these two garments, the He
brews sometimes wore a third, called
tw-il, a long and wide robe or tunic of
cotton or linen, without sleeves.

The head was usually bare, or covered
from too fierce a sunshine, or from rain,
by a fold of the outer mantle, 2 Sam.
15:30; 1 Kin. 19:13; Esth. 6:12. The'
priests, however, wore a mitre, bonnet,
or sacred turban ; and after the captivity,
the Jews adopted to some extent the
turban, now so universal in the East.
Women wore a variety of plain and or
namented headdresses. Veils were also
;an article of female dress, Isa. 3 : 19.
jThey were of various kinds, and were
used alike by married and unmarried
women ; generally as a token of modesty,
or of subjection to the authority of the
husband, Gen. 24 : 65 ; 1 Cor. 11:3-10;
but sometimes for the purpose of con
cealment, Gen. 38 : 14.
164

As the Hebrews did not change the
fashion of their clothes, as we do, it was
common to lay up stores of raiment be
forehand, in proportion to their wealth,
Isa. 3:6. To this Christ alludes when
he speaks of treasures which the moth
devours, Matt. 6 : 19 ; James 5:1, 2.
But though there was a general uniform
ity in dress from age to age, no doubt
various changes took place in the long
course of Bible history ; and at all times
numerous and increasing varieties exist
ed among the different classes, especially
in materials and ornaments. In early
ages, and where society was wild and
rude, the skins of animals were made
into clothing, Gen. 3 : 21 ; Heb. 11 : 37.
Spinning, weaving, and needlework soon
began to be practised, Ex. 85 : 25 ; Judg.
5 : 30. A coarse cloth was made of goats'
or camels' hair, and finer cloths of wool
en, linen, and probably cotton. Their
manufacture was a branch of domestic
industry, Prov. 31:13-24.

The great and wealthy delighted in
white raiment ; and hence this is also a
mark of opulence and prosperity, Eccl.
9 : 8. Angels are described as clothed in
pure and cheerful white ; and such was
the appearance of our Saviour's raiment
during his transfiguration, Matt. 17:2.
The saints, in like mariner, are described
as clothed in white robes, Rev. 7 : 9, 13,
14 ; the righteousness of Christ in which
they are clothed is more glorious than
that of the angels.

The garments of mourning among the
Hebrews were sackcloth and haircloth,
and their color dark brown or black,
Isa. 50:3; Rev. 6:12. As the prophets
were penitents by profession, their com
mon clothing was mourning. Widows
also dressed themselves much the same.
The Hebrews, in common with their
neighbors, sometimes used a variety of
colors for their gayer and more costly
dresses, Judg. 5:30. So also according
to our version, Gen. 37 : 3, 23 ; 2 Sam.
13 : 18 ; though in these passages some
understand a tunic with long sleeves.
Blue, scarlet, and purple are most fre
quently referred to, the first being a sa
cred color. Embroidery and fine needle
work were highly valued among them,
Judg. 5:30; Psa. 45:14.

The dress of females differed from that
of males less than is customary among
us. Yet there was a distinction ; and
Moses expressly forbade any exchange

GAT

BIBLE DICTIONARY

GAZ

of apparel between the sexes, Deut. 22:5
a custom associated with immodesty
and with the worship of certain idols
It is not clear for what reason clothing
in which linen and woolen were woven
together was prohibited, Deut. 22:11; but
probably it had reference to some super
stitious usage of heathenism. In Isa.
3:16-23, mention is made of the decora
tions common among the Hebrew women
of that day ; among which seem to be
included tunics, embroidered vests, wide
flowing mantles, girdles, veils, caps oi
network, and metallic ornaments for the
ears and nose, for the neck, arms, fin
gers, and ankles ; also smelling-bottles
and metallic mirrors. In Acts 19:12,
mention is made of handkerchiefs and
aprons. Drawers were used, Ex. 28:42,
but perhaps not generally. See GIRDLES,
RINGS, and SANDALS.

Presents of dresses are alluded to very
frequently in the historical books of
Scripture, and in the earliest times.
Joseph gave to each of his brethren a
change of raiment, and to Benjamin five
phanges, G-en. 45:22. Naaman gave to
Gehazi two changes of raiment ; and
even Solomon received raiment as pres
ents, 2 Chr. 9:24. This custom is still
maintained in the E ist, and is mention
ed by most travellers. In Turkey, the
appointment to any important office is
accompanied with the gift of a suitable
official robe. In the parable of the wed
ding garment, the king expected to have
found all his guests clad in robes of hon
or of his own providing, Matt. 22:11.

GATE. The gates of eiistern Availed
towns were usually of wood, Judg. 16:3,
often covered with thick plates of iron
or copper, Psa. 107:16; Isa. 45:2; Acts
12:10, secured by bolts and bars, Deut.
3:5; 1 Kin. 4:13, and flanked by tow
ers, 2 Sam. 18:24, 33. A city was usu
ally regarded as taken when its gates
were won, Deut. 28 : 52 ; Judg. 5 : 8.
Hence "gate" sometimes signifies pow
er, dominion ; almost in the same sense
as the Turkish sultan's palace is called
the Porte, or Gate. God promises Abra
ham that his posterity shall possess the
"•ates of their enemies — their towns,
their fortresses, Gen. 22 : 17. So too,
" the gates of hell," that is, the power
of hell, or hell itself.

In oriental cities there was always an
open space or place adjacent to each
gate, and these were at the same time

the market-places and the place of jus
tice, Gen. 23: 10-18 ; Ruth 4: 1-12 ; Deut.
16 : 18 ; 21 : 19 ; 25 : 6, 7 ; Prov. 22 : 22 ;
Amos 5 : 10, 12, 150 There too people
assembled to spend their leisure hours,
Gen. 19:1. Hence " they that sit in the
gate" is put for idlers, loungers, who
are coupled with drunkards, Psa. 69:12.
The wt>es of a city were disclosed in tha
mourning or loneliness of these places of
resort, Isa. 14:31 ; Jer. 14:2. Here too
the public proclamations were made, and
the messages of prophets delivered, Prov.
1:21; 8:3; Isa 29:21 ; Jer. 17:19; 26:10.
Near the gate of a city, but without it,
executions took place, 1 Kin. 21 : 13 ;
Acts 7:58; Heb. 13:12. To exalt the
gate of a house through pride, increased
one's exposure to robbery, Prov. 17:19.
To open it wide and high was significant
of joy and welcome, as when the Saviour
ascended to heaven, Psa. 24:7, 9; and
the open gates of the new Jerusalem, in
contrast with those of earth! y cities care
fully closed and guarded at nightfall,
indicate the happy security of that world
of light, Rev. 21:25.

GATH, a city of the Philistines, and
one of their five principalities, 1 Sam.
5:8 ; 6:17. It was a notable city, in the
border of the Philistines nearest to Jeru
salem ; but its site has long been lost.
It was the home of Goliath, ISam. 17:4.
Compare Josh. 11:22; 2 Sam. 21:19-22.
Here David sought a refuge from Saul,
1 Sam. 21 : 10 ; 27 : 2-7. It came under
liis power in the beginning of his reigri
over all Israel, 1 Chr. 18:1, and contin-
icd subject to his successors till the de
clension* of the kingdom of Judah. Re-
loboam rebuilt or fortified it, 2 Chr.
LI: 8. It was afterwards recovered by
;he Philistines, but Uzziah reconquered
t, 2 Chr. 26 : 6. Its inhabitants were
called Gittites, Josh. 13 : 3 ; and David
lad two of them in his service, who
aithfully adhered to him during the re
bellion of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15:18-22.

GATH-HE'PHER, in Zebultm, was the
Birthplace of Jonah, 1 Kin. 4:10; 2 Kin.
14:25. It lay near Sepphoris, on a road
"eading to Tiberias.

GAU'LAN, or GO'LAN, a Levitical town
)f Bashan, in Manasseh beyond Jordan,
^rom it was named the small province
>f Gaulonitis, Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8;
21:27; 1 Chr. 6:71.

GAZA, or AZZAH, now Ghuzzeh, an
ancient city in the south-west corner of
165

GAZ

BIBLE DICT10NABY.

GEH

Canaan, Gen. 10 : 19, belonging to the
A vim, Deut, 2:23, and afterwards to the
Philistines. Joshua assigned it to the
tribe of Judah, but did not conquer it,
Josh- 10 : 41 ; 11 : 21, 22 ; 13 : 3 ; 15 : 47.
Judah seems to have held possession of
it for a while ; but in the time of the
judges it was independent, and one of
the rive chief cities of the Philistines,
Judg. 1 : 18 ; 3:3; 13 : 1 ; 16. Samson
Carried away its gates, and afterwards
perished under the ruins of its vast tem
ple. The ark of God was there in the
days of Eli, 1 Sam.. 6. It yielded alle
giance to David and Solomon, recovered
its liberty in the reigns of Jotham and
Ahaz, but was reconquered by Hezekiah,
2 Kin. 18 : 8. At subsequent periods it
was occupied by Chaldeans, Persians, and
Egyptians, Jer! 47:1. About 96 B. c. the
Jewish king Alexander Jannoeus captured
and destroyed it. The Koman general
Gabinius rebuilt it ; and not long after
the ascension of the Saviour, a Christian
church was planted there to struggle
with the prevailing idolatry. In A. D.
684 it came under the Mohammedan
yoke ; and in the era of the Crusades had
fallen into ruins. It was partially rebuilt
and fortified, and is now a city of some
15,000 inhabitants. The few remains of
the old city cover a large but low hill,
two or three miles from the sea, once so
strongly fortified as to withstand Alexan
der the Great for five months. The mod
ern city lies more in the plain, which is
exceedingly fertile, and abounds in gar
dens, date-trees, and olive-trees. There
was a landing-place and "port" for an
cient Gaza, but no harbor wortly of the
name. It was often referred to by the
prophets, Jer. 25 : 20 ; 47 : 5 ; Amos 1:6,7;
Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9 : 5. The southern route
from Jerusalem to Gaza, memorable in the
history of the Ethiopian eunuch, is called
' 'desert' ' in Acts 8 : 26, as passing through
a region then destitute of villages.

GAZELLE'. See ROE.

GE'BA, a Levitical town of Benjamin,
Josh. 18 : 24 ; 21 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 8 : 6, near
Ramah, Neh. 7:30; Isa. 10:29, and not
far from the northern border of the king
dom of Judah, 2 Kin. 23:8 ; Zech. 14:10.
Near Geba David defeated the Philis
tines, 2 Sam. 5:25. Asa renewed it from
the ruins of Ramah, 1 Kin. 15 : 22. It
was six or seven miles from Jerusalem,
and was separated from Michmash on the
north by a deep valley. See GIBEAH.
166

GE'BAL, I., the Gebalene of the Ro
mans, was a district of Idumaea, called
also at the present day Djebal, signify
ing mountains. It is the northern part
of the range of mountains skirting the
eastern side of the great valley Ei-Ara-
bah, which runs from the Dead sea to
the Elanitic gulf of the Red sea, Psa.
83:7.

II. A seaport and district of Phrenicia.
north of Beyroot, called Byblos by the
Greeks, now Jebail ; population, 2,000.
The inhabitants were called Giblites,
and are denoted in the Hebrew word
rendered " stone-squarers " in 1 Kings
5: 18. Their land and all Lebanon were
assigned to the Israelites, but never fully
possessed, Josh. 13:5. It was an impor
tant place, Ezek. 27:9, and the seat of
the worship of Thammuz.

GEDALl'AH, son of Ahikam, appoint
ed by Nebuchadnezzar to govern Judasa
after the destruction of Jerusalem. Like
his father, he honored and befriended
Jeremiah, Jer. 40:5. He began the ad
ministration of his government at Miz-
peh with wisdom, but in two months,
was treacherously murdered by one Ish-'
mael, 2 Kin. 25:22-26 ; Jer. 39: 14; 40:5-
41:18.

GE'DER. This word signifies a wall,
indosure, fortified place ; as do also the two
names following, which are derived from
it. Geder itself was an ancient Canaan-
itish place, in the plain of Judah, Josh.
12:13, and was probably the same with
the following Gederah.

GEDE'RAII, a city in the plain of Judah,
Josh. 15:36, probably the same with the
preceding Geder, and with Beth-Gader,

1 Chr. 2:51. It would thence seem to
have pertained to the family of Caleb.

GE'DOR, a city in the mountains of Ju
dah, surrounded by fat pastures, and for
merly occupied by the Amalekites, 1 Chr.
4 : 39 ; 12:7; Josh. 15 : 58. It is now call
ed Jedur, and lies about eight miles
south-west of Bethlehem. Gedor is also
the name of a man, 1 Chr. 8:31 ; 9:37.

GEHA'ZI, a confidential attendant of
Elisha. He appears in the story of the
Shunammite woman, 2 Kin. 4 : 14-37,
and in that of Naaman the Syrian, from
whom he fraudulently obtained a por
tion of the present his master had re
fused. His covetousness and falsehoods
were punished by a perpetual leprosy,

2 Kin. 5 : 20-27, B. c. 894. We after-
wards find him recounting to king Jo

GEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GEN

horam the wonderful deeds of Elisha, at
the moment when the providence of
God brought the woman of Shunein be
fore the king, to claim the restoration of
her lands, 2 Kin. 8:1-6.

GEHEN'NA. See HINNOM.

GEMARI'AH, I., the son of Shaphan,
a scribe of the temple in the time of Je-
hoiakim. In his apartment Baruch read
aloud the prophecies of Jeremiah; and
he, with others, secured a second and
more public reading, and brought the
roll to be read to the king, who caused
it to be burned, Jer. 36.

II. The son of Hilkiah, sent to Baby
lon by king Hezekiah with tribute-mon
ey for Nebuchadnezzar. He was also
the bearer of a letter in which Jeremiah
warned the captive Jews against false
prophets who promised them a speedy
return, Jer. 29:3, 4.

GENEAL'OGY, a record of one's an
cestors, either the line of natural descent
from father to son, or the line in which,
by the laws, the inheritance descended,
or that preserved in the public records.
Never was a nation more careful to pre
serve their genealogies than the He
brews, for on them rested the distinc
tion of tribes, the ownership of lands,
and the right to the highest offices and
privileges, 1 Chr. 5:1, 17; 9:1; 2 Chr.
12:15 ; Ezra 2 : 62. Hence their public
tables of genealogies were kept secure
amid all vicissitudes. We rind in the
Bible a record carried on for more than
3,500 years, 1 Chr. 1 ; 3 ; 6 ; and thus
were guarded the proofs that Christ was
born according to prophecy of the seed
of Abraham, and heir to the throne of
his father David, Luke 1 : 32 ; 2 Tim.
2:8; Heb. 7:14. In the evangelists we
have the genealogy of Christ for 4,000
years. The two accounts in Matthew 1
and Luke 3, differ from each other ; one
giving probably the genealogy of Christ's
reputed father Joseph, and the other
that of his mother Mary. The two lines
descend from Solomon and Nathan, Da
vid's sons; they unite in Salathiel. and
again in Christ. Joseph was the legal
father of Christ, and of the same family
connections with Mary ; so that the Mes
siah was a descendant of David both by
law and " according to the flesh." The
discrepances between the various gene
alogies may be reconciled in accordance
with peculiar Jewish laws. The public
records, which Josephus says were scru

pulously kept down to his day, perished
with the ruin of the Jews as a nation.
It is now, therefore, impossible for any
pretended Messiah to prove his descent
from David.

Melchizedek was "without descent,"
Heb. 7 : 3, as regards the Jewish race.
No sacred records proved his right to
be numbered among that people of God.
His priesthood was of a different kind
from that of Aaron and his sons. Coin-
pare Ezra 2 : 62.

GENERATION. Besides the common
acceptation of this, word, as signifying
race, descent, lineage, it is used for the
history and genealogy of a person, as in
Gen. 5:1, "The book of the generations
of Adam," that is, the history of Ad
am's creation and of his posterity. So
in Gen. 2 : 4, "The generations of the
heavens and of the earth," that is, their
genealogy, so to speak, the history of
the creation of heaven and earth ; also
in Matt. 1:1, "The book of the genera
tion of Jesus Christ," that is, the gene
alogy of Jesus Christ, the history of his
descent and life. "The present genera
tion" comprises all those who are now
alive ; ' ' This generation shall not pass
till all be fulfilled," some now living
shall witness the event foretold, Matt.
24:34. " Save yourselves from this un
toward generation," from the punish
ment which awaits these perverse men,
Acts 2: 40.

The Hebrews, like other ancient na
tions, sometimes computed loosely by
generations. Thus in Gen, 15:16, "In
the fourth generation thy descendants
shall come hither again." The duration
of a generation is of course very uncer
tain ; indeed, it is impossible to estab
lish any precise limits. It is, however,
generally admitted that a generation in
the earliest periods is to be reckoned
longer than one in later times. The
Greeks regarded a generation as one-
third of a century. It is now currently
reckoned as thirty years.

GEN'ESIS, the first of the sacred books
in the Old Testament, so called from the
title given to it in the Septuagint, sig
nifying "the book of the generation,"
or production, of all things. Moses is
generally admitted to have been the
writer of this book ; and it is supposed
that he penned it after the promulgation
of the law. Its authenticity is attested
by the most indisputable evidence, and
167

GEN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GER

it is cited as an inspired record thirty-
three times in the course of the Scrip
tures. The history related in it com
prises a period of about 2,369 years, ac
cording to the lowest computation, but
according to Dr. Hales, a much larger
period. It contains an account of the
creation; the primeval state and fall of
man ; the history of Adam and his de
scendants, with the progress of religion
and the origin of the arts ; the genealo
gies, age, and death of the patriarchs
until Noah ; the general defection and
corruption of mankind, the general del
uge, and the preservation of Noah and
his family in the ark ; the history of
Noah and his family subsequent to the
time of the deluge ; the repeopling and
division of the earth among the sons of
Noah ; the building of Babel, the confu
sion of tongues, and the dispersion of
mankind ; the lives of Abraham, Isaac,
Jacob, and Joseph. The book of Gene
sis was written, like the rest of Scrip
ture, "by inspiration of God." Yet
many of the facts it records must have
been well known among the Jews ; the
account given by Adam himself may
have been verbally transmitted through
seven of the patriarchs to Moses, and he
may also have had ancient historical
writings to consult. The book of Gen
esis lays the foundation for all the sub
sequent books of the Bible ; and its value
in the history of the earth, of man, and
of religion, is inestimable.

GENNES'ARET, supposed to be a cor
ruption of Chinnereth, which see. "The
land ofGennesaret," Matt. 14:34, Mark
6:53, was a tract of land some three or
four miles long on the western border
of the sea of Galilee. It was a lovely
and exceedingly fertile region; in it
probably lay Capernaum and Bethsaida
of Galilee, places often visited by our
Lord. See SEA IV.

GEN'TILES, a name given by the He
brews to all those that had not received
the law of Moses. Foreigners who em
braced Judaism, they called proselytes.
Since the promulgation of the gospel,
the true religion has been extended to
all nations ; God, who had promised by
his prophets to call the Gentiles to the
faith, with a superabundance of grace,
having fulfilled his promise ; so that the
Christian church is composed principally
of Gentile converts, the Jews being too
proud of their privileges to acknowledge
168

Jesus Christ as their Messiah and Re
deemer. In the writings of Paul, the
Gentiles are generally called Greeks,
Rom. 1 : 14, 16 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 22, 24 ; Gal.
3:28. So also in those of Luke, in the
Acts 6:1; 11 : 20 ; 18 : 4. Paul is com
monly called the apostle of the Gen
tiles, Gal. 2:8; 1 Tim. 2:7, because he
preached Christ principally to them ;
whereas Peter, etc., preached generally
to the Jews, and are called apostles of
the circumcision, Gal. 2:8.

GENTILES, COURT or THE. Josephus
says there was in the court of the tem
ple a wall or balustrade, breast high,
having pillars at regular distances, with
inscriptions on them in Greek and Latin,
importing that strangers were forbidden
to approach nearer to the altar, Eph.
2:14. See TEMPLE.

GENTILES, ISLES OF THE, Gen. 10:5, Asia
Minor and the whole of Europe, peopled
by the descendants of Japheth.

GE'RAH, the smallest weight or coin
among the Jews, the twentieth part of a
shekel, and worth about two and a half
cents, Ex. 30:13.

GE'RAR, an ancient town or place of
the Philistines in the times of Abraham
and Isaac, Gen. 10 : 19 ; 20 : 1 ; 26 : 1, 6,
17. It lay not far from Gaza, in the
south of Judah, but its exact site is now
unknown. See 2 Chr. 14:13, 14.

GERGESENES', Matt. 8:28 ; in the par-
allel passages in Mark and Luke, Gada-
renes. See GADARA. Some manuscripts
have Gadarenes in Matt. 8 : 28, and others
Gerasenes; but Gerasa lay forty miles
south-east of the scene of the miracle.
Some have thought that the remnant of
the ancient Girgashites gave their name
to this district. A recent explorer finds
ruins called Chcrza or Gersa, midway on
the eastern side of the sea of Galilee ;
and this may be the ancient Gergesa.

GER'IZIM, a mountain in Ephraim,
between which and Ebal lay the city of
Shechem, Judg. 9:7. The world has
beheld few scenes more awful and sug
gestive than when, having conquered
Canaan, all the Israelites were summon
ed to this place, and six tribes were sta-
tioned on mount Gerizim to pronounce
blessings on those who should obey God's
law, and the other six on mount Ebal to
denounce curses on those who should
break it ; while all the people solemnly
gaid, AMEN, Deut. 11:29; 27: 12-26; 28.
See view in SHECHEM.

GER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GET

After the captivity, Manasseh, a seced
ing priest, by permission of Alexander
the Great, built a temple on Gerizim, and
the Samaritans joined the worship of the
true God to that of their idols: "They
feared the Lord, and served their own
gods, after the manner of the nations
whom they carried away from thence,"
2 Kin. 17:33. See SAMARITANS and SAN-
BALLAT.

This temple was destroyed by John
Hyrcanus ; yet its site has always retain
ed its ancient sacredncss. In our Sav
iour's time the true God was worshipped
by the Samaritans, though ignorantly,
John 4. Herod the Great, having rebuilt
Samaria, and called it Sebaste, in honor of
Augustus, would have compelled the Sa
maritans to worship in the temple which
he had erected ;^but they constantly re
fused, and have "continued to this day to
guard their sacred Scriptures, to keep the
law, to pray towards their holy place on

the summit of Gerizim, and to worship
God there four times in the year.

GEll'SHOM, a stranger there, one of the
two sons of Moses and Zipporah, in the
land of Midian, Ex. 2:22; 18:3. Moses
appears to have given them no rank or
emoluments but those of simple Levites,
IChr 23:15.

GER'SHON, the eldest son of Levi,
and head of one of the three branches of
the Levitical tribe, Gen. 40 : 11 ; Ex.
6:16. The Gershonites encamped west
of the tabernacle in the wilderness, and
carried its curtains and other parts from
station to station, Num. 3:17, 25; 4:24-
28,^38-41; 10:17. Thirteen cities were
assigned to them in northern Canaan,
Josh. 21:6; 1 Chr. 6:62, 71.

GE'SIIEM, or GASII'MU, an Arabian,
who opposed the work of the Lord in the
time of Nehemiah, by ridicule and plots,
Neh. 2:19; 6:1-9; about 445 B. c.

GE'SHUR. See next page.

GARDEN OF QETHSEMANE, AND MOUNT OF OLIVES.

GETHSEM'ANE, oil-press, a garden or
grove in the valley at the foot of the
mount of Olives, over against Jerusalem,
to which our Saviour sometimes retired,
and in which he endured his agony, and
was betrayed by Judas, Matt. 26:36-57.
Early tradition locates Gethsemane near
the base of mount Olivet, beyond the
8

brook Kidron. The place now enclosed
by a low stone wall may be but a part ol
the original "garden." H is about fifty-
two yards square, and contains eight
aged olive-trees, whose roots in many
places project above the ground, and are
protected by heaps of stones. Here, or
at most not far off, the Saviour endured
169

GEZ

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GIB

that unspeakable "agony and bloody
sweat" so nearly connected with his ex
piatory death ; and here in deep submis
sion he mingled and closed his prayers
fov relief with the cry, "Nevertheless,
not my will, but thine, be done." From
this garden he could readily see the
crowd of men ' ' with lanterns and torch
es" emerging from the city gate, and
hastening, under the guidance of Judas,
to seize him. It is the spot which the
Christian visitor at Jerusalem first seeks
out, and where he lingers longest and
last ere he turns homeward. A recent
traveller, Professor Hackett, passing by
Gethsemane one day, saw a shepherd in
the act of shearing a sheep. The animal
lay on the ground, with its feet tied, the
man's knee pressed rudely against its
side, while it seemed as if every move
ment of the shears would lacerate its
flesh ; yet during the whole, it struggled
not and opened not its mouth — a touch
ing memento, upon that sacred spot, of
the Lamb of God, Isa. 53:7.

GE'SHUK, GESH'URI, GESHURITES, the
name of a district and people in Syria.
Geshur lay upon the eastern side of the
Jordan between Bashan, Maachah, and
mount Hermon, and within the limits
of the Hebrew territory ; but the Israel
ites did not expel its inhabitants, Josh.
12:5 ; 13:13. They appear to have been
brought under tribute, 1 Chr. 2:23, but
to have retained their own kings. One
of David's wives, Maachah the mother of
Absalom, was daughter of Talmai king
of Geshur ; and it was here that Absa
lom found refuge after the murder of
Amnon, and remained three years with
his grandfather, 2 Sam. 3:3; 13:37;
15 : 8. The word Geshur signifies bridge ;
and in the border of the region, where,
according to the above data, we must
place Geshur, between mount Hermon
and the lake of Tiberias, there still exists
an ancient stone bridge of four arches
over the Jordan, called Jisr-Beni-Jakub,
that is, the bridge of the children of Ja
cob. There seems to have been here an
important pass on the route to Damas
cus and the East.

There was also a people of the same
name in the south of Palestine, near the
Philistines, Josh. 13:2; 1 Sam. 27:8.

GE'ZER, a royal city of the Cahaan-

ites, Josh. 10:33; 12:12; between Beth-

horon and the Mediterranean, Josh.

16:3 ; afterwards on the western border

170

of Ephraim, and assigned to the Levites,
Josh. 16:3; 21:21. The Canaanites long
retained a foothold in it, Josh. 16:10;
Judg. 1 : 29 ; but were dispossessed by a
king of Egypt, and the place given to
his daughter, the wife of Solomon, 1 Kin.
9:16, who fortified it.

GHOST, the spirit, or principle of life
in man. To " give up the ghost," is to
die, to yield the soul to God who gave
it, Gen. 25:8 ; Luke 23:46. See SriiiiT.

GI'ANTS, earth-born. It is supposed
by many that the first men were of a
size and strength superior to these of
mankind at present, since a long life is
usually associated with a well-developed
and vigorous frame. We know also that
there were giants and families of giants,
even after the average length of human
life was greatly abridged. These, how
ever, appear to have rjeen exceptions;
and if we judge from the mummies of
Egypt, and from the armor and imple
ments of the earliest antiquity, found in
ancient tombs, in bogs, and in buried
cities, we should conclude that mankind
never exceeded, in the average, their
present stature. There were, however,
giants before the flood, Gen. 6:4; fruits
of the union of different families, and
extraordinary in stature, power, and
crime. After the flood, mention is made
of a race called Rephaim, Gen. 14:5;
Josh. 17:15; kindred with whom were
the Emim, early occupants of the land
of Moab, and the Zamzummim in Am-
mon, Deut. 2:10, 20. Og was one of the
last of this race, Deut. 3:11, 13. West
of the Dead sea, around Hebron and
Philistia, lived the Anakim, whose as
pect so terrified the Hebrew spies, Num.
13:33; Josh. 11:21, 22. Of this race
were Goliath and his kindred, 1 Sam.
17:4; 1 Chr. 20:4-8. See ANAKIM, GO
LIATH, and REPHAIM.

GIANTS, VALLEY OF THE. See REF-HAIM.

GIB'BETHON, a city of the Philistines,
within the bounds of the tribe of Dan,
and assigned to the Levites, Josh. 19:44 ;
21:23. "The Philistines, however, were
not excluded ; and in the time of Nadab
they were its masters, and he was slain
by Baasha while besieging it, 1 Kin.
15:27 ; 16:15. Its after-history, and its
site are unknown. *

GIB'EAH, a hill, I., a city of Benja
min, 1 Sam. 13:15, and the birthplace
and residence of Saul king of Israel;
whence it is frequently called "Gibeah

GIB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GIH

of Saul," 1 Sam. 11:4; 15:34; 23:19
26:1 ; 2 Sam. 21:6 ; Isa. 10:29. Gibeah
was also famous for its sins; particu
larly for that committed by forcing the
young Levite's wife, who went to lodge
there ; and for the war which succeeded
it, to the almost entire extermination
of the tribe of Benjamin, Judg. 19.
Scripture remarks, that this occurred at
l time when there was no king in Israel,
and when every one did what was right
in his own eyes. Dr. Robinson found
traces of Gibeah in the small and ruin
ous village of Jeba, near Ramah, separat
ed from Michrnash on the north by a
deep valley, and about six miles north
by east from Jerusalem.

II. A town of Judah, Josh. 15:57,
which lay about ten miles south-west of
Jerusalem. The prophet Habakkuk is
said to have been buried here.

III. In mount Ephraim, called Gibeah
of Phinehas, where Eleazar the son of
Aaron was buried, Josh. 24:33. It is
found in the narrow valley El-Jib, mid
way between Jerusalem and Shechem.

GIB'EOX, a considerable city of the
Unites, afterwards a Levitical city in
the tribe of Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 25 ;
21:17. It lay near Geba and Gibeah,
and is sometimes wrongly taken for Ge
ba. Its C.maanite inhabitants secured a
treaty with Joshua and the elders of
Israel by stratagem, and were made
hewers of wood for the sanctuary. Five
neighboring kings unitedly fell upon
them ; but were defeated by the Jews in
a great battle, during which "the sun
iBtood still upon Gibeon," Josh. 9; 10.
Here the tabernacle was set up for many
years, 1 Chr. 16:39; 21:29; 2 Chr. 1:3,
4 ; and here God communed by night
with young king Solomon, 1 Kin 3:4-
15. It,is also memorable for two scenes
in the life of Joab, 2 Sam. 2 : 12-32 ;
20:8-12; Jer. 41:12. It stood on an
eminence, six miles north of Jerusalem.

GIBLITES. Josh. 13:5. See GEBAL.

GID'EOX, or JERUB'BAAL, of the tribe
of Manasseh, a valiant and prudent judge
of Israel, particularly the eastern and
northern tribes, u. c. 1249 to 1209. He
resided in Ophrah, east of the Jordan, a
region often ravaged in harvest-time by
the wandering tribes on its eastern bor
der. Being called of God to deliver his
people, and encouraged by signs from
heaven, he defeated the Midianites, and
caused Israel to dwell in safety for many

years. In punishing the refractory cities
buccoth and Penuel, and the fratricides
Zeba and Zalmunna — in soothing the
jealousy of the Ephraimites, and in de
clining the crown offered him by the
Jews, he evinced those qualities which
made him a successful judge. In the
matter of the golden ephod, however, he
fell into a sin and a snare ; for this me
morial of the wonders God had wrought
became erelong an object of idolatrous
veneration, Judg. 6-8; 1 Sam. 12:11;
Heb. 11:32.

GI'ER-EAGLE, probably an Egyptian
vulture, horrid and filthy, but very use
ful as a carrion- bird, Lev. 11:18. See
VULTURE.

GIFTS have been common from the
earliest times as tokens of affection,
honor, or respect. The dues to a king
were often rendered in this form, 1 Sam.
10 : 27 ; Isa. 36 : 16 ; and men of high
position were approached with presents,
Gen. 43 : 11 ; Judg. 6 : 18 ; 1 Sam. 9:7;

1 Kin. 14:3. Kings made gifts of gar
ments to those they wished to honor,
Gen. 45 : 22, 23 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 4 ; and of
treasures to other princes, out of esteem
or of fear, 2 Kin. 16:8; 18:14; 2 Chr.
9:9, 12. Conquerors scattered gifts from
their triumphal cars, arid special privi
leges in token of generous joy, Psa.
68:18; Acts 1:2, 4. Prophets received
gifts, or declined them, as duty required,

2 Kin. 5:15; 8:9; Dan. 2 : 48 ; 5 : 17.
The word gifts often denotes bribes, Ex.
23:8; Psa. 15:5; Isa. 5:23. The same
word is also applied to the offerings re
quired by the law, Deut. 16:17; Matt.
5:23, 24 ; to the blessings of the gospel
and eternal life, which are preeminently
yifts, Acts 8:20 ; to the Christian graces,
for the same reason, Eph. 4:8, 11 ; and
to the miraculous endowments of the
apostles, 1 Cor. 12-14. See TONGUES.

GI'HON, I., one of the four rivers of
Paradisa ; as some suppose, the Araxes,
Gen. 2:13. See EDEN, and EUPHRATES.

II. A fountain near Jerusalem on the
west, beside which Solomon was anoint
ed king, 1 Kin. 1 : 33, 38. Hezekiah
covered it over, and brought its waters
jy a subterranean channel into the city,
2 Chr. 32 : 3, 30 ; 33 : 14. A pool still
exists in the spot referred to, three him-
Ired feet long, two hundred wide, and
twenty deep, with steps at two corners ;
ind recently, in digging to lay the foun
dations of the Anglican church, an im-
171

GIL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GIR

mense conduit was discovered running
east and west, thirty feet under ground,
"built of stone and coated with cement,
and partly cut out of solid rock. Proba
bly this was connected with the fountain
of Gihon.

GILBO'A, a mountainous ridge south
east of the plain of Esdraelon, having on
each side a valley connecting the great
plain with the Jordan valley. The val
ley north-east of Gilboa is the proper
Jezreel ; that on the south-west side sep
arates Gilboa from the hills of Samaria.
On the eastern part of Gilboa was the
town from which it was named, now
Jelbon. In this vicinity Saul and Jon
athan were defeated by the Philistines,
and died, 1 Sam. 28:4 ; 31. It is now a
dry and barren mountain, 2 Sam. 1:6,
21. Endor lay north from Gilboa, and
Beth-shean north-east.

GIL'EAD, or GALEED', Gen. 31:45-48,
the mound of witness, lay east of the Jor
dan, in the mountainous tract which
runs from mount Hermon southward,
between the Jordan and Arabia Deserta.
The scenery among these mountains is
described as very fine. The plains are
covered with a fertile soil, the hills are
clothed with forests, and at every new
turn beautiful landscapes are presented.
The Scripture references to the stately
oaks and herds of cattle in this region
are well known, Gen. 37 : 25 ; Num.
32:1.

The name Gilead is sometimes put for
the whole country east of the Jordan.
Thus, in Dent. 34:1, God is said to have
showed Moses, from mount Nebo, "all
the land of Gilead unto Dan . ' ' Compare
Num. 32 : 26, 29 ; Deut. 3 : 12. The prop
er region of Gilead, however, lay south
of Bashan, but probably without any
very definite line of separation. Bashan
and Gilead are often mentioned togeth
er, Josh. 12:5; 13:11; 17:1, 5; 2 Kin.
10 : 33. A part of Gilead was the district
now called Belka, one of the most fertile
in Palestine. Sec BALM and BASHAN.

Mount Gilead, in the strictest sense,
was doubtless the mountain now called
Jebel Jelad or Jelud, mentioned by
Burckhardt, the foot of Avhich lies about
two hours' distance, or six miles, south
of the Wady Zerka, or Jabbok. The
mountain itself runs from east to west,
and is about two hours and a half (eight
or ten miles) in length. Upon it are the
ruined towns of Jelad and Jelud ; proba-
172

bly the site of the ancient city Gilead of
Hos. 6:8, elsewhere called Kamoth Gil
ead. Southward of this mountain stands
the modern city of Szalt. It was prob
ably in this mountain that Jacob and
Laban set up their monument, Gen.
31 : 45-48. See also Judg. 7:3.

GIL'GAL, a rolling, L, a celebrated
place between the Jordan and Jericho,
where the Israelites first encamped, after
the passage of that river; where also
they were circumcised, and kept their
first Passover in Canaan, Josh. 4:19;
5 : 9, 10. It continued to be the head
quarters of the Israelites for several years,
while Joshua was occupied in subduing
the land, Josh. 9:6 ; 10:6, 15, 43. A con
siderable city was after wards built there,
Josh. 15 : 7, which became famous for
many events. Here the tabernacle rest
ed, until its removal to Shiloh; here
also, according to the prevalent opinion,
Samuel offered sacrifices, and held his
court as a judge of Israel ; and here Saul
was crowned, 1 Sam. 7 : 16 ; 10 : 8 ; 11:15;
13:7-9; 15:33. A school of the proph
ets was here established, 2 Kin. 4:38;
and yet it afterwards appears to hate
becom.e a seat of idolatry, Hos. 4:15;
9:15;. 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:5. At this
day, no traces of it are found. Accord
ing to Josephus, it lay within two miles
of Jericho.

II. Another Gilgal lay near Antipa-
tris, Josh. 12:23; Neh. 12:29. And per
haps a third in the mountains of Ephra-
im, north of Bethel, Deut. 11:30; 2 Kin.
2:1-6. There are not wanting those
who would make the Gilgal near Anti-
patris the seat of Samuel's judgeship, and
of one of the schools of the prophets.

GI'LOH, a city of Judah, Josh. 15:50;
where Ahithophel, David's counsellor,
dwelt ; and where, after his treason
against David, and the rejection of his
counsel by Absalom, he hung himself,
2 Sam. 15:12; 17:23.

GIRD, GIR'DLE. The orientals com
monly dress in loose robes, flowing down
around the feet ; so that when they wish
to run, or fight, or apply themselves to
any business, they are obliged to bind
their garments close around them with a
sash or girdle. Hence, "to have the
loins girded," is to be prepared for action
or service, 2 Kin. 4:29; Acts 12:8; to
be waiting for the call or coming of one's
master or Lord. Luke 12 : 35. A tight
ened girdle was also thought to increase

GIR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GOA

the power of endurance, and the simile
is used in exhortations to Christian cour
age and fortitude, Job 38:3 ; Jer. 1:17 ;
Eph. 6:14; 1 Pet. 1:13. To have the
girdle loosed, is to be unnerved and un
prepared for action, Isa. 5:27. Girdles
of leather were worn by the common
people ; and also by prophets, 2 Kin.
1:8; Matt. 3 : 4. They were likewise
made of cotton or linen, Jer. 13:1 ; also
of silk, sometimes embroidered. They
were often wide and long ; and were
folded lengthwise, and passed several
times around the body. The girdle,
moreover, answered the purpose of a
purse or pouch, to carry money and
other things ; see Matt. 10:9; Mark 6: 8,
where the word purse in the English is
put for girdle according to the original
Greek. The Arabs and other orientals
wear girdles in the same manner at the
present day ; they also carry a knife or
dagger stuck in them; as was also the
custom of the Hebrews, 1 Sam. 25:13;
2 Sam. 20:8. Clerks carried their ink-
horns, carpenters their rules, etc., in the
same way, Ezek. 9:2. See cuts in GAR
MENTS.

GIR'GASHITES. See CANAANITES.

GIT'TITES. See GATH.

GIT'TITH. The word Gittith signi
fies belonging to Gath. It probably denotes
either a musical instrument or a kind of
music derived from Gath, where David
sojourned for a time during the persecu
tion of Saul, 1 Sam. 27:1-7. The word
Gath also signifies in Hebrew a wine-press.
Hence riot a few have supposed that it
denotes either an instrument or a melo
dy used in the vintage. It is prefixed
to Psalms 8, 81, 84, all of which require
an animated strain of music.

GLASS was well known to the ancients,
and no doubt to the Jews ; its invention
is traced to an incident on the coast of
Phoenicia, and the arts of blowing, col
oring, and cutting it were familiar to
the ancient Egyptians. The "looking-
glasses ' ' of the Jews, however, were of
highly polished metal, usually small and
round, Ex. 38:8; Job 37:18; Jas. 1:23.
Glass does not appear to have been used
at that time for mirrors, nor for win
dows; but for cups, bottles, vases, or
naments, sacred emblems, etc. It is al
luded to in 1 Cor. 13:12; Kev. 4:6;
15:2; 21.18, 21; probably also in Job
28:17, where our English version has
the word crystal.

GLEDE, a kind of hawk or kite, Deut.
14:13. The same Hflbrew word is trans
lated vulture in Lev. 11:14.

GLO'RY, GLO'RIFY, words of great
and manifold significance in the Bible,
used with reference to God and his
works, the Saviour and his gospel, the
heavenly state, etc. "The glory of
God" was often visibly revealed in the
old dispensation — some dazzling appear
ance indicative of his special presence,
Ex. 16:7-10 ; 24 : 9, 10, 16, 17 ; 33:18-
23; 1 Kin. 8:11; Psa. 80:1; Zech. 2:5.
God's glory is shown in his works,
Psa. 19 : 1 ; Eom. 1 : 19, 20. But it is
most fully and illustriously displayed in
the work of redemption, "in the face of
Jesus Christ." "Here the whole Deity
is known," John 1:14; 2 Cor. 4:6 ; Heb.
1:3. The chief end of the Christian is
to live "to the glory of God," so that
God may be seen to be most glorious,
1 Cor. 6 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 9. The adjura
tion, "give God the glory," means, con
fess the truth in view of his omniscience,
Josh. 7:19; John 9: 24. The expression,
"my glory," Psa. 16:9; 80:12; 57:8;
108:1, is equivalent to my soul, or my
self, as the parallelism shows.

GNAT, a small winged stinging in
sect, 'a mosquito, spoken of in the pro
verbial expression. Matt. 23:24, "Ye
strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel,"
which should read, as it did in the first
English translations, " Ye strain out a
gnat," etc. The expression alludes to
the Jewish custom of filtering wine, for
fear of swallowing any insect forbidden
by the law as unclean, Lev. 11:23 ; and
is applied to those who are superstitious-
ly anxious in avoiding small faults, yet
do not scruple to commit great sins.

GOAT, a well-known animal, resem
bling the sheep, but covered with hair
instead of wool. Large flocks of them
were kept by the Jews, Gen. 27 : 9 ;
1 Sam. 25:2 ; 2 Chr. 17:11. They were
regarded as clean for sacrifice, Ex. 12:5 ;
Lev. 3:12 ; Num. 15:27 ; and their milk
and the young kids were much used for
food, Deut. 14 : 4 ; Judg. 6 : 19 ; Prov.
27 : 27 ; Luke 15 : 29. The common leath
er bottles were made of their skins. Sev
eral kinds of goats were kept in Pales
tine : one kind having long hair, like
the Angora, and another, long and
broad ears. This kind is probably re
ferred to in Amos 3:12, and is still the
common goat of Palestine.
173

GOA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GOD

HEAD OF THE SYRIAN GOAT.

Herodotus says, that at Mendes, in
Lower Egypt, both the male and female
goat were worshipped. The heathen god
Pan was represented with the face and
thighs of a goat. The heathen paid di
vine honors also to real goats, as appears
in the table of Isis. The abominations
committed during the feasts of these in
famous deities cannot be told.

WILD GOATS are mentioned in 1 Sam.
24:2 ; Job 39 : 1 ; Psa. 104 : 18. This is

doubtless the Ibex, or mountain-goat, a
large and vigorous animal still found in
174

the mountains in the peninsula of Sinai,
and east and south of the Dead sea.

These goats are very similar to the
bouquetin or chamois of the Alps. They
feed in flocks of a score or two, with one
of their number acting as a sentinel. At
the slightest alarm, they are gone in an
instant, darting fearlessly over the rocks,
and falling on their horns from a great
height without injury. Their horns are
two or three feet long, and are sold by
the Arabs for knife-handles, etc. For
SCAPE-GOAT, see EXPIATION.

GOATS' HAIK was used by Moses in
making the curtains of the tabernacle,
Ex. 25:4 ; 26:7 ; 35:6. The hair of the
goats of Asia, Phrygia, and Cilicia, is
very bright and fine, and hangs to the
ground ; in beauty it almost equals silk,
and is never sheared, but combed off.
The shepherds carefully and frequently
wash these goats in rivers. The women
of the country spin the hair, which is
carried to Angora, where it is worked
and dyed, and a considerable trade in
the article carried on. The natives at
tribute the quality of the hair to the soil
of the country. The ordinary goats-
hair cloth of the Arabs, used for the cov
erings of tents, etc. , is coarse and black ;
and this is the kind of which the gar
ments of the Hebrew prophets and of the
poor were made.

GOD. This name, the derivation of
which is uncertain, we give to that eter
nal, infinite, perfect, and incomprehen
sible Being, the Creator of all things,
who preserves and governs all by his
almighty power and wisdom, and is the
only proper object of worship. The prop
er Hebrew name for God is JEHOVAH,
which signifies lie is. But the Jews, from
a feeling of reverence, avoid pronouncing
this name, substituting for it, wherever
it occurs in the sacred text, the word
ADONAI, Lord ; except in the expression,
ADONAI JEHOVAH, Lord Jehovah, for which
they put, ADONAI ELOHIM, Lard God. This
usage, which is not without an element
of superstition, is very ancient, dating
its origin some centuries before Christ ;
but there is no good ground for assum
ing its existence in the days of the in
spired Old Testament writers. The prop
er word for God is ELOHIM, which is
plural in its form, being thus used to
signify the manifold perfections of God,
or, as some think, the Trinity in the
godhead. In Ex. 3:14, God replies to

GOD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GOL

Moses, when he asks Him His name, I AM
THAT I AM ; which means either, I am he
who I am, or, I am what I am. In
either case the expression implies the
eternal self-existence of Jehovah, and his
incomprehensible nature. The name I
AM means the same as JEHOVAH, the first
person being used instead of the third.

The Bible assumes and asserts the ex
istence of God, "In the beginning God
created the heavens and the earth ;" and
is itself the most illustrious proof of his
existence, as well as our chief instructor
as to his nature and will. It puts a
voice into the mute lips of creation ; and
not only reveals God in his works, but
illustrates his ways in providence, dis
plays the glories of his character, his
law, and his grace, and brings man into
true and saving communion with him.
It reveals him to us as a Spirit, the only
being from everlasting and to everlast
ing by nature, underived, infinite, per
fect, and unchangeable in power, wis
dom, omniscience, omnipresence, justice,
holiness, truth, goodness, and mercy.
He is but one God, and yet exists in
three persons, the Father, the Son, and
the Holy Spirit ; and this distinction of
the Three in One is, like his other attri
butes, from everlasting. He is the
source, owner, and ruler of all beings,
foreknows and predetermines all events,
and is the eternal judge and arbiter of
the destiny of all. True religion has its
foundation in the right knowledge of
God, and consists in supremely loving
and faithfully obeying him. See JESUS
CHRIST, and HOLY SPIRIT.

GODS. The words god and gods, He
brew ELOIIIM, are several times used in
Scripture to express the power, office, or
excellence of some created beings, as an
gels, magistrates, Ex. 22:20, 28; Psa.
86:8 ; 97:7 ; often also for the false gods
of the heathen. These were exceedingly
numerous, and are denoted by various
terms, signifying vanity, falsehood, etc.
Among the first objects to be deified
were the sun, the moon, and the chief
powers of nature. Innumerable animals,
deceased men, all ages, passions, and con
ditions of man, and every thing which
fear, lust, malice, pride, or caprice could
suggest, were made objects of worship.
The gods of modern India are numbered
by millions.

GOD'LY, that which proceeds from
God, and is pleasing to him. It also

signifies conformity to his will, and an
assimilation to his character, Psa. 12:1;
Mai. 2:15; 2 Cor. 1:2; Tit. 2:12. God
liness is the substance of revealed relig
ion, ITim. 8:16; 4:8; 2 Pet. 1:6.

GOG and MA'GOG are usually spoken
of together in Scripture. In Gen. 10:2,
Magog, which seems to denote a country
with its people, is reckoned among the
descendants of Japheth. In Ezek. 38,
39, Magog apparently signifies a coun
try with its people, and Gog the king
of that people ; but critics are much
divided as to the people and country
intended under these names. The Scyth
ians, the Goths, the Persians, and sever
al other nations, have been specified by
interpreters as the Magog of the Scrip
tures ; but most probably it is a name
given generally to the northern nations
of Europe and Asia, or the districts north
of the Caucasus. The names reappear in
the later predictions of John as enemies
of the people of God, who are to be sig
nally overthrown in Armageddon, Eev.
16:14-16; 20:7-9.

GO'LAN, a Levitical city of refuge, in
the north-west portion of Bashan. It
lay east or north-east of the sea of Gali
lee, but its site is now lost. See GAU-
LAN.

GOLD, a well-known valuable metal,
found in many parts of the world, and
obtained anciently in Ophir, Job 28 : 16 ;
Parvaim, 2 Chr. 3:6; Sheba, and Eaa-
mah, Ezek. 27:22. Job alludes to gold
in various forms, Job 22:24; 28:15-19.
Abraham was rich in it, and female or
naments were early made of it, Gen.
13:2 ; 24:22, 35. It is spoken of through
out Scripture ; and the use of it among
the ancient Hebrews, in its native and
mixed state, and for the same purposes
as at present, was very common. The
ark of the covenant was overlaid with
pure gold ; the mercy-seat, the vessels
and utensils belonging to the tabernacle,
and those also of the house of the Lord,
as well as the drinking-vessels of Solo
mon, were of gold.

GOLGOTHA, the Hebrew name for
CALVARY, which see.

GOLIATH, a celebrated giant of Gath
who challenged the armies of Israel, and
was encountered and slain by David.
The history is contained in 1 Sam. 17.
His height was nine feet and a half; or,
if we reckon the cubit at twenty-one
inches, over eleven feet. See GIAXTS.
175

GOM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GOS

GO'MER, I., Gen. 10:2, 3; IChr. 1:5;
Ezek. 38:6, a son of Japheth, and father
of Ashkenaz, Kiphath, and Togarmah.
He is believed to have settled the north
ern shores of the Black sea, and given
name to the ancient Cimmerians and to
the Crimea. About 700 B. c. a part of
his posterity diffused themselves in Asia
Minor. Traces of his name and parent
age are also found in the Cymbri, Um-
bri, and Cambri of historians, in Ku-
mero and Kumeraeg, the names of the
Welsh people and language, and among
various nations of Europe.

II. A harlot whom the prophet Hosea
appears to have married in prophetic
vision, as directed by God, that the Jews
might be led to reflect on the guilt of
their spiritual uncleanness or idolatry,
Hos. 1.

GOMOR'RAH, one of the cities in the
fruitful vale of Sidclim, near the south
ern part of the ancient Dead sea, mirac
ulously blasted by God. See SODOM.

GOPHER, the name of the wood of
which the ark was built. Many sup
pose it to be the cypress; others, the
pine. Gopher may probably be a gen
eral name for such trees as abound with
resinous inflammable juices, as the ce
dar, cypress, lir-trec, pine, etc., Gen.
0:14.

GO'SHEN, I., the name of that tract
of country in Egypt which was inhabited
by the Isi'aelites from the time of Jacob
to that of Moses. It was probably the
tract lying east of the Pelusian arm of
the Nile, towards Arabia. See EGYPT.
It appears to have reached to the Nile,
Ex. 1:22 ; 2:3, since the Jews ate fish in
abundance, Num. 11 : 5, and practised
artificial irrigation, Deut. 11:10. It was
near Heliopolis and Rameses, and not far
from the capital of Egypt, Gen. 45:10;
47 : 1 1 ; Ex. 8-12. It was a part of ' ' the
best of the land." at least for the pasto
ral Hebrews, Gen. 46:34, and was evi
dently better watered and more fertile
than at present. Here they greatly mul
tiplied and prospered, Gen. 47:27, and
here they were sorely afflicted, and yet
not forgotten of God', Ex. 8 : 22 ; 9 : 26.
Many Egyptians dwelt among and around
them.

II. A city and the adjacent territory
in the mountains of Judah, Josh. 10:41 ;
11:10; 15:51.

GOS'PEL signifies good neivs, and is
that revelation and dispensation which
176

God has made known to guilty man
through Jesus Christ our Saviour and
Redeemer. Scripture speaks of "the
gospel of the kingdom," Matt. 24:14,
the gospel "of the grace of God," Acts
20:24, "of Christ," and "of peace,"
Rom. 1:16; 10:15. It is the "glorious"
and the "everlasting" gospel, 1 Tim.
1 : 11, Rev. 14 : 6, and well merits the
noblest epithets that can be given it.
The declaration of this gospel was mad©
through the life and teaching, the death,
resurrection, and ascension of our Lord.

The writings which contain the recital
of our Saviour's life, miracles, death, res
urrection, and doctrine, are called GOS
PELS, because they include the best news
that could be published to mankind.
We have four canonical gospels — those
of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
These have not only been generally re
ceived, but they were received very early
as the standards of evangelical history,
as the depositories of the doctrines and
actions of Jesus. They are appealed to
under that character both by friends and
enemies ; and no writer impugning or
defending Christianity acknowledges any
other gospel as of equal or concurrent
authority, although there were many
others which purported to be authentic
memoirs of the life and actions of Christ.
Some of these apocryphal gospels are
still extant. They contain many errors
a,nd legends, but have some indirect
value.

There appears to be valid objection to
the idea entertained by many, that the
evangelists copied from each other or
from an earlier and fuller gospel. Wheth
er Mark wrote with the gospel by Mat
thew before him, and Luke with Mat
thew and Mark both, or not, we know
that they "spake as they were moved
by the Holy Ghost" while recounting
the works and sayings of Christ which
they nad seen or knew to be true, using
no doubt the most authentic written
and oral accounts of the same, current
among the disciples. They have not at
all confined themselves to the strict
order of time and place.

GOSPEL OF MATTHEW. The time when
this gospel was written is very uncer
tain. All ancient testimony, however,
goes to show that it was published be
fore the others. It is believed by many
to have been written about A. D. 38. It
has been much disputed whether this

GOU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GOU

gospel was originally written in Hebrew
or Greek. The unanimous testimony of
ancient writers is in favor of a Hebrew
original, that is, that it was written in
the language of Palestine and for the
use of the Hebrew Christians. But, on
the other hand, the definiteness and ac
curacy of this testimony is drawn into
question ; there is no historical notice of
a translation into Greek ; and the present
Greek gospel bears many marks of being
an original ; the circumstances of the
age, too, and the prevalence of the Greek
language in Palestine, seem to give
weight to the opposite hypothesis. Crit
ics of the greatest name are arranged on
both sides of the question ; and some
who believe it to have been first written
in Hebrew, think that the author him
self afterwards made a Greek version.
Matthew writes as "an Israelite in
deed," a guileless converted Jew in
structing his brethren. He often quotes
from the Old Testament. He represents
the Saviour as the f ulnlment of the hopes
of Israel, the promised Messiah, King of
the kingdom of God.

GOSPEL or MARK. Ancient writers agree
in the statement that Mark, not himself
an apostle, wrote his gospel under the
influence and direction of the apostle
Peter. The same traditionary authori
ty, though with less unanimity and evi
dence, makes it to have been written at
Kome, and published after the death of
Peter and Paul. Mark wrote primarily
for the Gentiles, as appears from his fre
quent explanations of Jewish customs,
etc. He exhibits Christ as the divine
Prophet, mighty in deed and word. He
is a true evangelical historian, relating
facts more than discourses, in a concise,
simple, rapid style, with occasional mi
nute and graphic details.

GOSPEL OF LUKE. Luke is said to have
written his gospel under the direction of
Paul, whose companion he was on many
journeys. His expanded views and cath
olic spirit resemble those of the great
apostle to the Gentiles ; and his gospel
represents Christ as the compassionate
Friend of sinners, the Saviour of the
world. It appears to have been written
primarily for Theophilus, some noble
Greek or Koman, and its date is gener
ally supposed to be about A. D. 63.

GOSPEL OF JOHN. The ancient writers
all make this gospel the latest. Some
place its publication in the first year of

the emperor Nerva, A. D. 96, sixty-seven
years after our Saviour's death, and
when John was now more than eighty
years of age. The gospel of John re
veals Christ as the divine and divinely
appointed Redeemer, the Son of God
manifested in flesh. It is a spiritual, rath
er than historical gospel, omitting many
things chronicled by the other evange
lists, and containing much more than
they do as to the new life in the soul
through Christ, union with him, regen
eration, the resurrection, and the work
of the Holy Spirit. The spirit of the
' ' disciple whom Jesus loved ' ' pervades
this precious gospel. It had a special
adaptation to refute the Gnostic heresies
of that time, but is equally fitted to
build up the church of Christ in all gen
erations.

GOURD. It has been supposed that
Jonah's gourd was the Ricinus Commu-
nis, or castor-oil plant. It grows in the
East to the height of eight to twelve feet,
and one species much higher. Its leaves
are large, and have six or seven divis-

THE CASTOR-OIL PLANT.

ions, whence its name of Palma Christi.
Since, however, it is now known thai
in the vicinity of the ancient Nine
veh, a plant of the gourd kind is com-
177

GOZ

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GRA

monly trained to run over structures of
mud and brush, to form booths in which
the gardeners may protect themselves
from the terrible beams of the Asiatic
Bun, this goes far to show that this vine,
called in the Arabic ker'a, is the true
gourd of Jonah. If the expression,
"which came up in a night," Jonah
4:10, is to be understood literally, it in
dicates that God ' ' prepared ' ' the gourd,
ver. 6, by miraculously quickening its
natural growth.

The WILD GOURD is a poisonous plant,
conjectured to mean the colocynth, which
has a cucumber-like vine, with several
branches, and bears a fruit of the size
and color of an orange, with a hard,
woody shell, within which is the white
meat or pulp, exceedingly bitter, and
a drastic purgative, 2 Kin. 4 : 89. It
was very inviting to the eye, and fur
nished a model for the carved ' ' knops ' '
of cedar in Solomon's temple, 1 Kin.
6:18; 7:24.

GO'ZAN, now the Ozan, a river of
Media and the adjacent district, Isa.
37 : 12, to which Tiglath-pileser and
afterwards Shalmanezer sent the captive
Israelites, 2 Kin. 17 : 6 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 26.
The Kizzil-ozan, or Golden river, is in
the north-west part of Persia, and flows
north-east, with large curves, into the
Caspian sea.

GRACE, favor, mercy. Divine grace is
the free and undeserved love and favor
of God towards man as a sinner, especial
ly as exhibited in the plan of redemption
through Jesus Christ, John 1:17 ; 3:16 ;
Rom. 3 : 24-26. It is only by the free
grace of God that we embrace the offers
of mercy, and appropriate to ourselves
the blessings graciously purchased by
redeeming blood.

The "GRACE OF GOD," spontaneous,
unmerited, self-directed, and almighty,
is the source of the whole scheme of re
demption, Rom. 11:6; 2 Tim. 1:9. With
it are united "the grace of our Lord
Jesus Christ," who gave himself for sin
ners ; and that of "the Spirit of grace,"
by whom alone the grace offered by the
Father and purchased by the Son is effec
tually applied. Thus GRACE in man, or
all true holiness, 2 Pet. 3 : 18, is traced
up to the grace of God aa its only source ;
and the gospel of Christ and the work of
the Spirit — both pure grace — are its only
channels of communication. Hence also
all the fruits and blessings of the gospel
178

are termed graces, 2 Cor. 8:7 ; Phil 1:7 ;
not only regeneration, pardon, enlight
enment, sanctilication, etc., but miracu
lous, official, and prophetic gifts, the
peculiar traits of Christian character,
and everlasting salvation, 1 Pet. 1:13.
In Gal. 5:4, "grace" means, God's plan
of salvation by his mercy, not by our
works.

GRAIN. See CORN.

GRAPES, the fruit of the vine. The
grapes of Palestine were very fine, of
great size and high flavor, Num. 13:24.
At present, and probably the same has
always been true, the wine that is made
requires but a small part of the annual
yield of the vines. Dr. Robinson says,
' ' No wine is made from the very exten
sive vineyards of Hebron, except a little
by the Jews." While yet green, grapes
are used for food in various ways, and
are dried in the sun, or their juice pre
served in bottles, to secure a pleasant
vegetable tart all the year round, Num.
6:4. Ripe grapes may be had in Syria
four or five months, Lev. 26 : 5 ; and
when the season closes many are hung
up in clusters, suitably protected, and
remain without drying up all through
the winter. Grapes are exceedingly
cheap, and form no small part of the
ordinary food. Ripe grapes are also
dried into raisins ; and after the hang
ing grapes are gone, the raisins are used
until the return of new grapes.

Besides the law which protected the
first three years' growth of the vine, (see
FRUITS,) there was another law requiring
the Jews to leave the gleanings of their
vineyards for the poor, Lev. 19 : 10, 23.
The law also allowed one who was pass
ing a vineyard to pick a few grapes to eat
on the spot, but not to carry any away,
Deut. 23:24. Everywhere we encounter
proofs of the admirable humanity that
characterized the Mosaic legislation. A
vineyard nearly stripped of its clustered
treasures was a frequent image of deso
lation, Isa. 17:6; 24:13; Obad. 5. See
VINE.

' ' Wild grapes ' ' were the fruit of a
wild vine, probably the Vitis Labrusca
of Linnaeus, the wild claret-grape. The
fruit of the wild vine is called oeiianthes,
or the flower of wine. They never ripen,
and are good only for verjuice. In Isa.
5:2, 4, God complains of his people
whom he had planted as a choice vine,
an excellent plant, that he had a right to

GRA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

GRE

require of them good fruit, but they had I
Drought forth only wild grapes — fruit of
a bad smell, and a bad taste.

GRASS sometimes means any green
herbage, Isa. 15:6, and sometimes the
usual food of cattle, Psa. 104:14. The
quick growth of grass, its tenderness,
and its rapid combustion when dry, have
furnished the sacred writers with some
of their most appropriate illustrations,
Psa. 90 : 5, 6 ; 92 : 7 ; 103 : 15, 16 ; Isa.
40:6-8; 51:12; James 1:10; 1 Pet. 1:24.
AH sorts of grass and small shrubs are
still used in Syria for fuel, on account of
the scarcity of wood, Matt. 6 : 28-30.
Travellers in that country often see grass
growing on the housetops, the roofs
being flat and coated with earth trodden
hard. Such grass quickly withers when
the rainy season is over, Psa. 129 : 6, 7 ;
Isa. 37:27.

GRASS'HOPPER, a kind of locust, and
so called in 2 Chr. 7:13. It was some
times used for food, Lev. 11 : 22. Indi
vidually they are insignificant and timid
creatures, Num. 13:33, and their worth-
lessness furnishes a striking comparison
h Isa. 40:22 ; while the feebleness of age
is expressed by inability to endure them,
Eccl. 12 : 5. Yet coming in great num
bers, they are destructive to all herb
age, Amos 7:1. See LOCUST.

GREECE, in the Old Testament, is put
for the Hebrew word Javan, which is
equivalent to Ionia, and seems to include
not only Greece but western Asia Minor,
and the intervening isles, all settled by
the Ionian race, Gen. 10 : 2. Greece prop
er, however, is chiefly intended. It is
not often mentioned in the Old Testa
ment, Dan. 8:21; 10:20; 11:2; Joel
3:6; Zech. 9:13. See JAVAN.

In the New Testament, Greece is call
ed Hellas, a name supposed to have be
longed first to a single city, but at length
applied to the whole country south of
Macedonia. About B c. 146, the Ro
mans conquered Greece, and afterwards
organized two great provinces, namely,
Macedonia, including Macedonia proper,
Thessaly, Epirus, and Illyricum ; and
Achaia, including all the country which
lies south of the former province. (See
ACHAIA.) In Acts 20:2, Greece is prob
ably to be taken in its widest accepta
tion, as including the whole of Greece
proper and the Peloponnesus. This
coxmtry was bounded north by Macedo
nia and Illyricum, from which it was

separated by mountains, south by the
Mediterranean sea, east by the ^Egean
sea, and west by the Ionian sea. It wag
generally known under the three great
divisions of Peloponnesus, Hellas, arid
Northern Greece.

Peloponnesus, more anciently called
Pelasgia, and Argos, and now the Morea,
was the southern peninsula ; it included
the famous cities, Sparta, Messene, Elis,
Corinth, Argos, etc. The division of
Hellas, which now constitutes a great
part of Livadia, included the following
cities: Athens, Mcgara, Platyea, Delphos,
and Actium. Northern Greece included
Thessaly and Epirus, with the cities La-
rissa, Nicopolis, etc. The large islands
of Crete and Euboea belonged to Greece,
as well as most of those in the Archipel
ago and on the west.

The Jews and the Greeks appear to
have had little intercourse with each
other, until after Alexander the Great
overran Egypt. Syria, and the East.
They then began to come in contact
everywhere, for both races were widely
dispersed. The Jews extended the name
of Greeks to include the people conquer
ed and ruled by Greeks ; and the word
is thus nearly synonymous in the New
Testament with Gentiles, Mark 7:26;
Acts 20 : 21 ; Rom. 1 : 16, The term
"Grecian" or Hellenist, on the con
trary, denotes a Jew by birth or religion,
who spoke Greek. It is used chiefly of
foreign Jews and proselytes, in contrast
with the Hebrews, that is, those speak
ing the vernacular Hcurew, or Aramaean,
Acts 6:1 ; 9:29. The Greeks were a viva
cious, acute, and polished, but superficial
people, compared with the Jews. They
excelled in all the arts of war and peace ;
but were worshippers of beauty, not of
duty. Their pride of intellect, and their
corruption of morals, were almost insur
mountable obstacles to their reception
of Christianity. Yet it was among the
Greek cities and people that Paul chiefly
labored, and with great success. Many
flourishing churches were, in early times,
established among them ; and theie
can be no doubt that they, for a long
time, preserved the apostolic customs
with much care. At length, however,
opinions fluctuated considerably on
points of doctrine ; schisms and heresies
divided the church ; and rancor, vio
lerice, and even persecution followed in
their train. To check these evils, coun-
179

GRI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HAB

cils were called and various creeds com
posed. The removal of the seat of gov
ernment from Rome to Constantinople,
gave a preponderance to the Grecian dis
tricts of the empire, and the ecclesiasti
cal determinations of the Greek church
were extensively received. In the mid
dle of the eighth century disputes arose,
which terminated in a permanent schism
between the Greek and Latin churches.
The Greek church has a general resem
blance to the Koman-catholic, and em
braces a population of not far from fifty
millions of souls, in Russia, Greece, Tur
key, Syria, etc.

THE GREEK LANGUAGE is the original
language of all the books of the New
Testament, except perhaps the gospel by
Matthew ; but the sacred authors have
followed that style of writing which was
used by the Hellenists, or Grecizing
Hebrews, adopting many idioms and
turns of speech from the Syriac and He
brew languages, very different from the
classical style of the Greek writers.
They were also obliged to make use of
some new words, and new applications
of old words, to express religious ideas
before unknown to the Greeks, and for
which they had no proper expression.
After Alexander the Great, Greek be
came the language best known through
out the East, and was generally used in
commerce. As the sacred authors had
in view the conversion not only of the
Jews, then scattered throughout the
East, but of the Gentiles also, it was nat
ural for them to write to them in Greek,
that being a language to which all were
of necessity accustomed.

GRIND. See CORN.

GROVES were very early used for re
ligious worship, Gen. 21:33. "The
groves were God's first temples," and
seem naturally fitted for such purposes.
Groves were also resorted to by hea
then idolaters. Some elevated spot
was generally chosen for this purpose.
' ' They sacrifice upon the tops of moun
tains, and burn incense upon the hills ;
under oaks and poplars and elms, be
cause the shadow thereof is good," Hos.
4: 13. It should be noticed, however, that
the Hebrew word Asherah, which occurs
in many passages, and is rendered grove
in the English version, rather signifies an
image of Astarte, 1 Kin. 18:19; 2 Kin.
13:6 ; etc. See ASHTORETH. The " high
places ' ' spoken of in Scripture were used
180

first, for the worship of Jehovah, 1 Kin.
3:3, 4 ; etc. This was, strictly speaking,
an irregularity, since, according to the
law of Moses, every sacrifice was required
to be brought to the altar of the sanc
tuary, Lev. 17:8, 9; Deut. 11:13, 16.
'ihe "high places" were also used,
secondly, for the worship of idols, 2 Kin,
23:15, etc.

H.

HABAK'KUK, one of the minor proph
ets. Of his life we know nothing, except
that he appears to have been contempo
rary with Jeremiah, and to have proph>
esied about 610 B. c., shortly before Neb
uchadnezzar's first invasion of Judea,
2 Kin. 24:1.

The BOOK OF HABAKKTJK consists of
three chapters, which all constitute one
oracle. In the first chapter, he foretells
the woes which the rapacious and terri
ble Chaldeans would soon inflict upon
his guilty nation. In the second, he
predicts the future humiliation of the
conquerors. The third is a sublime and
beautiful ode, in which the prophet im
plores the succor of Jehovah in view of
his mighty works of ancient days, and
expresses the most assured trust in him.
Nothing, even in Hebrew poetry, is
more lofty and grand than this trium
phal ode.

HABER'GEON, Neh. 4:16. Job 41: 26,
a coat of mail ; an ancient piece of de
fensive armor, in the form of a coat or
tunic, descending from the neck to the

HAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HAL

middle of the body, and formed of tough
hide, or many quilted linen folds, or of
scales of brass overlapping each other
like fishes' scales, or of small iron rings
or meshes linked into each other, Ex.
28:32; 39:23.

HA'BOR, or CIIABOR, a city of Media,
near which Tiglath-pileser, and after
wards Shalmanezer located portions of
the captive Israelites. It is thought to
have stood where the town of Abhar
now exists on a branch of the river Go-
zan, 2 Kin. 17:6; 18:11.

HA'DAD, I., an Idumean prince, who
defeated the Midianites in the plains of
Moab, Gen. 36:35 ; 1 Chr. 1:16.

II. A second prince of Edom, men
tioned in 1 Chr. 1:61.

III. Another Edomite of the royal
family, who fled to Egypt while young,
upon David's conquest of Edom, 2 Sam.
8:14; was well received, and married
the queen's sister. After the death of
David and Joab, he returned to Edom
and made an ineffectual effort to throw
off the yoke of Solomon, 1 Kin. 11:14-
22; 2 Chr. 8:17.

HADADE'ZER, or HADARE'ZER, a pow
erful king of Syria, reigning in Zobah
and the surrounding country, even to
the Euphrates, 1 Kin. 11:23. He was
thrice defeated and his power overthrown
by David, 2 Sam. 8 : 3, 4 ; 10 : 6-14, 16-
19; IChr. 18:3; 19:6.

HA'DAD-RIM'MON, a place in the
valley of Megiddo, where the good king
Josiah lost his life in a battle with the
Ethiopians, 2 Kin. 23:29; 2 Chr. 35:20-
25. The lamentation over this event
was very great, Zech. 12:11.

HADO'RAM. See ADONIRAM.

HA'GAR, stranger, an Egyptian bond
maid in the household of Sarah, Gen.
12:16, who, being barren, gave her to
Abraham for a secondary wife, that by
her, as a substitute, she might have
children, in accordance with the customs
of the East in that age. The history of
Hagar is given in Gen. 16; 17 ; 21. In
an allegory, Paul makes Hagar represent
the Jewish church, which was in bond
age to the ceremonial law; as Sarah
represents the true church of Christ,
which is free from this bondage, Gal.
4 : 24. Her name is much honored among
the Arabs claiming to be her descend
ants.

HAGARENES', or HA'GARITES, 1 Chr.
5 : 10, 20, descendants of Hagar and Ish-

mael. In Psa, 83:6, the name seems to
be given to a distinct portion of the Ish-
maelites.

HAG'GAI, one of the minor prophets,
probably accompanied Zerubbabel in the
first return of the Jews from Babylon,
B. c. 536. He began to prophesy in the
second year of Darius Hystaspis, B. c.
520 ; and the object of his prophesying
was to excite his countrymen to begin
again the building of the temple, which
had been so long interrupted. In this
he was successful, Darius having grant
ed a decree for this purpose, Ezra 6. The
exceeding glory of the second temple
was, as he foretold, that Christ "the
Desire of all nations " came into it, and
made the place of his feet glorious, Hag.
2:7-9.

HAIL ! a salutation, importing a wish
for the welfare of the person addressed.
It is now seldom used among us ; but
was customary among our Saxon ances
tors, and imported "joy to you," or
"health to you," including in the term
health all kinds of prosperity.

HAIL-STONES, are drops of rain form
ed into ice by the power of cold in the
upper regions of the atmosphere. Hail
was among the plagues of Egypt, Ex.
9:24, and was the more terrible, because
it rarely occurred in that country. Hail
was also made use of by God for defeat
ing an army of Canaanites, Josh. 10:11;
and is used figuratively to represent ter
rible judgments, Isa. 28:2; Rev. 16:21.

HAIR. The Jewish men, except Naz-
arites, Num. 6:5, 9, and cases like that
of Absalom, 2 Sam. 14:26, cut their hair
moderately short, 1 Cor. 11:14, and ap
plied fragrant ointments to it, Ex. 30:30-
33 ; Psa. 23 : 5 ; Eccl. 9:8. In mourn
ing they wholly neglected it, or shaved
it close', or plucked it out by handfuls,
Jer. 7:29. Women prized a fine head of
hair, and plaited, perfumed, and decked
it in many ways, Isa. 3:18, 24; 1 Cor.
11:15, so much as to call for apostolic
interdictions, 1 Tim. 2 : 9 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 9.
"Hair like women's" characterized the
locusts of antichrist, Rev. 9:8. Lepers,
when cleansed, and Levites, on their con
secration, shaved the whole body, Lev.
13; 14:8, 9.

HALAH, 2 Kin. 17:6. See HABOR.

HALLELU'JAH, and in the New Tes<

tament, ALLELUIAH, Praise ye Jehovah.

This word occurs at the beginning and

at the end of many psalms. It was also

181

HAL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HAN

sung on solemn days of rejoicing, as an
expression of joy and praise, and as such
it has been adopted in the Christian
church, and is still used in devotional
psalmody, Rev. 19:1, 3, 4, 6.

HAL/LOW, to render sacred, set apart,
consecrate. The English word is from
the (Saxon, and means to make holy: hence
hallowed persons, things, places, rites,
etc. ; hence also the name, power, and
dignity of God are hallowed, that is, rev
erenced as holy.

HAM, burnt, swarthy, black, I., a son of
Noah, Gen. 5 : 32 ; 7 : 13 ; 9 : 18 ; 10 : 1.
The impiety revealed in his conduct tow
ards his father, drew upon him, or rath
er, according to the Bible statement, on
his son Canaan, a prophetic malediction,
Gen. 9 : 20-27. Ham was the father of
Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan, that
is, the ancestor of the Canaanites, South
ern Arabians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, and
the Africans in general, Gen. 10:6-20.

II. A poetical name for Egypt, Psa.
78:51; 106:22.

III. An unknown place of the Zuzim,
Gen. 14:5.

HA' MAN, a favoriteof Ahasuerus. king
of Persia. In order to revenge himself
upon Mordccai the Jew, he plotted the
extermination of all the Jews in the
kingdom ; but in the providence of God
he was thwarted by Esther, fell into dis
grace with the king, and wrought his
own ruin and the upbuilding of the
Jews. He is called an Agagite ; and as
Agag was a common name of the Ama-
lekite kings, the Jews believe he was of
that race. This would help to explain
his malice against the Jews. See AMALEK-
ITES. Similar wholesale slaughters are
still plotted in Asia, and the whole narra
tive is confirmed and illustrated by the
descriptions of eastern life furnished by
modern travellers in the same region.
The death of Hainan took place about
485 B. c. His eventful history shows
that pride goes before destruction ; that
the providence of God directs all things;
that his people are safe in the midst of
perils ; and that his foes must perish.

HA MATH, a celebrated city of Syria.
Hamath, like Jerusalem and Damascus,
is one of the few places in Syria and Pal
estine which have retained a certain de
gree of importance from the very earliest
ages to the present time. The name oc
curs in Gen. 10:18, as the seat of a Ca-
naanitish tribe ; and it is often mentiou-
182

ed as the northern limit of Canaan in its
widest extent, Num. 13:21; Josh. 13:5;
Judg. 3:3. In David's time, Toi king
of Hamath was his ally, 2 Sam. 8:9, 10.

Burckhardt describes Hamath as "sit
uated on both sides of the Orontes ; a
part of it is built on the declivity of a
hill, and a part in the plain. The town
is of considerable extent, and must con
tain at least 30,000 inhabitants. There
are four bridges over the Orontes in the
town. The river supplies the upper
town with water by means of buckets
fixed to high wheels, which empty them
selves into stone canals, supported by
lofty arches on a level with the upper
part of the town. There are about a
dozen of the wheels ; the largest of them
is at least seventy feet in diameter. The
principal trade of Hamath is with the
Arabs, who buy here their tent furniture
and clothes. The government of Ha
math comprises about one hundred and
twenty inhabited villages, and seventy
or eighty which have been abandoned.
The western part of its territory is the
granary of northern Syria, though the
harvest never yields more than ten for
cue, chiefly in consequence of the im
mense numbers of mice, which some
times wholly destroy the crops." "The
entering in of Hamath ' ' is the northern
part of the valley which leads up to it
from Palestine, between Lebanon and
Anti-Lebanon, Num. 13:21; IKin. 8:65.

HANANEEL', a kinsman of Jeremiah,
from whom the prophet bought a piece
of ground before the captivity, and had
the legal record made, in token of his
prophetic assurance that his people would
return to their possessions, Jer. 82:6-12.

HANA'NI, I., a seer in the time of
Asa, 955-914 B. c., imprisoned for his
fidelity. He was also the father of the
prophet Jehu, 1 Kin. 16 : 1-7 ; 2 Chr.
16:7-10; 19:2; 20:34.

II. A brother of Nehemiah, who
brought to Babylon an account of the
wretched state of the Jews then at Jeru
salem, and afterwards had charge of the
gates of the city, Neh. 1:1-3; 7 : 2, 3,
B. c. 455.

HANANI'AH, I., a false prophet of
Gibeon, who for his impious hardihood
was overtaken with speedy death, accord
ing to the word of God, Jer. 28:15-17.

II. The Hebrew name of Shadrach.

III. A pious and faithful officer under
Nehemiah, Neh. 7:2.

HAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HAR

HAND is often put for strength, power ;
so to be "in the hand" of any one, is
to be in his power. Joining hands, or
striking hands, is a very common meth
od of pledging one's self to a contract or
bargain ; just as persons among us often
shake hands in token of an agreement.
To " lift the hand," means to make oath.
" At the right hand of God," is the place
of honor, power, and happiness, Psa.
16:11; 45:9; 110:1; Matt. 26:64; Col.
3:1. The right hand meant towards the
south, the Jews being wont to. speak as
if facing the east, the "laying on of
hauls," signified consecration to office,
and the bestowal of a blessing or of di
vine gifts, Gen. 48 : 14 ; Num. 8 : 10 ;
27:18 ; Mirk 10 : 16 ; Acts 6:6; 19 : 6 ;
ITitn. 4:14. The hands of the high-
priest laid upon the scape-goat, as if
transferring the guilt of the people to
his heid, represented the work wrought
by Christ in order that the sinner might
not be " driven away in his wickedness."
See WASHING.

HA'NES, a city of Egypt, Isa. 30 : 4,
thought to be the modern Ehnes, in
middle Egypt on the Nile.

HANNAH, the pious wife of a Levite
of Rauiathaun-Zophitn, named Elkan.ih,
and mother of Samuel, B.C. 1171. She
had earnestly besought the Lord for him,
and freely devoted him to serve God ac
cording to her vow. She was afterwards
blessed with three other sons and two
daughters, 1 Sam. 1-2:21.

HA'NQN, a king of the Ammonites,
whose father Nahash had befriended Da
vid in his early troubles. Upon the death
of Nahash, David sent an embassage to
condole with his son. The shameful
treatment received by these ambassadors
led to a destructive war upon the Am
monites, 2 Sam. 10: 1 Chr. 19.

HA RA, 1 Chr ,.5: 26, probably a moun
tainous region in the northern part of
Media.

HA'RAN, I., the eldest son of Terah,
brother of Abraham, and father of Lot,
Milcah, and Iscah. He died before his
father Terah, Gen. 11:26-31.

II. An ancient city, called in the New
Testament Charran, in the north-west
part of Mesopotamia. Here, after leav
ing Ur, Abraham dwelt till his father
Terah died ; and to this old homestead
Isaac sent for a wife, and Jacob fled from
the wrath of Esau, Gen. 11:31, 32 ; 12:5 ;
24 ; 27:43 ; 28 : 10 ; 29 : 4. Haran was

ravaged by the Assyrians in the time of
Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 19 : 12 ; Isa. 37 : 12.
Here also Crassus the Roman general
was defeated and killed by the Parthi-
ans. Harran, as it is now called, is sit
uated on a branch of the Euphrates, in
36° 52' N. lat., and 39° 5' E. long., in a
flat and sandy plain, and is only peopled
by a few wandering Arabs, who select it
for the delicious water it furnishes.

THE COMMON HARE OF PALESTINE.

HARE, of the same genus as the rab-
bit, prohibited to the Jews for food, Lev.
11:6, because, though it " cheweth the
cud," it "divideth not the hoof." No
species of hare is known which strictly
chews the cud. There were several va
rieties of the hare in Syria.

HAR' LOT, an abandoned woman, Prov.
29:3; a type of idolatrous nations and
cities, Isa. 1 : 21 ; Ezek. 16 ; Nah. 3 : 4.
Among the Jews, prostitutes were often
foreigners ; hence their name of " strange
women." They were often devoted to
heathen idols, and their abominations
were a part of the worship, Num. 25:1-
5 ; Hos. 4:14; a custom from the defile
ment of which the house of God was ex
pressly defended, Deut. 23:18.

HAR'NESS, a suit of defensive armor,
1 Kin. 20 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 18 : 33. The He
brews went out from Egypt "harness
ed,'.' that is, properly equipped or ar
ranged.

HAROD, a spring near Jezreel and
mount Gilboa, Judg. 7:1 ; 2 Sam. 23:25.

HARO'SHETH OF THE GENTILES, a city
in t'ue north of Canaan, the residence of
Sisera, Judg. 4:2 ; 13 ; 16. The mission
ary Thompson finds its ruins at a place
still called Har*othieh, the Arabic equiv
alent for Harosheth, on a hill command
ing the entrance to the narrow passage
of the Kishon from the plain of Esdrae-
lon to the plain of Acre.

HARP, Hebrew KINNOR, the most an
cient and common stringed instrument
183

EAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HAZ

ANCIENT HARPS OR LYRES

of the Jews, more properly translated
lyre. It was light and portable, and
was used on joyful occasions, whether
sacred or not. It was invented by Ju-
bal, Gen. 4 : 21 ; 31 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 16 : 5 ;
25:1-5; Psa. 81:2. David was a profi
cient in its use, 1 Sam. 16:16, 23 ; 18:10.
The instrument most nearly resembling
our harp was the Hebrew NEBEL, trans
lated psaltery in the Old Testament,
Psa. 57:8; 81:2; 92:3; 108:2. It had
a general triangular shape, and seven to
twelve strings, Psa. 33 : 2 ; 144 : 9. It
was played with the hand, or with a
short iron rod or plectrum, according to
its size. The Jews had other stringed
instruments, like the guitar and lute,
but little can be accurately determined
respecting their form, etc. See Music.

HART, or STAG, a species of deer, clean
by the Levitical law, Deut. 12:15, and
celebrated for its elegance, agility, and
grace, Song 2:9; Isa. 35:6. See HIND,
and ROE.

HATE often denotes in Scripture only
a less degree of love, Gen. 29 : 30, 31 ;
Deut. 21:15; Prov. 13:24; Mai. 1:2, 3:
Luke 14 : 26 ; Rom. 9 : 13. God has a
just and perfect abhorrence of sin and
sinners, Psa. 5:5. But hatred in gen
eral is a malevolent passion, Gal. 5:20,
and no one who is not perfect in love,
can hate without sin.

HAU'RAN, Ezek. 47:16, was original
ly a small district south of Damascus,
and east of the sea of Tiberias, but was
afterwards extended to .the south and
east, and under the Romans was called
Auranitis. It now includes the ancient
Trachonitis, the Haouran, Iturasa, and
part of Batanaea, and is very minutely
described by Burckhardt. Many ruins
of cities, with Greek inscriptions, are
scattered over its rugged surface. i

184

HAVI'LAH. The Scriptures mention
a Havilah descended from Ham, Gen.
10 : 7, and another from Shem, Gen.
11:29. We must assume a double Havi
lah, corresponding to each of these.

1. The location of one Havilah is con
nected with that of the garden of Eden.
According to one theory, it is to be sought
on the south-eastern extremity of the
Black sea ; according to another, at the
head of the Persian gulf. See EDEN.

2. The other Havilah seems to have
been in Arabia. From the statement in
1 Sam. 15:7, that "Saul smote the Am-
alekites from Havilah unto Shur, that is
over against Egypt," it would seem to
have been somewhere in the north-west
ern part of Arabia ; since, from the cir
cumstances of this campaign, we cannot
well suppose that it extended over a great
tract of country.

HA'VOTH-JAIR', huts of Jair, a dis
trict in Gilead, containing thirty ham
lets belonging to the thirty sons of Jair,
judges of Israel, Num. 32 : 41 ; Judg.
10:3, 4.

HAWK, or FALCON, a strong-winged
and rapacious bird, of several species in
Syria; unclean for the Hebrews, Lev.
11:16, but sacred among the Greeks and
Egyptians. In its migrations, it illus
trates the wise providence of the Crea*
tor, Job 39:26.

HAY, in Prov. 27:25 and Isa. 15:6,
denotes the first shoots of grass. The
Jews did not prepare and store up hay
for winter use, as is customary in cold
climates.

HAZAEL, an officer of Benhadad king
of Syria, whose future accession to the
throne was revealed to the prophet Eli
jah, 1 Kin. 19 : 15. Many years after
wards he was sent by Benhadad to con
sult Elisha, then at Damascus, as to his
recovery from sickness, and on the next
day smothered the king with a wet cloth,
2 Kin. 8 : 7-15, B. c. 885. His discom
posure under the eye of the prophet was
an indication that he had already medi-
iated this crime. Having usurped the
ihrone, he reigned forty years ; and by
lis successful and cruel wars against Ju-
dah and Israel justified the forebodings
of Elisha, 2 Kin. 8 : 28 ; 10 : 32 ; 12 : 17 ;
13:3, 7; 2 Chr. 22:5.

HAZ'ERIM, an ancient abode of the
A vim, apparently in the north-western
part of Arabia Petrasa, Deut. 2:23.

HAZ'EROTH, a station of the Israel-

HAZ

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HEB

ites, about five days' journey from mount
Sinai, Num.J.l:35. Here they remained
a week or more, Num. 12 ; and their next
station recorded was near Kadesh-bar-
nea, on the borders of Canaan, Num.
12:16; 13:26; Deut. 1:19-21.

HAZE'ZON-TA'MAR. See EN-GEDI.

HA'ZOR, I., a chief city of northern
Canaan, whose king Jabin, at the head
of an allied host, was defeated by Joshua,
Josh. 11:1-13. Hazor revived, however,
and for a time oppressed the Israelites ;
but was subdued by Barak, fortified by
Solomon, and remained in the possession
of Israel until the invasion of Tiglath-
pileser, Josh. 19:36; Judg. 4:2; 1 Kin.
9: 15 ; 2 Kin. 15:29. It lay not far from
lake Merom.

II. A legion in Arabia, laid waste by
Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 49:28-33. Its lo
cation is unknown.

III. Cities in Judah and Benjamin,
Josh. 15:23; Neh. 11:33.

HEATH, supposed to be the Juniper,
a low tree found in desert and rocky
places, and thus contrasted with a tree
growing by a water-course, Jer. 17:5-8 ;
48:6.

HEAVEN, in the Bible, means pri
marily the region of the air and clouds,
and of the planets and stars, but chiefly
the world of holy bliss above the visible
heavens. It is called "the third heav
en," "the highest heaven," and "the
heaven of heavens," expressions nearly
synonymous. There holy beings are to
dwell, seeing all of God that it is possi
ble for creatures to see. Thither Christ
ascended, to intercede for his people and
prepare for them a place where all shall
at length be gathered, to go no more out
for ever, Eph. 4:10; Heb. 8:1 ; 9:24-28.
In this life we can know but little of the
location and appearance of heaven, or of
the employments and blessedness of its
inhabitants. The Scriptures inform us
that all sin, and every other evil, are
for ever excluded ; no fruits of sin will
be found there — no curse nor sorrow nor
sighing, no tear, no death : the former
things are passed away. They describe
it figuratively, crowding together all the
images which nature or art can supply
to illustrate its happiness. It is a king
dom, an inheritance : there are rivers of
pleasure, trees of life, glorious light, rap
turous songs, robes, crowns, feasting,
mirth, treasures, triumphs. They also
give us positive representations: the

righteous dwell in the presence of God ;
they appear with Christ in glory. Heav
en is life, everlasting life : glory, an eter
nal weight of glory : salvation, repose,
peace, fulness of joy, the joy of the Lord.
There are different degrees in that glory,
and never-ceasing advancement. It will
be a social state, and its happiness, in
some measure, will arise from mutual
communion and converse, and the ex
pressions and exercises of mutual benev
olence. I twill include the perfect purity
of every saint ; delightful fellowship with
those we have here loved in the Lord,
Matt. 8:11; 17 : 3, 4 ; 1 Thess. 2 : 19 ;
4:13-18 ; the presence of Christ, and the
consciousness that all is perfect and ever
lasting. We are taught that the body
will share this bliss as well as the soul :
the consummation of our bliss is subse
quent to the resurrection of the body ;
for it is redeemed as well as the soul,
and shall, at the resurrection of the just,
be fashioned like unto Christ's glorious
body. By descending from heaven, and
reascending thither, he proves to the
doubting soul the reality of heaven ; he
opens its door for the guilty by his aton
ing sacrifice ; and all who are admitted
to it by his blood shall be made meet for
it by his grace, and find their happiness
for ever in his love. See KINGDOM OF
HEAVEN.

HE'BER, I., an ancestor of the He
brews, Luke 3 : 35. See HEBREWS.

II. A Kenite, descended from Hobab,
Moses' father-in-law. He resided in the
northern part of Canaan, and seems to
have been a man of note in his day. His
•wife Jael slew Sisera with her own hand,
Judg. 4:11, 17; 5:24.

HE' BREWS, that branch of the poster-
ity of Abraham whose home was in the
land of promise. The name Hebrew is
first applied to Abraham in Gen. 14:13,
and is generally supposed to have been
derived from Heber, the last of the long-
lived patriarchs. Heber outlived six
generations of his descendants, includ
ing Abraham himself, after whose death
he was*for some years the only surviving
ancestor of Isaac and Jacob. Hebrews
appears to have been the name by which
the Jewish people were known to for-
igners, in distinction from their com
mon domestic name, "the children of
Israel. ' ' The name of Jews, derived from
Judah, was afterwards applied to them
as inhabitants of Judea, 2 Kin. 16:6.
185

HEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HEB

Abraham, the founder of the Jewish
nation, was a migratory shepherd, whose
property consisted mainly in vast flocks
and herds, but who had no fixed resi
dence, and removed from place to place
as the convenience of water and pastur
age dictated. As such a nomad, he had
lived in Ur of the Chaldees, and then in
Haran, whence he removed and dwelt in
the same manner among the Canaanites,
in the country which God promised to
give to his posterity. His son and
grandson, Isaac and Jacob, followed in
his steps. By a miraculous arrange
ment of Providence, Joseph, one of the
sons of Jacob, became grand- vizier of
Egypt ; and in a time of famine invited
his family to settle in that land. Here
they dwelt four hundred and thirty
years ; during which time the Egyptians
reduced them to a state of bondage.
From this they were delivered by Jeho
vah through Moses, who led them out
with great signs and wonders to Sinai,
where God gave them his law; and
then, after forty years of wanderings, he
brought them to the borders of the
promised land. Here Moses died, and
was succeeded by Joshua, who conquer
ed the desired country, and allotted it
to the several tribes. From this time
they were governed in the name of Je
hovah, by chiefs, julges, or patriarchal
rulers, until the time of Samuel ; when
the government was changed to a mon
archy, and Saul anointed king. David,
a shepherd youth, but the man after
God's own heart, was afterwards king,
and founded a family which continued
to reign in Jerusalem until the entire
subjugation of the country by the Chal
deans. Under his grandson Rehoboam,
however, ten tribes revolted and formed
a separate kingdom, that of Israel, be
tween which and the kingdom of Judah
there were hostile feelings and frequent
wars. The termination of the whole was
the carrying away of the greater part of
both nations to Babylonia, Media, etc.
After seventy years of exile, a few small
colonies of Hebrews returned, aftd built
another temple at Jerusalem, and at
tempted to reestablish their nation ; but
they had to struggle first, under the
Maccabees, against the kings of the Se-
leucian race, (see JERUSALEM,) and then
against the Romans ; by whom at length,
under Titus, Jerusalem was taken and
utterly destroyed, A. D. 70-71. Since
186

that time, although Jerusalem has been
rebuilt, the Hebrews have Ceased to exist
as an independent people ; but they are
scattered among all the nations of the
earth, where they retain their character
istic traits, and live as strangers, and, hi
a great measure, as outcasts.

The government of the Hebrews is,
by Josephus, called a theocracy — a form
of government which assigns the whole
power to God, with the management of
all the national affairs— God, in fact,
being the proper King of the state. This
government, however, underwent sev
eral changes under the legislator Moses,
his successor Joshua, the judges, the
kings, and the high-priests. But amid
all these revolutions, God was considered
as the monarch of Israel, though he did
not exercise his jurisdiction always in
the same manner. In the time of Moses,
he dwelt among his people as a king in
his palace, or in the midst of his camp ;
always ready to be consulted, promul
gating all needful laws, and giving spe
cific directions in all emergencies. This
was, properly, the time of the theocracy,
in the strictest sense of the term. Under
Joshua and the judges, it continued
nearly the same : the former being filled
by the spirit which animated Moses,
would undertake nothing without con
sulting Jehovah ; and the latter were
leaders, raised up by God himself, to de
liver the Hebrews and govern in his
name. The demand of the people for a
king occasioned to Samuel, the proph
et-judge, great disquietude; for he re
garded it as a rejection of the theocratic
government, 1 Sam. 8 : 6, 7. God com
plied with the wishes of the people ;
but he still asserted his own sovereign
authority, and claimed the obedience of
all.

The religion of the Hebrews may be
considered in different points of view,
with respect to the different conditions
of their nation. Under the patriarchs,
they were instructed in the will of God
by direct revelation, worshipped him by
prayer and sacrifices, opposed idolatry
and atheism, used circumcision as the
appointed seal of the covenant made by
God with Abraham, and followed the
laws which the light of grace and faith
discovers to those who honestly and se
riously seek God, his righteousness, and
truth. They lived in expectation of the
Messiah, the Desire of all nations, to

HEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HEB

complete their hopes and wishes, and
fully to instruct and bless them. Such
was the religion of Abraham, Isaac, Ja
cob, Judah, Joseph, etc., who maintained

the worship of God and the tradition of
the true religion. After the time of Mo
ses, the religion of the Hebrews became
more fixed, and ceremonies, days, feasts,
priests, and sacrifices were determined
with great exactness. This whole dis
pensation only prefigured that more per
fect one which should in after-times aiise,
when the Messiah should come, and bring
life and immortality to light in his gos
pel, and make a full atonement for the
sins of the world. See TYPE.

The long abode of the Hebrews in
Egypt had cherished in them a strong
propensity to idolatry ; and neither the
miracles of Moses, nor his precautions to
withdraw them from the worship of
idols, nor the rigor of his laws, nor the
splendid marks of God's presence in the
Israelitish camp, were able to conquer
this unhappy perversity. We know with
what facility they adopted the adoration
of the golden calf, when they had re
cently been eye-witnesses of such divine
wonders. Saul and David, with all their
authority, were not able entirely to sup
press such inveterate disorders. Super
stitions, which the Israelites did not dare
to exercise in public, were practised in
private. They sacrificed on the high
places, and consulted diviners and ma
gicians. Solomon, whom God had cho
sen to build his temple, was himself a
stone of stumbling to Israel. He erected
altars to the false gods of the Phoenicians,
Moabites, and Ammonites, and not only
permitted his wives to worship the gods
of their own country, but himself to
some extent adored them, 1 Kin. 11:5-7.
Most of his successors showed a similar
weakness. Jeroboam introduced the
worship of the golden calves into Israel,
which took such deep root that it was
never entirely extirpated. It was for
this cause that God gave the Hebrews
over into the hands of their enemies, to
captivity and dispersion. See IDOLATRY.
After the captivity, they appear to have
been wholly free from the worship of
idols ; but they were still corrupt and far
from God, and having filled the cup of
their guilt by rejecting and crucifying
the Lord of glory, they were extirpated
as a nation and became strangers and
sojourners over all the earth.

For the language of the Hebrews, see
LANGUAGE.

The existence of the Hebrews as a
people distinct from all others, to this
day, is a miracle of that indisputable
kind which may well justify a few re
marks.

1. They are spread into all parts of
the earth ; being found not only in Eu
rope and America, but to the utmost
extremity of Asia, even in Thibet and
China. They abound in Persia, North
ern India, and Tartary, wherever travel
lers have penetrated. They are, as
they assert, descendants of the tribes
carried away captive by the Assyrian
monarchs. They are also numerous in
Arabia, in Egypt, and throughout Africa.

2. In most parts of the world their
state is much the same— one of dislike,
contempt, and oppression. In past ages
innumerable exactions and wrongs have
been heaped upon them. Within the
last few years they have received more
justice at the hands of some of the Euro
pean states ; but they have usually held
their possessions by a very precarious
tenure.

3. They everyAvhere maintain observ
ances peculiar to themselves : such as
circumcision, performed after the law of
their fathers; the great day of expia
tion ; also the observance of a sabbath or
day of rest on Saturday, and not on
the Christian Sabbath. They have gen
erally retained the observance of the
passover in some form.

4. They are divided into various sects.
Some of them are extremely attached to
the traditions of the rabbins, and to the
multiplied observances enjoined in the
Talmud. Others, as the Caraites, reject

| these with scorn, and adhere solely to
1 Scripture. The majority of the Jews in
Europe, and those with whose works we
are mostly conversant, are rabbinists,
and may be taken as representatives of
the ancient Pharisees.

5. They everywhere consider Judea as
their proper country, and Jerusalem ap
their metropolitan city. Wherever set

| tied, and for however long, they still
( cherish a recollection of country, unpar
alleled among other nations. They have
not lost it ; they will not lose it ; and
they transmit it to their posterity. How
ever comfortably they may be settled in
any residence, they hope to see Zion and
Jerusalem revive from their ashes.
187

HEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HEL

6. The number of the Jewish nation
was estimated a few years ago, for the
information of Buonaparte, at the fol
lowing amount, but from what docu
ments we know not:

In the Turkish empire 1,000,000

In Persia, China, India, on the

east and west of the Ganges- - 300,000
In the west of Europe, Alrica,

America 1 ,700,000

Total 3,000,000

This number is probably very far short
of the truth. Maltebrun estimates them
at from four to five millions.

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE. The object
of this epistle, which ranks among the
most important of the New Testament
books, was to prove to the Jews, from
their own Scriptures, the divinity, hu
manity, atonement, and intercession of
Christ, particularly his preeminence over
Moses and the angels of God ; to demon
strate the superiority of the gospel to
the law, and the real object and design
of the Mosaic institution ; to fortify the
minds of the Hebrew converts against
apostasy under persecution, and to en
gage them to a deportment becoming
their Christian profession. In this view,
the epistle furnishes a key to the Old
Testament Scriptures, and is invaluable
as a clear elucidation and an inspired,
unanswerable demonstration of the doc
trine of the great atoning Sacrifice as set
forth in Old Testament institutions. The
name of the writer of this epistle is no
where mentioned. The majority of crit
ics, however, refer it to the apostle Paul.
It is also believed to have been written
in Greek, at Rome, and about A. D. 63.
See PAUL.

HE'BRON, one of the most ancient
cities of Canaan, being built seven years
before Tanis, the capital of Lower Egypt,
Num. 13 : 22. It was anciently called
Kirjath-arba, (see ARBA,) and Mamre,
and was a favorite residence of the patri
archs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Here
too they were buried, Gen. 14 : 13-24 ;
23 : 2-19 ; 35 : 27. Under Joshua and Ca
leb the Israelites conquered it from the
Canaanites and Anakim, and it was after
wards made a Levitical city of refuge,
Josh. 14:13-15; 15:13; 21:11, 13; Judg.
1:10, 20. It was David's seat of govern
ment during the seven years when he
reigned over Judah only, 2 Sam. 2:3; 5:5.
Here Absalom raised the standard of re
volt, 2 Sam. 15:9, 10. It was fortified by
188

Rehoboam, and is mentioned after the
captivity, but not in the New Testa
ment, Neh. 11:25. At present Hebron is
an un walled city of about 8,000 inhabit
ants, of whom some 600 are Jews, and
the remainder Turks and Arabs. It lies
in a deep valley and on the adjacent hill
side, in the ancient hill country of Ju-
dea, about twenty miles south of Jerusa
lem, and 2,600 feet above the sea. Its
modern name, El-khulil, the friend, is
the same which the Moslems give to
Abraham, "the friend of God;" and
they profess to hold in their keeping the
burial-place of the patriarchs, the ' ' cave
of Machpelah. " It is covered by a small
mosque, surrounded by a stone structure
60 feet high, 150 feet wide, and 200 feet
long. Within this no Christian is per
mitted to enter ; but it is evidently of
very high antiquity, and may well be
regarded as inclosing the true site of the
ancient tomb. Other relics of antiquity
exist in two stone reservoirs, the larger
133 feet square, and 21 feet deep. They
are still in daily use ; and one of them was
probably the "pool in Hebron," above
which David hung up the assassins of
Ish-bosheth, 2 Sam. 4:12. The city con
tains nine mosques and two synagogues.
Its streets are narrow ; the houses of
stone, with flat roofs surmounted by
small domes. Large quantities of glass
lamps and colored rings are here manu^
factured ; also leathern bottles, raisins,
and dibs, or grape-syrup. The environs
of the city are very fertile, furnishing
the finest vineyards in Palestine, numer
ous plantations of olive and other fruit
trees, and excellent pasturage. See ESH-
COL, MAMRE.

HEIF'ER. Red heifers were to be of
fered in sacrifice for the national sins, in
the impressive manner described in Num.
19:1-10, illustrating the true sacrifice for
sin in the person of Christ, Heb. 9:13,
14. The well-fed heifer was a symbol of
wanton wildness, Jer. 46 : 20 ; 50 : 11 ;
Hos. 4:16.

HEL'BON, formerly supposed to be
Haleb, or as called in Europe, Aleppo, a
city of Syria, about one hundred and
eighty miles north of Damascus, and
about eighty from the Mediterranean
sea. In 1822, Aleppo was visited by a
dreadful earthquake, by which it was
almost entirely destroyed. Its present
population is not one half of the 200,000
it then possessed. But recently a valley

HEL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HEL

has been found on the eastern slope of
An ti -Lebanon, north of the Barada, call
ed Helbon, from one of its principal vil
lages. Its grapes and the wine made
from them are still remarkable for their
fine quality. This valley is probably the
Helbon of Ezek. 27:18.

HELIOP'OLIS, city of the sun, I., a cel
ebrated city of Egypt, called in Coptic,
Hebrew, and the English version, ON, sun,
light, Gen. 41:45. The Seventy mention
expressly, Ex. 1:11, that On is Heliop-
olis. Jeremiah, 43 : 13, calls this city
Beth-shemesh, that is, house or temple
of the sun. In Ezekiel, 30:17, the name
is pronounced Aven, which is the same
as On. The Arabs called it Ain-Shems,
fountain of the sun. All these names
come from the circumstance that the
city was the ancient seat of the Egyp
tian worship of the sun. It was in ruins
in the time of Strabo, who mentions that
two obelisks had -already been carried
away to Rome. At present its site, six

miles north-north-east from Cairo, is
marked only by extensive ranges of low
mounds full of ruinous fragments, and a
solitary obelisk formed of a single block
of red granite, rising about sixty feet
above the sand, and covered on its four
sides with hieroglyphics.

II. Another Heliopolis is alluded to in
Scripture under the name of the "plain
of Aven," or field of the sun, Amos 1:5.
This was the Heliopolis of Ccele-Syria,
now Baalbec. Its stupendous ruins have
been the wonder of past centuries, and
will continue to be the wonder of future
generations, till barbarism and earth
quakes shall have done their last work.
The most notable remains are those of
three temples, the largest of which, with
its courts and portico, extended 1,000
feet from east to west. A magnificent
portico, 180 feet long, with twelve lofty
and highly wrought columns, led to a
large hexagonal court, and this to a vast
quadrangle, 440 feet by 370. Fronting

RUINS OF BAALBEC.

on this, rose ten columns of the peristyle
which surrounded the inner temple.
There were nineteen columns on each
side, or fifty-four in all, only six of
which are now standing, and they were
seven feet in diameter, and sixty-two
feet high, besides the entablature of

nearly fourteen feet. This temple rested
on an immense vaulted substructure,
rising nearly fifty feet above the ground
outside, and in this are three stones six
ty-three feet long and thirteen feet high,
lying twenty feet above the ground,
the temples are of Roman oricdn ; and
189

HEL

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

HER

in vastncss of plan, combined with elab
orateness and delicacy of execution, they
seem to surpass all others in the world.
1 ' They are like those of Athens for light
ness, but far surpass them in vastness-;
they are vast and massive, like those of
Thebes, but far excel them in airiness
and grace." (Robinson.)

HEL'KATH-HAZZU'RIM, field of he
roes, a place near Gibeon, so named from
a fatal duel-like combat, preceding a
battle between the armies of David and
Ish-bosheth, 2 Sam. 2:16.

HELL. The Hebrew SHEOL, and the
Greek HADES, usually translated hell,
often signify the place of departed spir
its, Psa. 16:10; Isa. 14:9; Ezek. 31:16.
Here was the rich man, after being bur
ied, Luke 16 : 23. The above and many
other passages in the Old Testament
show the futility of that opinion which
attributes to the Hebrews an ignorance
of a future state.

The term hell is most commonly ap
plied to the place of punishment in the
unseen world, and is usually represented
in the Greek New Testament by the word
Gehenna, valley of Ilinnom. See HINNOM.
In 2 Pet. 2:4, the rebellious angels are
said, in the original Greek, to have been
cast down into " Tartarus," this being the
Grecian name of the lowest abyss of Ha
des. Other expressions are also used, in
dicating the dreadfulness of the anguish
there to be endured. It is called "outer
darkness," "flame," "furnace of fire,"
"unquenchable fire," "fire and brim
stone," etc., Matt. 8:12; 13:42; 22:13;
25:20; 41; Mark 9: 43-48 ; Jude 13; Rev.
20 : 14. The misery of hell will consist in
the privation of the vision and love of
God, exclusion from every source of hap
piness, perpetual sin, remorse of con
science in view of the past, malevolent
passions, the sense of the just anger of
God, and all other sufferings of body and
soul which in the nature of things are the
natural results of sin, or which the law
of God requires as penal inflictions. The
degrees of anguish will be proportioned to
the degrees of guilt, Matt. 10 : 15 ; 23 : 14 ;
Luke 12:47, 48. And these punishments
will be eternal, like the happiness of
heaven. The wrath of God will never
cease to abide upon the lost soul, and it
will always be "the wrath to come."

HE'MAN, L, a.celebrated sage, of the
tribe of Judah. The period of his life is
unknown, 1 Kin. 4:31.
190

II. A Kohathite Levite, to whom as a
chief musician of the temple the eighty-
eighth Psalm is inscribed, 1 Chr. 6:33;
16:41, 42.

HEM'LOCK, Hos. 10:4, Amos 6:12,
in Hebrew, ROSH, usually translated gall
or bitterness, Deut. 32:32, and mention*
ed in connection with wormwood, Deut.
29 : 18 ; Jer. 9 : 15 ; 23 : 15 ; Lam. 3:19.
It indicates some wild, bitter, and nox
ious plant, which it is difficult to deter
mine. According to some it is the poi
sonous hemlock, while others consider it
to be the poppy.

HEN. The care of a hen to protect
her brood from hawks, etc., illustrates
the Saviour's tender care of his people
when exposed to the swoop of the Ro
man eagle, as in all similar perils, Matt.
23:37; 24:22. The common barn-door
fowl is not often mentioned in Scripture,
Mark 13:35 ; 14:30 ; Luke 22:34 ; but at
the present day they and their eggs are
more used in Syria than any other food
not vegetable.

HE'NA, supposed to have been a city
of Mesopotamia afterwards called Ana,
at a ford of the Euphrates, 2 Kin. 18:34 ;
19:13; Isa. 37:13

HEPH'ZIBAH, my delight, the mother
of Manasseh, 2 Kin. 21:1, and a name
given to the church, Isa. 62:4.

HER'ESY, choice, chosen way of life
or faith ; sect, school, party. The Greek
word properly designates any sect or
party, without implying praise or cen
sure. So everywhere in the book of
Acts, 5:17 ; 15:5; 26:4, 5. In the epis
tles it denotes a sect or party in a bad
sense, implying a refractory spirit, as
well as error in faith and practice, 1 Cor.
11 : 19 ; Gal. 5: 20 ; 2 Pet. 2:1. After the
primitive age, the word came to signify
simply error in doctrine.

HER'MAS, a Christian at Rome, Rom.
16:14; supposed by some to have been
the writer of the ancient work called
"The Shepherd of Hennas" — a singular
mixture of truth and piety with folly
and superstition.

HERMOG'ENES, and PHYGEL'LUS,
fellow-laborers with Paul in Asia Minor,
who deserted him during his second im
prisonment at Rome, 2 Tim. 1 : 15.

HER'MON, a lofty mountain on the
north-east border of Palestine, called
also Sirion, Shenir, and Sion, (not Zion,)
Deut. 3 : 8 ; 4 : 39. It is a part of the
great Anti-Lebanon range ; at the point

HER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HER

where an eastern and lower arm branches
off, a little south of the latitude of Da
mascus, and runs in a southerly direction
terminating east of the head of the sea
of Galilee. This low range is called Je-
bel Heish. Mount Hermon is believed
to be what is now known as Jebel esh-
Sheikh, whose highest summit, surpass
ing every other in Syria, rises into the
region of perpetual snow or ice, ten
thousand feet above the sea.

For a view of. Hermon, see MEROM.
Professor Hackett thus describes its ap
pearance as seen from a hill north of
Nazareth: "The mountain was conceal
ed one moment, and the next, on ascend
ing a few steps higher, stood arrayed
before me with an imposing effect which
I cannot easily describe. It rose im
mensely above every surrounding object.
The purity of the atmosphere caused it
to appear near, though it was in reality
many miles distant. The snow on its
head and sides sparkled under the rays
of the sun, as if it had been robed in a
vesture of silver. In my mind's eye at
that moment it had none of the appear
ance of an inert mass of earth and rock,
but glowed with life and animation. It
stood there athwart my path, like a
. mighty giant rearing his head towards
heaven and swelling with the proud
consciousness of strength and majesty.
I felt how natural was the Psalmist's
personification: "The north and the
south thou hast created them ; Tabor
arid Hermon shall rejoice in thy name,' "
Psa. 89:12.

The ' ' little Hermon ' ' of modern trav
ellers, not mentioned in Scripture, is a
shapeless mass of hills north of the
smaller valley of Jezreel. "Hermon-
ites," or Hermons, in Psa. 42:6, de
notes the peaks of the Hermon range.

HER'OD, the name of four princes,
Idumyeans by descent, who governed
either the whole or a part of Judea,
under the Romans, and are mentioned
in the New Testament.

I. HEROD THE GREAT, Matt. 2; Luke
1:5. He was the son of Antipater, an
Idumaean, who was in high favor with
Julius Caesar. At the age of fifteen
years, Herod was constituted by his
father procurator of Galilee under Hyr-
canus II., who was then at the head of
the Jewish nation ; while his brother
Phasael was intrusted with the same
authority over Judea. In these stations

they were afterwards confirmed by An
tony, with the title of tetrarch, about
the year 41 B. o. The power of Hyrca-
nus had always been opposed by his
brother Aristobulus ; and now Antigo-
nus, the son of the latter, continued in
hostility to Herod, and was assisted by
the Jews. At first he was unsuccessful,
and was driven by Herod out of the
country ; but having obtained the aid of
the Parthians, he at length succeeded in
defeating Herod, and acquired possession
of the whole of Judea, about the year 40
B. c. Herod meanwhile fled to Rome;
and being there declared king of Judea
through the exertions of Antony, he col
lected an army, vanquished Antigonus,
recovered Jerusalem, and extirpated all
the family of the Maccabees, B. c. 37.
After the battle of Actium, in which
his patron Antony was defeated, Herod
joined the party of Octavius, and was
confirmed by him in all his possessions.
He endeavored to conciliate the affec
tions of the Jews, by rebuilding and dec
orating the temple, (see TEMPLE,) and by
founding or enlarging many cities and
towns ; but the prejudices of the nation
against a foreign yoke were only height
ened when he introduced quinquennial
games in honor of Ca?sar, and erected
theatres and gymnasia at Jerusalem.
The cruelty of his disposition also was
such as ever to render him odious. He
put to death his own wife Mariamne,
with her two sons Alexander and Aris
tobulus ; and when he himself was at
the point of death, he caused a number
of the most illustrious of his subjects to
be thrown into prison at Jericho, and
exacted from his sister a promise that
they should be murdered the moment he
expired, in order, as he said, that tears
should be shed at the death of Herod.
This promise, however, was not fulfilled.
His son Antipater was executed for con
spiring to poison his father ; and five
days after, Herod died, A. D. 2, aged sixty-
eight, having reigned as king about thir
ty-seven years. It was during his reign
that Jesus was born at Bethlehem ; and
Herod, in consequence of his suspicious
temper, and in order to destroy Jesus,
gave orders for the destruction of all the
children of two years old and under in
the place, Matt. 2. This is also men
tioned by Macrobius. After the death
of Herod, half of his kingdom, includ
ing Judea, Idurnaca, and Samaria, was
191

HER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HER

given to his son Archelaus, with the title
of Ethnarch ; while the remaining half
was divided between two of his other
sons, Herod Antipas and Philip, with the
title of Tetrarchs ; the former having the
regions of Galilee and Perea, and the lat
ter Batanea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis.

II. HEROD PHILIP. See PHILIP.

III. HEROD AN'TIPAS, Luke 3:1, was
the son of Herod the Great by Malthace
his Samaritan wife, and own brother to
Archelaus, along with whoni he was
educated at Rome. After the death of
his father, he was appointed by Augus-
AIS to be tetrarch of Galilee and Perea,
that is, the southern part of the country
east of the Jordan, Luke 3:1, whence
also the general appellation of king is
sometimes given to him, Mark 6 : 14.
The Saviour, as a Galilean, was under
his j urisdiction, Luke 23 : 6-12. He first
married a daughter of Aretas, an Arabian
king ; but afterwards becoming enam
oured of Herodias, the wife of his brother
Herod Philip, and his own niece, he dis
missed his former wife, and induced He
rodias to leave her own husband and con
nect herself with him. At her instigation
he afterwards went to Rome to ask for the
dignity and title of king ; but being there
accused before Caligula, at the instance
of Herod Agrippa, his nephew and the
brother of Herodias, he was banished to
Lugdunum (now Lyons) in Gaul, about
A. D. 41, and the provinces which he gov
erned were given to Herod Agrippa. It
was Herod Antipas who caused John the
Baptist to be beheadad, Matt. 14:1-12;
Mark 6: 14-29. He also appears to have
been a follower, or at least a favorer, of
the sect of the Sadducees, Mark 8 : 15.
Compare Matt. 16:6. See HERODIANS.

IV. HEROD AGRIPPA MAJOR or I., Acts
12; 23:35, was a grandson of Herod the
Great and Mariamne, and son of the
Aristobulus who was put to death with
his mother, by the orders of his father.
(See above, HEROD I.) On the accession
of Caligula to the imperial throne, Agrip
pa was taken from prison, where he had
been confined by Tiberius, and received
from the emperor, A. D. 38, the title of
king, together with the provinces which
had belonged to his uncle Philip the
tetrarch, (see HEROD I.,) and also to the
tetrarch Lysanias. (See ABILENE.) He
was afterwards confirmed in the posses
sion of these by Claudius, who also an
nexed to his kingdom all those parts of j

192

Judea and Samaria which had formerly
belonged to his grandfather Herod, A. D.
43. In order to ingratiate himself with
the Jews, he commenced a persecution
against the Christians ; but seems to
have proceeded no further than to put
to death James, and to imprison Peter,
since he soon after died suddenly and
miserably at Cyssarea, A. D. 44, Acts 12.
He is mentioned by Josephus only under
the name of Agrippa.

V. HEROD AGRIPPA MINOR or II. , Acts
25 ; 26, was the son of Herod Agrippa
I., and was educated at Rome, under
the care of the emperor Claudius. On
the death of his father, when he was
seventeen years old, instead of causing
him to succeed to his father's kingdom,
the emperor set him over the kingdom
of Chalcis, which had belonged to his
uncle Herod. He was afterwards trans
ferred (A. D. 63) from Chalcis, with the
title of king, to the government of those
provinces which his father at first pos
sessed, namely, Batanea, Trachonitis>
Auranitis, and Abilene, to which several
other cities were afterwards added. He
is mentioned in the New Testament and
by Josephus only by the name of Agrip
pa. It was before him that St. Paul was
brought by Festus, Acts 25:13 ; 26. He
died in the third year of Trajan's reign,
at the age of seventy years.

HERO'DIANS, partisans of Herod An
tipas, Matt. 22:16; Mark 3:6. Herod
was dependent on the Roman power,
and his adherents therefore maintained
the propriety of paying tribute to Caesar,
which the Pharisees denied. This ex
plains Matt. 22:16.

HERO'DIAS, a granddaughter of Her
od the Great and Mariamne, daughter
of Aristobulus, and sister of Herod
Agrippa I. She was first married to her
uncle Herod Philip, but afterwards aban
doned him and connected herself with
his brother Herod Antipas. It was by
her artifice that Herod was persuaded to
cause John the Baptist to be put to
death, she being enraged at John on ac
count of his bold denunciation of the
incestuous connection which subsisted
between her and Herod. When Herod
was banished to Lyons, she accompanied
him, Matt. 14 : 3, 6 ; Mark 6 : 17 ; Luke
3:19. See HEROD III.

HER'ON. This name is put in Lev.
11:19, Deut. 14 : 18, for a Hebrew word
of very uncertain meaning. See BIRDS.

HES

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HIN

HESH'BON, a celebrated city of the
Amorites, twenty miles east of the mouth
of the Jordan, Josh. 3:10; 13:17. It
was given to Reuben ; but was after
wards transferred to Gad, and then to
the Levites. It had been conquered from
the Moabites by Sihon, and became his
capital ; and was taken by the Israelites
a little before the death of Moses, Num.
21 : 25 ; Josh. 21 : 39. After the ten tribes
were transplanted into the country be
yond the Euphrates, the Moabites recov
ered it, Isa. 15:4 ; Jer. 48:2, 34, 45. Its
ruins are still called Hesban, and cover
the sides of a hill seven miles north of
Medeba.

HEZEKIAH, a pious king of Judah,
succeeded his father Ahaz about 726
B. c., and died about 698 B. c. His his
tory is contained in 2 Kin. 18-20 ; 2 Chr.
29-32. Compare Isa. 36-38. His reign
is memorable for his faithful efforts to re
store the worship of Jehovah ; for his pride
and presumption towards the Assyrians ;
for the destruction of their invading host
in answer to his prayer ; for his sickness
and humiliation, and the prolonging of
his* life fifteen years of peace. He was
succeeded by the unworthy Manasseh.

HID'DEKEL, one of the rivers of Par
adise. Its modern name is Tigris. See
EDEN, and EUPHRATES.

HI'EL, God liveth, a Bethelite, who re
built Jericho in despite of the woe de
nounced five hundred years before, Josh.
6 : 26. The fulfilment of the curse by the
death of his children, proves the truth
which his name signified, 1 Kin. 16:34.

HIEKAP'OLIS, a city of Phrygia, sit
uated on its western border, near the
junction of the rivers Lycus and Mean
der, and not far from Colosse and Lao-
dicea. It was celebrated for its warm
springs and baths. A Christian church
was early established here, and enjoyed
the ministrations of the faithful Epaph-
ras, Col. 4:12, 13. The city is now des
olate, but its ruins still exhibit many
traces of its ancient splendor. Among
them are the remains of three churches,
a theatre, a gymnasium, and many se
pulchral monuments. The white front
of the cliffs, above which the city lay,
has given it its present name of Pam-
luke-kaleh, the Cotton Castle.

HIGGAI'ON, in Psa. 9:16, is supposed
to indicate a pause in the singing of the
Psalm, for meditation, probably with an
instrumental interlude.
9

HIGH PLACES. The ancient Ca-
naanites, and other nations, worshipped
the heavenly bodies and their idols upon
hills, mountains, and artificial eleva
tions. The Israelites were commanded
to destroy these places of idol- worship,
Deut. 12:2, but instead of this, they
imitated the heathen, and at first wor
shipped Jehovah in high places, 1 Sam.
9:12; 1 Kin. 3:4, and afterwards idols,
1 Kin. 11 : 7 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 10, 11. Here
also they built chapels or temples,
"houses of the high places," 1 Km.
13 : 32 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 29, and had regular
priests, 1 Kin. 12 : 32 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 32.
Different groves were sacred to differ
ent gods ; and the high places were in
separably linked to idolatry. Hence
one reason why Jehovah required the
festivals and sacrifices of the Jews to
be centred at his temple in Jerusalem ;
that the people of the living and only
true God might be delivered from the
temptations of the groves, and witness
as one man against idolatry. The proph
ets reproach the Israelites for worship
ping on the high places ; the destroying
of which was a duty, but the honor of
performing it is given to few princes in
Scripture, though several of them were
zealous for the law. Before the temple
was built, the high places were not ab
solutely contrary to the law, provided
God only was adored there. Under the
judges, they seem to have been tolerated
in some exceptional cases ; and Samuel
offered sacrifice in several places where
the ark was not present. Even in Da
vid's time, the people sacrificed to the
Lord at Shiloh, Jerusalem, and Gibeon.
The high places were much frequented
in the kingdom of Israel ; and on these
hills they often adored idols, and com
mitted a thousand abominations. See
BAMOTH and GROVES.

HILKIAH, a faithful high-priest in
the reign of Josiah, 2 Kin. 22 ; 23.

This was also the name of the fathers
of Jeremiah and Eliakim, 2 Kin. 18:18;
Jer. 1:1.

HIN, a Hebrew liquid measure ; as of
oil, Ex. 30:24; Ezek. 45:24, or of wine,
Ex. 29 : 40 ; Lev. 23 : 13. It was the sixth
part of an ephah or bath, and contained
ten or eleven pints.

HIND, the female of the hart or stag,

a species of deer, distinguished for the

lightness and elegance of its form. The

hind is destitute of horns, like all the

193

H1N

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HIR

HIND AND FAWN.

females of this class, except the reindeer.
In Gen. 49:21, Naphtali is compared to
a hind roaming at liberty, or quickly
growing up into elegance ; while the
"goodly words" of Naph tali refer to the
future orators, prophets, and poets of the
tribe. A faithful and affectionate wife is
compared to the hind, Prov. 5 : 19, as
also are swift and sure-footed heroes,
2 Sam. 22:34; Hab. 3:19.

HIN'NOM, that is, the valley of Hin-
nom, or of the son of Hinnom, a narrow
valley just south of Jerusalem, running
up westward from the vallay of the Ce-
dron, and passing into the valley of Gi-
hon, which follows the base of mount
Zion north, up to the Joppa gate. It
was well watered, and in ancient times
most verdant and delightfully shaded
with trees. The boundary line between
Judah and Benjamin passed through it,
Josh. 15 : 8 ; 18 : 6 ; Neh. 11:30. In its
lowest part, towards the south-east, and
near the king's gardens and Siloam, the
idolatrous Israelites made their children

?ass through the fire to Moloch, 1 Kin.
1:7 ; 2 Kin. 16:3 ; Jer. 32:35. See MO
LOCH. The place of these abominable
sacrifices is also called Tophet, Isa. 30 : 33 ;
Jer. 7 : 31. According to some, this name
is derived from the Hebrew toph, drum,
because drums are supposed to have been
used to drown the cries of the victims.
But this opinion rests only on conjecture.
King Josiah defiled the place, 2 Kin.
23:10, probably by making it a deposito
ry of filth. It has been a common opin
ion that the later Jews, in imitation of
Josiah, threw into this place all manner
of filth, as well as the carcasses of ani-
194

mals and the dead bodies of malefactors ;
and that with reference to either the
baleful idolatrous fires in the worship of
Moloch, or to the fires afterwards main
tained there to consume the mass of im
purities that might otherwise have occa
sioned a pestilence, came the figurative
use of the fire of Gehenna, that is, Valley
of Hinnom, to denote the eternal fire in
which wicked men and fallen spirits shall
be punished. This supposition, how
ever, rests upon uncertain grounds.

It seems clear that the later Jews bor
rowed their usage of the fire of the val
ley of Hinnom (Gehenna) to represent
the punishment of the wicked in the
future world directly from two passages
of Isaiah : ' ' For Tophet is ordained of
old ; yea, for the king it is prepared ; he
hath made it deep and large: the pile
thereof is fire and much wood ; the
breath of the Lord, like a stream of
brimstone, doth kindle it, ' ' chap. 80:33;
"And they shall go forth, and look upon
the carcasses of the men that have trans
gressed against me : for their worm shall
not die, neither shall their fire be quench
ed: and they shall be an abhorring unto
all flesh, ' ' chap. 66 : 24. These they cor
rectly interpreted figuratively, as repre
senting the vengeance which God would
take on his enemies and the oppressors
of his people. That the prophet, in this
terrible imagery, alluded to any fire kept
perpetually burning in the valley of Hin
nom, has not been clearly proved. But
however this may be, it is certain that
the Jews transferred the name Gehenna,
that is, valley of Hinnom, to the place in
which devils and wicked men are to be
punished in eternal fire, and which in the
New Testament is always translated hell,
Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; Mark 9:43,
45, 47 ; Luke 12 : 5 ; James 3 : 6. See HELL.

The rocks on the south side of Hinnom
are full of gaping apertures, the mouths
of tombs once filled with the dead, but
now vacant.

HI'RAM, or HU'RAM. I., a king of
Tyre, who sent to congratulate David
on his accession to the throne, and aided
him in building his palace, 2 Sam. 5:11 ;
1 Chr. 14:1. He seems to have been the
Abibal of secular history.

II. A king of Tyre, probably a son of
the former, 2 Chr. 2:13, and like him a
friend of David. He congratulated Sol
omon at the commencement of his reign,
and furnished essential aid in building

HIS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HOL

the temple. He provided timber and
stones, together with gold to an immense
amount, and received in return large
supplies of corn, wine, and oil, with twen
ty cities in Galilee, 1 Kin. 5 ; 2 Chr. 2.
See CABUL. He afterwards joined Sol
omon in his commercial enterprises in
the eastern seas, 1 Kin. 9:26-28; 10:11-
22 ; 2 Chr. 8:18. Josephus relates that
he and Solomon were w6nt to exchange
enigmas with each other ; that he greatly
improved his city and realm, and died
after a prosperous reign of thirty-four
years, at the age of fifty-two.

III. A skilful artificer of Tyre, whose
mother was a Jewess. The interior dec
orations and utensils of Solomon's tem
ple were made under his direction, 1 Kin.
7:13, 14; 2 Chr. 2:13, 14.

HIS'SING, as a mode of calling an at
tendant to his master's side, is a custom
very prevalent in Palestine. Says Os-
borne, "Whenever a servant wras want
ed, the usual ' shee !' which is so common
throughout the land, started two or three
in an instant." The same custom is ev
idently alluded to in Isa. 5:26; 7:18;
"The Lord shall hiss for the fly that is
in the uttermost part of the rivers of
Egypt," etc.

HIT'TITES, descendants of Heth, Gen.
10:15, a Canaanite tribe dwelling near
Hebron in the time of Abraham, Gen.
15:20; 23, and subdued in the Israelit-
ish invasion, Ex. 3:8 ; Josh. 3:10. They
were not, however, exterminated : Uriah
was a Hittite, 2 Sam. 11:3; Solomon
used their services, 1 Kin. 9:20 ; wre read
of the "kings of the Hittites" in the
south, 1 Kin. 10 : 29 ; 2 Kin. 7:6; and
they were not lost as a people until after
the Jews' return from captivity, Ezra
9:1. See CANAANITES.

HI'VITES. See CAXAANITES.

HO'BAB, the son of Raguel or Reuel,
Num. 10:29. According to one suppo
sition he was the same as Jethro, Moses'
father-in-law, Zipporah being called the
daughter of Keuel as one of his descend
ants. According to another view, he
was the brother of Jethro. Those who
hold this opinion maintain that the He
brew word rendered father-in-law, Judg.
4:11, may denote simply a relation by
marriage. When the Hebrews were
about leaving mount Sinai, Moses re
quested him to cast in his lot with the
people of God, both for his own sake and
because his knowledge of the desert and

its inhabitants might often be of service
to the Jews. It would appear that he
acceded to this request, Judg. 1 : 16 ;
4:11.

HO'BAII, a place north of Damascus,
visited by Abraham, Gen. 14 : 15 ; now
unknown.

HO'LY, HOLINESS. These terms
sometimes denote outward purity or
cleanliness ; sometimes internal purity
and sanctification. True holiness char
acterizes outward acts, but still more the
motive and intent of the heart. It is an
inward principle ; not mere rectitude or
benevolence, or any one moral excel
lence, but the harmonious and perfect
blending of all, as all the colors of the
prism duly blended form pure light.
God is holy in a transcendent and infi
nitely perfect manner, Isa. 1:4; 6:3.
The Messiah is called "the Holy One,"
Psa. 16:10 ; Luke 4:34 : Acts 3:14 ; and
Holy is the common epithet given to the
third person of the Trinity, the Holy
Spirit. God is the fountain of holiness,
innocence, and sanctification. Mankind
lost all holiness in the fall; but God
makes his people gradually "partakers
of his holiness" here, and in heaven
they will be found perfectly and for ever
sanctified ; as an earnest of which, he
looks upon them as already in Christ,
holy and beloved. The Bible applies
the epithet holy in a secondary sense to
whatever pertains especially to God — to
heaven, to his temple, its parts, utensils,
and services ; to his day, his ministers,
priests, prophets, and apostles. The
Jews were called a holy people, because
they were separated unto God, to be a
religious and consecrated people ; and
Christians, as a body, arc also called
holy, because they are in like mariner
separated unto Christ. But a " holy
man," in the ordinary Christian sense,
is one who exhibits in his conduct the
inward purity, benevolence, and holy
devotedness to the Saviour, with which
his heart ovei'flows.

HO'LY SPIRIT, or HOLY GHOST, the
third person in the blessed Trinity. He
is said to proceed from the Father, and
to be sent by the Father and the Son
upon disciples, John 14 : 26 ; 15 : 26 ; to
be the Spirit of the Father, Matt. 10:20;
1 Cor. 2 : 11 ; and the Spirit of Christ,
Gal. 4:6; Phil. 1:19.

That he is a real PERSON, and not mere-
| ly an attribute or emanation of God, is
195

HOM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HOR

clear from the numerous passages in the
Bible which describe him as exercising
the acts, thoughts, emotions, and voli
tions of a distinct intelligent person.
None other could be pleased, vexed, and
grieved, could speak, console, and inter
cede, or divide his gifts severally to every
one as he will. So also, in Greek as in
English, the personal masculine pro
nouns are applied to him; whereas, if
he were not a person, the neuter pro
nouns would be necessary.

That he is a DIVINE person, equally
with the Father and the Son, is proved
from his association with them in a great
variety of acts purely divine ; as in the
work of creation, Gen. 1:2; Psa. 33:6;
104:30. He is honored as they are in
the baptismal formula, Matt. 28:19, and
in the apostolic benediction, 2 Cor. 13 : 14.
He receives the name, 2 Cor. 3:17, and
exercises the attributes of God, Rom.
8:14; 1 Cor. 2:10 ; 6:19 ; Heb. 9:14. He
is prayed to as God, Rev. 1 : 4, 5 ; sin
against him is sin against God, Acts 5:3,
4 ; Eph. 4 : 30 ; and blasphemy against
him is unpardonable, Matt. 12:31.

The WORK of the Holy Spirit is divine.
Of old, he inspired the sacred writers and
teachers, and imparted miraculous gifts.
Under the Christian dispensation, he
applies the salvation of Christ to men's
hearts, convicting them of sin, John
16:8, 9; showing them "the things of
Christ," illuminating and regenerating
them, John 3:5; Eph. 2:1. He is the
Comforter of the church, aids believers
in prayer, witnesses with and intercedes
for them, directs them in duty, and sanc
tifies them for .heaven.

HO'MER, or COR, the largest dry meas
ure of the Hebrews, equal to ten baths
or ephahs, and containing about eight of
our bushels, Ezek. 45:14.

HON'EY was formerly very plentiful
in Palestine, and hence the frequent ex
pressions of Scripture which import that
that country was a land flowing with
milk and honey, Lev. 20:24. Wild bee
honey was often found in hollow trees
and clefts in the rocks, Deut. 32:13 ; Psa.
81 : 16 ; and on this John the Baptist fed,
Matt. 3 : 4. Honey was highly prized,
Psa. 19:10; Prov. 5:3; 27:7. Modern
travellers observe that it is still very
common there, and that the inhabitants
mix it in all their sauces. Forskal says
the caravans of Mecca bring honey from
Arabia to Cairo, and that he has often
196

seen honey flowing in the woods in Ara
bia. It would seem that this flowing
honey is bee-honey, and this fact illus
trates the story of Jonathan, 1 Sam.
14:25, 27. But there is also a vegetable
honey that is very plentiful in the East.
Burckhardt, speaking of the productions
of the Ghor, or valley of the Jordan,
says one of the most interesting produc
tions of this place is the Beyrouk honey,
as the Arabs call it. It was described to
him as a juice dropping from the leaves
and twigs of a tree called Gharrab, of
the size of an olive-tree, with leaves like
those of the poplar, but somewhat broad
er. The honey collects on the leaves
like dew, and is gathered from them, or
from the ground under the tree. An
other vegetable product is referred to in
the Bible as honey, 2 Chr. 31:5. It is a
syrup, prepared by boiling down the juice
of dates, etc. That made from grapes
is called dibs, and is much used by the
Arabs as a condiment with food. It re
sembles thin molasses, and is pleasant to
the taste, Gen. 43:11.

HOPH'NI. See next page.

HOR, a mountain of a conical form in
the range of mount Seir, on the east side
of the Arabah, or great valley running
from the Dead sea to the Elanitic gulf.
It is an irregularly truncated cone, with
three rugged peaks, overlooking a wil
derness of heights, cliffs, ravines, and
deserts. On this mountain Aaron died,
alone with his brother and son, Num.
20:22-29; 33:38. It is still called Jcbel
Neby Haroon, mount of the prophet
Aaron ; and on its summit stands a Mo
hammedan tomb of Aaron, on the site
of a still more ancient structure, and
marking perhaps the place of his burial.

HOR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HOS

HOPH'NI, and PHIN'EHAS, the guilty
and wretched sons of Eli the high-priest.
They grossly and continuously abused
the influence of their position and sacred
office ; and their cupidity, violence, and
impious profligacy, overbearing the fee
ble remonstrances of their father, brought
disgrace and ruin on their family. The
ark, which they had carried to ihe camp
in spite of divine prohibitions, was tak
en, and they were slain in battle, 1 Sam.
2-4. See ELI. The ark of God protects
only those who love and obey him. Men
in all ages are prone to rely on a form of
religion, while the heart and life are not
right with God ; and all who thus sin,
like the sons of Eli, must perish like
wise.

HO'REB. See SINAI.

HOR'ITES, or HO'RIM, a race of early
dwellers in mount Seir, whence they
were expelled by the Edomites, Gen.
14 : 6 ; Deut. 2 : 12, 22. They are sup
posed to have lived in caves, like the
men referred to in Job 30: 6,' and to have
been divided into several tribes, Gen.
36:20-30.

HOR'MAH, destruction, Num. 21:1-3;
also called Zephath ; a city in the ex
treme south of Canaan, near which the
rebellious Hebrews were defeated, in the
second year after leaving Egypt, Num.
14 : 45 ; it was afterwards laid waste,
Judg. 1:16, 17. The Simeonites repeo-
pled it, Josh. 19:4, and David sent them
some of his spoils taken from the Ama-
lekites, 1 Sam. 30:30.

HORNS of animals were used as drink-
Ing- vessels, and to hold ointments, per

fumes, etc., 1 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Kin. 1 : 39.
The "horns of the altar" were its four
corners and the elevations on them, Ex.
27 : 2 ; 30 : 2. See ALTAR. The principal
defence and ornament of many beasts
are in their horns ; and hence the horn
is often a symbol of strength, honor, and
dominion. The Lord exalted the horn
of David, and of his people ; he breaketh
the horn of the ungodly. We read also
of raising up a horn of salvation, and
of defiling the horn in the dust, Deut.
33:17 ; 1 Sam. 2:1, 10 ; Job 16:15 ; Psa.
75:10; Dan. 7 : 20-24 ; Luke 1 : 69. There
may be an allusion in these passages to
a very common part of the female dress
in some parts of the East. The married
women among the Druses of mount Leb
anon still wear on their heads silver
horns, as in the accompanying cut ; the
other head is that of an Abyssinian chief.

HOB/NET, a well-known insect, which
has a powerful sting. The Lord drove
out many of the Canaanites before Israel
by means of this insect, Ex. 23:28 ; Deut.
7 :20 ; Josh. 24: 12. The Israelites, being
in the sandy wilderness, would escape it.
Compare FLY.

HOR'SES were anciently less used for
labor, in Bible lands, than oxen and
asses. They were used by princes and
warriors, both with and without chari
ots, Ex. 14:9, 23 ; Esth. 6:8 ; Eccl. 10:7.
The finest description of the war-horse
ever written, is found in one of the most
ancient books, Job 39 : 19-25. Horses
were common in Egypt, Gen. 47 : 17 ;
50:9; Song 1:9; but the Jews were at
first forbidden to go there for them,
Deut. 17:16, or to keep any large num
ber, Josh. 11:6 ; 2 Sam. 8:4. The object
of this was to restrain them from grow
ing proud, idolatrous, and fond of con
quest. Isa. 31 : 1-3. Solomon, however,
procured a large cavalry and chariot
force, 2 Chr. 1 : 14-17 ; 9 : 25. Horses
were sometimes consecrated to idols,
2 Kin. 23 : 11, and were often used as
symbols of angelic and earthly powers,
under the control of God, 2 Kin. 2:11 ;
6:15-17; Zech. 1:8; 6:2-6; Rev. 2-8.

HORSE'LEECH, the bloodsucker, a
well-known water-worm ; an apt em
blem of avarice and rapacity, Prov.
30 : 15. Cicero speaks of the horseleeches
of the public treasury at Rome.

HOSAN'NA, a word of joyful accla
mation in Hebrew, signifying save now.
The people cried Hosanna as Jesus enter-
197

HOS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HOS

ed in triumph into Jerusalem ; that is,
they thus invoked the blessings of heav
en on him as the Messiah, Matt. 21:9.
This was also a customary acclamation at
the joyful feast of tabernacles, in which
the Jews repeated Psa. 118:25, 26.

HOSE'A, the first of the twelve minor
prophets, as arranged in our Bibles. He
prophesied for a long time, from Uzziah
to Hezekiah, about 785-725 B. c.

The BOOK OF HOSEA contains properly
two parts. The first three chapters con
tain a series of symbolical actions di
rected against the idolatries of Israel.
It is disputed whether the marriage of
the prophet was a real transaction, or
an allegorical vision ; in all probability
the latter is the correct view ; but in ei
ther case it illustrated the relations of
idolatrous Israel to her covenant God.
The remaining chapters are chiefly occu
pied with denunciations against Israel,
and especially Samaria, for the worship
of idols which prevailed there. Hosea's
warnings are mingled with tender and
pathetic expostulations. His style is ob
scure, and it is difficult to fix the pe
riods or the divisions of his various pre
dictions. He shows a joyful faith in the
coming Redeemer, and is several times
quoted in the New Testament, Matt.
9:13; Rom. 9:25, 26; 1 Pet. 2:10.

HOSHE'A, the last king of Israel, the
successor of Pekah, whom he slew, 2 Kin.
15:30, B. c. 730. He reigned nine years,
and was then carried away captive by
Shalmaneser, 2 Kin. 17 : 1-6 ; 18 : 9-12,
B. c. 721.

HOSPITALITY is regarded by all ori
ental nations as one of the highest vir
tues. The following notices by mod
ern travellers serve to illustrate very
strikingly many passages of Scripture.
Thus De la Roque says, "We did not
arrive at the foot of the mountain till
after sunset, and it was almost night
when we entered the plain ; but as it
was full of villages, mostly inhabited by
Maronites, we entered into the first we
came to, to pass the night there. It was
the priest of the place who wished to
receive us ; he gave us a supper under
the trees before his little dwelling. As
we were at table, there came by a stran
ger, wearing a white turban, who, after
having saluted the company, sat himself
down to the table without ceremony,
ate with us during some time, and then
went away, repeating several times the
198

j name of God. They told us it was some
traveller who no doubt stood in need of
refreshment, and who had profited by
the opportunity, according to the cus
tom of the East, which is to exercise
hospitality at all times and towards all
persons. ' ' This reminds us of the guests
of Abraham, Gen. 18, of the conduct of
Job, 31:17, and of that frankness with
which the apostles of Christ were to en
ter into a man's house after a salutation,
and there to continue "eating and drink
ing such things as were set before them,"
Luke 10:7. The universal prevalence of
such customs, and of the spirit of hospi
tality, may help to explain the indigna
tion of James and John against certain
rude Samaritans, Luke 9:52-56, and also
the stern retribution exacted for the
crime of the men of Gibeah, Judg. 19 ;
20.

Says Niebuhr, "The hospitality of the
Arabs has always been the subject of
praise ; and I believe that those of the
present day exercise this virtue no less
than their ancestors did. When the Arabs
are at table, they invite those who hap
pen to come, to eat with them, whether
they be Christians or Mohammedans,
gentle or simple. In the caravans, I
have often seen with pleasure a mule-
driver press those who passed to partake
of his repast ; and though the majority
politely excused themselves, he gave,
with an air of satisfaction, to those who
would accept of it, a portion of his little
meal of bread and dates ; and I was not
a little surprised when I saw, in Tur
key, rich Turks withdraw themselves
into corners, to avoid inviting those who
might otherwise have sat at table with
them."

We ought to notice here also the ob
ligations understood to be contracted by
the intercourse of the table. Niebuhr
says, "When a Bedaween sheikh eats
bread with strangers, they may trust
his fidelity and depend on his protection.
A traveller will always do well therefore
to take an early opportunity of securing
the friendship of his guide by a meal."
This brings to recollection the complaint
of the psalmist, Psa. 41:9, penetrated
with the deep ingratitude of one whom
he describes as having been his own
familiar friend, in whom he trusted,
' ' who did eat of my bread, even he hath
lifted up his heel against me. ' '

Beautiful pictures of primitive hospi-

HOU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HOU

tality may be found in Gen. 18; 19;
Ex 2:20; Judg. 13:15; 19:1-9. The
incidents of the first two narratives may
have suggested the legends of the Greeks
and Romans, which represent their gods
as sometimes coming to them disguised
as travellers, in order to test their hos
pitality, etc., Heb. 13:2.

The primitive Christians considered
one principal part of their duty to con
sist in showing hospitality to strangers,
Bom. 12:13; 1 Tim. 5:10; remembering
that our Saviour had said, whoever re
ceived those belonging to him, received
himself; and that whatever was given
to such a one, though but a cup of cold
water, should not lose its reward, Matt.
10 : 40-42 ; 25 : 34-45. They were, in
fact, so ready in discharging this duty,
that the very heathen admired them for
it. They were hospitable to all stran
gers, but especially to those of the house
hold of faith. Believers scarcely ever
travelled without letters of communion,
which testified the purity of their faith,
and procured them a favorable reception
*vherever the name of Jesus Christ was
known. Indeed, some suppose that the
two minor epistles of John may be such
letters of communion and recommenda
tion.

HOUGH, (pronounced hock,) to ham
string, or cut the cords of tlfe hind legs.
The horses taken by David from the
Syrians were thus disabled, Josh. 11:6,
9; 2 Sam. 8:4.

HOURS. The word hour, in Scripture,
signifies one of the twelve equal parts
into which each day, from sunrise to
sunset, was divided, and which of course
were of different lengths at different sea
sons of the year, Matt. 20:3-6; John
11:9. This mode of dividing the day
prevailed among the Jews at least after
the exile, and perhaps earlier, Dan. 3:6;
4:19. The third, sixth, and ninth hours
were the appointed seasons for prayer,
Acts 2 : 15 ; 3 : 1 ; 10 : 9. Anciently, how
ever, the usual division of the day was
into four parts, namely, the morning —
the heat of the day, commencing about
the middle of the forenoon — midday,
and evening. In a similar manner, the
Greeks appear at first to have divided
the day into only three parts, to which
they afterwards added a fourth division.
The ancient Hebrews, as well as the
Greeks, appear to have divided the
night also into three parts or watches,

namely, the first watch, Lam. 2:19 ; the
middle, or second watch, Judg. 7:19;
and the morning, or third watch, Ex.
14:24. But after the Jews became sub
ject to the Romans, they adopted the
Roman manner of dividing the night
into four watches, namely, the evening,
or first quarter, after sunset ; the mid
night, or second quarter, ending at mid
night ; cock-crowing, or third quarter,
from midnight on ; and the morning, or
fourth quarter, including the dawn, Matt.
14:25; Mark 6: 48; 13:35; Luke 12:48.
A watch in the night seems but an in
stant to one who spends it in slumber,
Psa. 90:4; equally short does the life of
man appear in view of eternity.

HOUSE is often put for dwelling, res
idence ; and hence the temple, and even
the tabernacle, are called the house of
God.

The universal mode of building houses
in the East, is in the form of a hollow
square, with an open court or yard in
the centre ; which is thus entirely shut
in by the walls of the house around it.
Into this court all the windows open,
there being usually no windows towards
the street. Some houses of large size
require several courts, and these usually
communicate with each other. These
courts are commonly paved ; and in
many large houses parts of them are
planted with shrubs and trees, Psa.
84:3 ; 128:3 ; they have also, when pos
sible, a fountain in them, often with a
jet d'eau, 2 Sam. 17:18. It is customary
in many houses to extend an awning
over the whole court in hot weather ;
and the people of the house then spend
much of the day in the open air, and
indeed often receive visits there. In
Aleppo, at least, there is often on the
south side of the court an alcove in the
wall of the house, furnished with divans
or sofas, for reclining and enjoying the
fresh air in the hot seasons.

In the middle of the front of each
house is usually an arched passage, lead
ing into the court — not directly, lest the
court should be exposed to view from the
street, but by turning to one side. The
outer door of this passage was, in large
houses, guarded by a porter, Acts 12:13.
The entrance into the house is either
from this passage or from the court itself.

The following extracts from Dr. Shaw
will interest the reader, and at the same
time serve to illustrate many passages of
199

HOU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HOU

INTERIOR OF AN ANCIEKT HOUSE.

Scripture. He remarks, "The general
method of building, both in Barbary and
the Levant, seems to have continued the
game from the earliest ages, without the
least alteration or improvement. Large
doors, spacious chambers, marble pave
ments, cloistered courts, with fountains
sometimes playing in the midst, are cer
tainly conveniences very well adapted
to the circumstances of these climates,
where the summer heats are generally
so intense. The jealousy likewise of
these people is less apt to be alarmed,
while all the windows open into their
respective courts, if we except a latticed
window or balcony which sometimes
looks into the streets, 2 Kin. 9:30.

"The streets of eastern cities, the bet
ter to shade them from the sun, are
usually narrow, with sometimes a range
of shops on each side. If from these
we enter into one of the principal houses,
we shall first pass through a porch or
gateway with benches on each side,
where the master of the family receives
visits and despatches business ; few per
sons, not even the nearest relations, hav
ing a further admission, except upon
extraordinary occasions. .From hence
we are received into the court, or qiiad-
rangle, which, lying open to the weath
er, is, according to the ability of the
owner, paved with marble, or such ma
terials as will immediately carry off the
200

water into the common sewers. When
much people are to be admitted, as upoa
the celebration of a marriage, the cir
cumcising of a child, or occasions of the
like nature, the company is rarely or
never received into one of the chambers.
The court is the usual place of their
reception, which is strowed accordingly
with mats and carpets for their more
commodious entertainment. Hence it is
probable that the place where our Sav
iour and the apostles were frequently
accustomed to give their instructions,
was in the area, or quadrangle, of one of
this kind of houses. In the summer
season, and upon all occasions when a
large company is to be received, this
court is commonly sheltered from the
heat or inclemency of the weather by a
veil or awning, which, being expanded
upon ropes from one side of the parapet
wall to the other, may be folded or un
folded at pleasure. The psalmist seems
to allude either to the tents of the Beda-
ween, or to some covering of this kind,
in that beautiful expression, of spreading
out the heavens like a curtain, Psa. 104:2.
The court is for the most part surround
ed with a cloister or colonnade ; over
which, when the house has two or three
stories, there is a gallery, erected, of the
same dimensions with the cloister, hav
ing a balustrade, or else a piece of carved
or latticed work going round about it,

HOU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HOU

to prevent people from falling from it
into the court. From the cloisters and
galleries we are conducted into large
spacious chambers, of the same length
with the court, but seldom or never
communicating with one another. One
of them frequently serves a whole fam
ily ; particularly when a father indulges
his married children to live with him ;
or when several persons join in the rent
of the same house. From whence it is,
that the cities of these countries, which
in general are much inferior in bigness
to those of Europe, yet are so exceeding
ly populous, that great numbers of peo
ple are always swept away by the plague,
or any other contagious distemper."

The chambers of the rich were often
hung with velvet or damask tapestry,
Esth. 1:6; the upper part adorned with
fretwork and stucco ; and the ceilings
with wainscot or mosaic work of fragrant
wood, sometimes richly painted, Jer.
22 : 14. The floors were of wood, or of
painted tiles, or marble; and were usu
ally spread with carpets. Around the
walls were mattresses or low sofas, in
stead of chairs. The beds were often
at one end of the chamber, on a gallery
several feet above the floor, with steps
and a low balustrade, 2 Kin. 1:4, 16.
The stairs were usually in a corner of
the court, beside the gateway, Matt.
24:17.

' ' The top of the house, ' ' says Dr. Shaw,
' ' which is always flat, is covered with a
strong plaster of terrace ; from whence,
in the Frank language, it has attained
the name of the terrace. It is usually
surrounded by two walls ; the outermost
whereof is partly built over the street,
partly makes the partition with the con
tiguous houses, being frequently so low
that one may easily climb over it. The
other, which I call the parapet wall,
hangs immediately over the court, being
always breast high ; we render it the
' battlements,' Deut. 22 : 8. Instead of
this parapet wall, some terraces are
guarded in the same manner the galler
ies are, with balustrades only, or latticed
work ; in which fashion probably, as the
name seems to import, was the net, or
'lattice,' as we render it, that Ahaziah,
2 Kin. 1:2, might be carelessly leaning
over, when he fell down from thence
into the court. For upon these terraces
several offices of the family are perform
ed ; such as the drying of linen and flax,
9*

Josh. 2:6, the preparing of figs and rai
sins ; here likewise they enjoy the cool,
refreshing breezes of the evening ; con
verse with one another, 1 Sam. 9 : 25 ;
2 Sam. 11:2; and offer up their devotions,
2 Kin. 23 : 12 ; Jer. 19 : 13 ; Acts 10 : 9.
In the feast of Tabernacles booths were
erected upon them, Neh. 8:16. When,
one of these cities is built upon level
ground, we can pass from one end of it
to the other, along the tops of the
houses, without coming down into the
street.

"Such, in general, is the manner and
contrivance of the eastern houses. And
if it may be presumed that our Saviour,
at the healing of the paralytic, was
preaching in a house of this fashion, we
may, by attending only to the struct
ure of it, give no small light to one
circumstance of that history, which has
given great offence to some unbelievers.
Among other pretended difficulties and
absurdities relating to this fact, it has
been urged that the uncovering or break
ing up of the roof, Mark 2:4, or the let
ting a person down through it, Luke
5:19, supposes the breaking up of tiles,
rafters," etc. But it is only necessary
here to suppose that the crowd being so
great around Jesus in the court below,
that those who brought the sick man
could not come near him, they went
upon the flat roof, and removing a part
of the awning, let the sick man down in
his mattress over the parapet, quite at
the feet of Jesus.

Dr. Shaw proceeds to describe a sort
of addition to many oriental houses,
which corresponds probably to the upper
chamber often mentioned in the Bible.
He says, ' ' To most of these houses there
is a smaller one annexed, which some
times rises one story higher than the
house ; at other times it consists of one
or two rooms only and a terrace ; while
others that are built, as they frequently
are, over the porch or gateway, have (if
we except the ground floor, which they
have not) all the conveniences that be
long to the house, properly so called.
There is a door of communication from
them into the gallery of the house, kept
open or shut at the discretion of the
master of the family ; besides another
door, which opens immediately from a
privy stairs down into the porch, with
out giving the least disturbance to the
house. These smaller houses are known
201

HUL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HUS

by the name alee, or oleah, and in them
strangers are usually lodged and enter
tained ; and thither likewise the men are
wont to retire, from the hurry and noise
of their families, to be more at leisure for
meditation or devotion, Matt. 6:6; be
sides the use they are at other times put
to, in serving for wardrobes and maga
zines. ' '

This then, or something like this, we
may suppose to have been the ali'yah or
upper chamber of the Hebrews. Such
was the " little chamber upon the wall,"
which the Shunammite had built for
Elisha, 2 Kin. 4:10; the "summer par
lor" of Eglon, Judg. 3:20; and the
"chamber over the gate," where David
retired to weep, 2 Sam. 18:33 ; and per
haps in the New Testament the "upper
chamber ' ' where Tabitha was laid out,
Acts 9 : 37, and whence Eutychus fell
from the window of the third loft into
the court, Acts 20:9.

The flat roofs of oriental houses often
afford a place of retirement and medita
tion ; here Samuel communed with Saul,
1 Sam. 9 : 25 ; and from ver. 26, they
would seem also to have slept there, as
is still common in the East, 2 Sam.
11:2; Dan. 4:30. Mr. Wood says, "It
has ever been a custom with them," the
Arabs in the East, "equally connected
with health and pleasure, to pass the
nights in summer upon the house-tops,
which for this very purpose are made
flat, and divided from each other by
walls. We found this way of sleeping
extremely agreeable ; as we thereby en
joyed the cool air, above the reach of
gnats and vapors, without any other
covering than the canopy of heaven,
which unavoidably presents itself in dif
ferent pleasing forms, upon every inter
ruption of rest, when silence and solitude
strongly dispose the mind to contempla
tion, Acts 10:9. The roof of an ancient
house was the best and often the only
place, from which to get a view of the
region around ; hence the resort to it in
times of peril, Isa. 15 : 3 ; 22:1. In many
cases roofs were coated with hardened
earth, through which, when cracked or
soaked through by rain, the water drip
ped, Prov. 27:15; and in which, when
neglected, the grass grows in spring, but
soon withers after the rains have ceased,
Psa. 129:6, 7; Isa. 37:27.

The common material for building the
best oriental houses is stone. Brick is
202

also used. But the houses of the people
in the East in general are very bad
constructions, consisting of mud walls,
reeds, and rushes ; whence they become
apt illustrations of the fragility of hu
man life, Job 4: 19 ; and as mud, pebbles,
and slime, or at best unburnt bricks are
used in forming the walls, the expres
sion, "digging through houses," Job
24:16; Matt. 6:19; 24:14, is easily ac
counted for; as is the behavior of Eze-
kiel, 12:5, who dug through such a wall
in the sight of the people ; whereby, as
may be imagined, he did little injury to
his house ; notwithstanding which, the
symbol was very expressive to the be
holders. See also the striking illustra
tion in Ezek. 13:10-16. On the sites of
many ancient cities of Syria and Baby
lonia only the ruins of public edifices re
main, the houses having entirely disap
peared ages ago. Travellers near the
Ganges and the Nile speak of multitudes
of huts on the sandy banks of those riv
ers being swept away in a night by sud
den freshets, leaving not a trace behind.
This may illustrate our Saviour's para
ble, in Matt. 7:24-27. See TENT.

HUL'DAH, a prophetess in the reign
of Josiah, consulted respecting the de
nunciations in the new-found copy of the
Book of the Law, 2 Kin. 22:14-20,
2 Chr. 34:22-28, B. c. 623.

HUMILITY, the opposite of pride, in
its nature and in the degree of its preva
lence. It is often extolled in the Bible,
Prov. 15 : 33 ; 16 : 19 ; and the Saviour
especially exalts it, Matt. 18:4, and en
nobles and endears it by his own exam
ple, John 13:4-17 ; Phil. 2:5-8. Every
created being, however holy, should
possess it ; but in the character of the
sinful sons of men it should become a
fundamental and all-pervading trait, to
continue for ever.

HUR, a chief man among the He
brews in the desert, associated with
Aaron in upholding the hands of Moses
at Rephidim, and in supplying his place
while on the summit of Sinai, Ex. 17 : 10 ;
24:14.

HU'SHAI, the Archite, David's friend.
Being informed of Absalom's rebellion,
and that David was obliged to fly from
Jerusalem, he met him on an eminence
without the city, with his clothes rent
and his head covered with earth. David
suggested, that if he went with him he
would be a burden to him ; but that he

HUS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

HYS

might do him important service if he
should remain in Absalom's suite as an
adviser. Hushai therefore returned to
Jerusalem, and by defeating the counsel
of Ahithophel, and gaining time for Da
vid, to whom he sent advices, was the
cause of Ahithophel' s suicide and of Ab
salom's miscarriage, 2 Sam. 15 : 32-37 ;
16:16-19; 17.

HUSKS. The prodigal son desired to
feed on the husks, or pods, given to the
hogs, Luke 15 : 16. The Greek word
here used, means the kharob-beans, the
fruit of a tree of the same name. This
fruit is common in all the countries bor
dering on the Mediterranean: it is suf
fered to ripen and grow dry on the tree ;
the poor eat it, and cattle are fattened
with it. The tree, the Ceratonia Siliqua,
is an evergreen of a middle size, full of

branches, and abounding with round
dark green leaves, an inch or two in
diameter. The blossoms are little red
clusters, with yellowish stalks. The
fruits are flat brownish pods, from six to
eight inches long, and an inch or more
broad: they resemble the pods of our
locust-trees; and are composed of two
husks, separated by membranes into sev
eral cells, and containing flat, shining

seeds, and when ripe a sweetish, honey-
like kind of juice. In all probability,
their crooked figure occasioned their
being called, in Greek, keratia, which
signifies little horns. The tree is called
by the Germans, Johannisbrodbaum,
that is, " John's-bread-tree," because
John the Baptist was supposed to have
lived on its fruit.

HYMENE'US, a member of the church,
probably at Ephesus, who fell into the
heresy of denying the true doctrine of
the resurrection, and saying it had al
ready taken place. When first men
tioned, 1 Tim. 1 : 20, he was excluded
from the church ; and when again men
tioned, 2 Tim. 2:17, 18, was still exert
ing a pernicious influence.

HYMN. See next page.

HYPOCRITE, one who, like a stage-
player, feigns to be what he is not. The
epithet is generally applied to those who
assume the appearance of virtue or pie
ty, without possessing the reality. Our
Saviour accused the Pharisees of hypoc
risy, Luke 12:1.

THE CAPPAR3S 8P1NOSA, OR CAPEfc.PLANT.

HYS'SOP is often mentioned in Scrip
ture, and is directed to be used in the
sprinklings which, made part of the Jew
ish ceremonial law, Ex. 12 : 22 ; Lev.
14:4-6; Psa. 51:9; Heb. 9:19. It is
some low shrub, which is contrasted
with the lofty cedar, 1 Kin. 4 : 33. In
203

HYM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

IDO

John 19:29, the soldiers are said to have
' ' rilled a sponge with vinegar, and put
it upon hyssop," that is, upon a rod of
hyssop, two feet or more in length,
which was long enough to enable one
to reach the mouth of a person on the
cross. Many different plants have been
taken for the hyssop of Scripture, and
among others, the caper-plant.

HYMN, a religious canticle, song, or
psalm, Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16. Paul re
quires Christians to edify one another
with "psalms and hymns and spiritual
songs." Matthew says that Christ and
his disciples, having supped, sung a
hymn, and went out. They probably
chanted a part of the psalms which the
Jews used to sing after the Passover,
which they called the Halal ; that is,
the Hallelujah psalms. These are Psa.
113-118, of which the first two are sup
posed to have been chanted before the
Passover was eaten, and the others after
wards.

I.

IB'ZAN, the tenth "judge of Israel,"
born in Bethlehem. He held office seven
years, and was noted for his large and
prosperous family, B. c. 1182, Judg. 12:8.

ICH'ABOD, where is the glory ? a son of
Phinehas, and grandson of Eli, both of
whom, and his mother also, died on the
day of his birth, 1 Sam. 4:19-22 ; 14:3.

ICO'NIUM, a large and opulent city
of Asia Minor, now called Konieh. The
provinces of Asia Minor varied so much at
different times, that Iconium is assigned
by different writers to Phrygia, to Lyca-
onia, and to Pisidia. Christianity was
introduced here by Paul, A. t>. 45. But
he was obliged to flee for his life from a
persecution excited by unbelieving Jews,
Acts 13:51 ; 14:1-6. They pursued him
to Lystra, where he was nearly killed,
but afterwards, A. D. 51, he revisited Ico
nium, Acts 14:19-21 ; 2 Tim. 3:11. The
church continued in being here for eight
centuries, but under the Mohammedan
rule was almost extinguished. At pres
ent, Konieh is the capital of Caramania.
It is situated in a beautiful and fertile
country, 260 miles south-east of Con
stantinople, and 120 from the Mediter
ranean. It is very large, and its walls
are supported by 108 square towers, forty
paces distant from each >
204

habitants, 40,000 in number, are Turkg,
Armenians, Greeks, and Jews.

ID'DO, a prophet of Judah, who proph
esied against Jeroboam, and wrote the
history of Rehoboam and Abijah, 2 Chr.
9 : 29 ; 12 : 15 ; 13 : 22. Josephus and oth
ers are of opinion that he was sent to
Jeroboam, at Bethel, and that it was
he who was killed by a lion, 1 Kin. 13.
Several other persons of this name are
mentioned in Scripture, 1 Chr. 27 : 21 ;
Ezra 8: 17-20; Zech. 1:1.

IDLE, in Matt. 12:36, means empty
and fruitless. The "idle word" which
Christ condemns is a word morally use
less and evil.

THE IDOI JUGGERNAUT.

I'DOL, IDOLATRY. The word idol
signifies literally a representation or fig
ure. It is always employed in Scripture
in a bad sense, for representations of
heathen deities of what nature soever.
God forbids all sorts of idols, or figures
and representations of creatures, formed
or set up with intention of paying super
stitious worship to them, Ex. 20 : 3, 4 ;
34 : 13 ; Dent. 4 : 16-19 ; 7 : 25, 26. He
also forbids all attempts to represent
him by any visible form, Ex. 32 : 4, 5 ;
Deut. 4:15; Neh. 9:18.

The heathen had idols of all sorts-
paintings, bas-reliefs, and all varieties of
sculpture — and these of many kinds of
materials, as gold, silver, brass, stone,
wood, potter's earth, etc. Stars, spirits,
men, animals, rivers, plants, and ele
ments were the subjects jf them. Scarce

IDO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

IDO

THE HINDOO IDOL PITLLIAR.

ly an object or power in nature, scarcely
a faculty of the soul, a virtue, a vice, or
a condition of human life, has not re
ceived idolatrous worship. See STARS.
Some nations worshipped a rough stone.
Such is the black stone of the ancient
Arabs, retained by Mohammed, and now
kept in the Caaba at Mecca.

It is impossible to ascertain the period
at which the worship of false gods and
idols was introduced. No mention is
made of such worship before the deluge ;
though from the silence of Scripture
we cannot argue that it did not exist.
Josephus and many of the fathers were
of opinion, that soon after the deluge
idolatry became prevalent ; and certain
ly, wherever we turn our eyes after the
time of Abraham, we see only a false
worship. That patriarch's forefathers,
and even he himself, were implicated in
it, as is evident from Josh. 24:2, 14.

The Hebrews had no peculiar form of
idolatry ; they imitated the superstitions
of others, but do not appear to have been
the inventors of any. When they were
in Egypt, many of them worshipped
Egyptian deities, Ezek. 20:8 ; in the wil
derness, they worshipped those of the
Canaanites, Egyptians, Ammonites, and
Moabites ; in Judea, those of the Phreni-
cians, Syrians, and other people around
them, Num. 25 ; Judg. 10:6 ; Amos 5:25 ;
Acts 7 : 42. Rachel, it may be, had adored
idols at her father Laban's, since she car

ried off his teraphim, Gen. 31 -.30. Ja
cob, after his return from Mesopotamia,
required his people to reject the strange
gods from among them, and also the su
perstitious pendants worn by them in
their ears, which he hid under a tere
binth near Shechem. He preserved his
family in the worship of God while he
lived.

Under the government of the judges,
"the children of Israel did evil in the
sight of the Lord, and served Baalim.
They forsook the Lord God of their fa
thers, and followed other gods— of the
gods of the people that were round about
them ; and they forsook the Lord, and
served Baal and Ashtaroth," Judg. 2:11,
12. Gideon, after he had been favored
by God with a miraculous deliverance,
made an ephod, which ensnared the Is
raelites in unlawful worship, Judg. 8:27.
Micah's teraphim also were the objects
of idolatrous worship, even till the cap
tivity of Israel in Babylon, Judg. 17:5;
18:30, 31. See TERAPHIM.

During the times of Samuel, Saul, and
David, the worship of God seems to have
been preserved pure in Israel. There
was corruption and irregularity of man
ners, but little or no idolatry. Solomon,
seduced by complaisance to his strange
wives, caiised temples to be erected in
honor of Ashtoreth goddess of the Phoe
nicians, Moloch god of the Ammonites,
and Chemosh god of the Moabites. Jero
boam, who succeeded Solomon, set up
golden calves at Dan and Bethel, and
made Israel to sin. The people, no lon
ger restrained by royal authority, wor
shipped not only these golden calves,
but many other idols, particularly Baal
and Ashtoreth. Under the reign of
Ahab, idolatry reached its height. The
impious Jezebel endeavored to extin
guish the worship of the Lord, by per
secuting his prophets, (who, as a barrier,
still retained some of the people in the
true religion,) till God, incensed at their
idolatry, abandoned Israel to the kings
of Assyria and Chaldea, who transplant
ed them beyond the Euphrates. Judah
was almost equally corrupted. The de
scriptions given by the prophets of their
irregularities and idolatries, of their
abominations and lasciviousness on the
high places and in woods consecrated to
idols, and of their human sacrifices, fill
us with dismay, and unveil the awful
corruption of the heart of man. See Mo-
205

IDU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

IDU

•LOCH. After the return from Babylon,
we do not find the Jews any more re
proached with idolatry. They expressed
much zeal for the worship of God, and
except some transgressors under Antio-
chus Epiphanes, 1 Mac. 1, the people
kept themselves clear from this sin.

As the maintenance of the worship of
the only true God was one of the funda
mental objects of the Mosaic polity, and
as God was regarded as the king of the
Israelitish nation, so we find idolatry,
that is, the worship of other gods, occu
pying, in the Mosaic law, the first place
in the list of crimes. It was indeed a
crime, not merely against God, but also
against the fundamental law of the state,
and thus a sort of high treason. The
only living and true God was also the
civil legislator and ruler of Israel, and
accepted by them as their king ; and
hence idolatry was a crime against the
state, and therefore just as deservedly
punished with death, as high treason is
in modern times. By the Jewish law,
an idolater was to be stoned to death,
and an idolatrous city must be wholly
destroyed, with all it contained, Deut.
13:12-18; 17:2, 5.

At the present day, idolatry prevails
over a great portion of the earth, and is
practised by about 600,000,000 of the
human race. Almost all the heathen
nations, as the Chinese, the Hindoos,
the South Sea islanders, etc., have their
images, to which they bow down and
worship. In some lands professedly
Christian, it is to be feared that the ado
ration of crucifixes and paintings is noth
ing more nor less than idol-worship.
But when we regard idolatry in a moral
point of view, as consisting not merely
in the external worship of false gods,
but in the preference of, and devotion
to something else than the Most High,
how many Christians must then fall
under this charge. Whoever loves this
world, or the pursuits of wealth or hono.'
or ambition, or selfishness in any form,
and for these forgets or neglects God and
Christ, such a one is an idolater in as bad
a sense at least as the ancient Israelites,
and cannot hope to escape an awful con
demnation, Col. 3:5.

IDUM^E'A, the name given by the
Greeks to the land of Edom, or mount
Seir, which extended originally from the
Dead sea to the Elanitic gulf of the Red
sea, including a territory about one hun-
206

dred miles long, and fifteen or twenty
wide. Afterwards it extended more into
the south of Judah, towards Hebron. A
large part of it was occupied by the long
chain of mountains lying between the
great sandy valley El-Ghor and El-Ara-
bah on the west, (see JORDAN,) and the
Arabian desert on the east. The north
ern part of this chain is now called Dje-
bal, the ancient Gebal, which see ; the
remainder of the chain takes the name
Jebel Shera. The whole chain is inter
sected with valleys and ravines, running
down from the elevated desert on the east
to the Arabah on the west. It contains
traces of many towns and villages, long
since destroyed, and many springs, and
fertile valleys with tokens of its former
productiveness, Gen. 27:39. But at this
day, desolation reigns. The capital of
East Idumsea was Bozra ; but the chief
capital of Edom was Petra, or Sela, that
is, the rock, because it was excavated in
part from a mountain. It is now called
Wady Mousa, the valley of Moses. See
SELA.

The original inhabitants of this coun
try were called Horites, and were dispos
sessed by the Idurmieans of history, Gen.
14:6 ; 36:21 ; Deut. 12:2. The true Idu-
masans, or Edomites, were, as their name
implies, descendants of Edom, or Esau,
elder brother of Jacob, Gen. 36:6-9.
They were governed by dukes or princes,
ver. 15, and afterwards by their own
kings, ver. 31. Compare Exod. 15 : 15 ;
Num. 20 : 14. On the approach of the
Israelites from Egypt to the western bor
der of Edom, they were refused a peace
ful passage through that country to Mo-
ab. See EXODUS. They were divinely
charged, however, to preserve friendly
relations with their "brother" Esau,
Num. 20 : 14-21 ; Deut. 2:4-7; 23 : 7.
Yet hostilities seemed inevitable. Saul
was involved in war with them, 1 Sam.
14:47 ; but they continued independent
till the time of David, who subdued
them, in completion of Isaac's proph
ecy, that Jacob should rule Esau, Gen.
27:29; 2 Sam. 8:14; 1 Kin. 11:15;
1 Chr. 18 : 11-13. The Idumaeans bore
their subjection with great impatience,
avid at the end of Solomon's reign, Ha-
dad, an Edomite prince who had been
cairied into Egypt during his childhood,
returned into his own country, where
he procured himself to be acknowledged
king, 1 Kin. 11:14-22. It is probable,

ILL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

IMM

however, that he reigned only in East
Edom, 1 Kin. 22 : 47 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 36 ; for
Edora south of Judea continued subject
to the kings of Judah till the reign of Je-
horam, against whom it rebelled, 2 Chr.
21:8, in fulfilment of the second part of
Isaac's prophecy, Gen. 27:40. Amaziah
king of Judah also discomfited the Edom-
ites, killed 1,000 men, and cast 10,000
more from a precipice, 2 Kin. 14 : 7 ;
2 Chr. 25 : 11, 12. But these conquests
were not permanent. When Nebuchad
nezzar besieged Jerusalem, the Idumoe-
ans joined him, and encouraged him to
raze the very foundations of the city ;
but their cruelty did not long continue
unpunished. Many predictions of the
prophets foreshadowed Edom's real
doom, Obad. ; Jer. 49 : 7 ; Ezek. 25 ; 35 ;
Mai. 1:3, 4. Five years after the taking
of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar humbled
all the states around Judea, particularly
Idumusa, though he did not carry them
captive ; and subsequently John Hyrca-
nus drove them from Southern Judea,
into which they had penetrated, entirely
conquered them, and obliged them to
receive circumcision and the law. They
continued subject to the later kings of
Judea till the destruction of Jerusalem
by the Romans. Josephus informs us
that 20,000 of them were summoned to
aid in the defence of that city, but gave
themselves up to rapine and murder.
Ultimately, the Idum;Eans were sup
planted and absorbed by the Nabathe-
ans, descendants of Nabaioth, a son of
Ishmael. In the time of their prosper
ity, the Edomites were numerous and
powerful, devoted to commerce by land
and by sea, and also to agriculture and
the raising of cattle, Num. 20:17. But
neither their strong rock-fortresses, Jer.
49 : 16, nor their gods, 2 Chr. 25 : 20,
could save that rich and salubrious coun
try from becoming a desert, and a strik
ing monument of the truth of prophecy.
See KEITH on PROPHECY.

ILLYR/ICUM, a country of Europe,
lying east of the Adriatic sea, north of
Epirus, and west of Macedonia. It was
anciently divided into Liburnia, now
Croatia, on the north, and Dalmatia on
the south, which still retains its name.
See DALMATIA. The limits of Illyricum
varied much at different times. It was
reached by Paul, preaching the gospel of
Christ, and probably traversed in part,
A. ». 57, Bom. 15:19.

IM'AGE, an exact and complete copy
or counterpart of any thing. Christ is
called "the image of God," 2 Cor. 4:4,
'Col. 1:15, Heb. 1:3, as being the same in
nature and attributes. The image of God
in which man was created, Gen. 1:27,
was in his spiritual, intellectual, and
moral nature, in righteousness and true
holiness. The posterity of Adam were
born in his fallen, sinful likeness, Gen.
5:3; and as we have borne the image of
sinful Adam, so we should be moulded
into the moral image of the heavenly
man Christ, 1 Cor. 15 : 47-49 ; 2 Cor.
3:18.

"An image," Job 4:16, was that
which seemed to the dreamer a reality.
The word sometimes appears to include,
with the image, the idea of the real ob
ject, Psa. 73 : 20 ; Heb. 10 : 1. It is usu
ally applied in the Bible to representa
tions of false gods, painted, graven, etc.,
Dan. 3. All use of images in religious
worship was clearly and peremptorily
prohibited, Ex. 20 : 4, 5 ; Deut. 16 : 22 ;
Acts 17 : 16 ; Rom. 1 : 23. Their intro
duction into Christian churches, near
the close of the fourth century, was at
first strenuously resisted. Now, how
ever, they are universally used by Pa
pists : by most in a gross breach of the
second commandment, and by the best
in opposition to both the letter and the
spirit of the Bible, Ex. 20:4, 5; 32:4, 5 ;
Deut. 4:15; Isa. 40:18-31; John 4:23,
24; Rev. 22:8, 9.

The " chambers of imagery," in Ezek.
8 : 7-12, had their walls covered with
idolatrous paintings, such as are found
on the still more ancient stone walls of
Egyptian temples, and such as modern
researches have disclosed in Assyrian
ruins. See NINEVEH.

IMMAN'TJEL. See EMMANUEL.

IMMORTAL'ITY, in God, is underived
and absolute : ' ' who only hath immor
tality." In creatures, it is dependent
upon the will of God. The immortality
of the soul is argued from its boundless
desires and capacities, its unlimited im
provement, its desert of future punish
ment or reward, etc. All arguments,
however, are unsatisfying without the
testimony of Scripture. Christ "hath
brought life and immortality to light
through the gospel," 2 Tim. 1:10: the
immortal blessedness of Christians, in
cluding the resurrection of the body, is
by virtue of their union with Christ,
207

INC

BIBLE DICTIONARY

INS

John 14:19. The everlasting woe of the
wicked, the punishment of their sins,
runs parallel with the eternal life of the
redeemed, Matt. 25:46.

IN'CENSE, a dry, aromatic gum, ex
uding from a tree which grows in Arahia
and India. It is called also frankincense,
from the freedom with which when burn-
ing it gives forth its odors. Other spices
were mixed with it to make the sacred
incense, the use of which for any other
purpose was strictly forbidden, Exod.
30:84-38. To offer incense, among the
Hebrews, was an office peculiar to the

Eriests; for which purpose they entered
ito the holy apartment of the temple
every morning and evening. On the
great day of expiation, the high-priest
burnt incense in his censer as he entered
the Holy of Holies, and the smoke which
arose from it prevented his looking with
too much curiosity on the ark and mer
cy-seat, Lev. 16:13. The Levites were
not permitted to touch the censers ; and
Korah, Dathan, and Abiram suffered a
terrible punishment for violating this pro
hibition. Incense was especially a sym
bol of prayer. While it was offered, the
people prayed in the court without, and
their prayers ascended with the sweet
odor of the incense, until the priest re
turned and gave the blessing. So Christ
presents his people and their prayers to
God, accepted through his merits and
intercession, and gives them the bless
ing, ' ' Your sins are forgiven ; go in
peace," Psa. 141:2 ; Luke 2:9 ; Rev. 5:8;
8:4. " Incense " sometimes signifies the
sacrifices and fat of victims, as no other
kind of incense was offered on the altar
of burnt-offerings, Psa. 66 : 15. For a
description of the altar of incense, see
ALTAR.

IN'DIA, Esth. ] :1 ; 8:9, the country
lying east of the ancient Persia and Bac-
tria, so named from the river Indus
which passed through it. The India of
the ancients extended more to the north
and west than modern India; and the
southern region, now best known to us,
was comparatively unknown until the
era of modern navigation.

INHERITANCE. The laws of inher
itance among the Hebrews were very
simple. Land might be mortgaged, but
could not be alienated, Num. 36 : 6-9.
See JUBILEE. The only permanent right
to property was by heritage, or lineal
succession. The eldest son had a double
208

portion. Females had no territorial pos
session ; but if a man left no sons, his
daughters inherited — on condition of
their marrying into a family within the
tribe to which their father belonged.
If a man had no children, his land pass
ed to distant relatives, according to a
law laid down in Num. 27 : 8-11. The
law of Moses rendered wills unnecessary ;
they were introduced, however, at a later
period, Gal. 3 : 15 ; Heb. 9 : 17. Property
was sometimes distributed among chil
dren during the lifetime of the father :
thus, in the parable of the prodigal son,
the father divided his property between
the two sons, Luke 15:12.

INK, Jer. 36:18. The ink of the an
cients was thick and durable, and resem
bled our printer's ink. The ordinary
materials were powdered charcoal, or
ivory-black, water, and gum. The black
matter of the scuttle-fish was also used.
Writers carried their inkhorns within,
or suspended from, their girdles, Ezek.
9:2. See GIRDLE.

INNS. There appear to be three de
scriptions of these buildings in the East.
Some are simply places of rest, (by the
side of a fountain, if possible,) which,
being at proper distances on the road,
are thus named, though they are mere
naked walls ; others have an attendant,
who subsists either by some charitable
donation, or the benevolence of passen
gers ; and others are more considerable
establishments, where families reside
to take care of them, and furnish many
necessary provisions.

INSPIRATION, that supernatural in
fluence exerted on the minds of the sa
cred writers by the Spirit of God, in vir
tue of which they unerringly declared
his will. Whether what they wrote was
previously familiar to their own know
ledge, or, as in many cases it must
have been, an immediate revelation from
heaven ; whether his influence in any
given case was dictation, suggestion, or
superintendence; and however clearly
we may trace in their writings the pe
culiar character, style, mental endow
ments, and circumstances of each ; yet
the whole of the Bible was written under
the unerring guidance of the Holy Ghost,
2 Tim. 3:16.

Christ everywhere treats the Old Tes
tament Scriptures as infallibly true, and
of divine authority — the word of God.
To the New Testament writers inspi-,

INT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ISA

ration was promised, Matt. 10 : 19, 20 ;
John 14:26 ; 16:13; and they wrote and
prophesied under its direction, 1 Cor.
2 : 10-13 ; 14 : 37 ; Gal. 1 : 12 ; 2 Pet.
1:21; 3:15; Rev. 1:1, 10-19.

INTERCESSION, Christ's appearing
before the throne in heaven as the Ad
vocate of his people, presenting his fin
ished work as the reason why their pray
ers should be heard and their persons
accepted in him, Isa. 53:12 ; Rom. 8:34 ;
Heb. 7:25 ; 9:24 ; 1 John 2:1. In thus
pleading for sinners as the one Mediator,
his work is perfect ; it precludes all help
of virgin, saints, or angels; and will
certainly prevail. The Holy Spirit in
the hearts of believers is said to inter
cede for them, Rom. 8:26, when he puts
words into their mouths, and holy de
sires into their hearts, such as they
would otherwise fail of, but which are
according to the will of God and accept
able to him through Christ.

INTERPRETATION, revealing the
true meaning of supernatural dreams,
Gen. 41, Dan. 2 ; 4, of unknown tongues,
etc., 1 Cor. 12:12, 30; 14:5, 13.

For the right interpretation of the
word of God, the chief requisites are, a
renewed heart, supremely desirous to
learn and do the will of God ; the aid of
the Holy Spirit, sought and gained ; a
linn conviction that the word of God
should rule the erring reason and heart
of man ; a diligent comparison of its dif
ferent parts, for the light they throw
upon each other ; all reliable informa
tion as to the history and geography, the
customs, laws, and languages, the public,
domestic, and inner life of Bible times.
Thus to study the Bible for one's self is
the privilege and duty of every one.

IRON was early known and wrought,
Gen. 4 : 22. Moses often alludes to it.
He compares the bondage in Egypt to a
furnace for smelting iron, and speaks of
the iron ore of Canaan, Deut. 3:11; 4 : 20 ;
8 ; 9. Many different articles and tools
were anciently made of it. Immense
quantities were provided for the build
ing of the temple, 1 Chr. 29 : 2, 7.
"Iron" is used to illustrate slavery,
strength, obstinacy, fortitude, affliction,
etc., Deut. 28:48; Job 40:18; Isa. 48:4;
Jer. 1:18; Ezek. 22:18, 20; Dan. 2:33.
"Iron sharpeneth iron," says the wise
man, " so a man sharpeneth the counte
nance of his friend;" that is, the pres
ence of a friend gives us more confidence

and assurance. God threatens his un
grateful and perfidious people that he
will make the heaven brass and the earth
iron ; that is, make the earth barren, and
the heaven to produce no rain. Char
iots of iron are chariots armed with iron
spikes and scythes. See CHARIOTS.

I'SAAC, laughter, Gen. 17:17; 18:12;
21:6, one of the patriarchal ancestors of
the Hebrew nation and of Christ, son of
Abraham and Sarah, B. c. 1896-1705.
His history is related in Gen. 21 ; 24-28 ;
35 : 27-29. He is memorable for the cir~
cumstances attending his birth, as a
child of prophecy and promise, in the
old age of his parents. Even in child
hood he was the object of dislike to his
brother Ishmael, son of the bondwoman ;
and in this, a type of all children of the
promise, Gal. 4:29. Trained in the fear
of God to early manhood, he allowed a
noble trust and obedience in his conduct
during that remarkable trial of faith
which established Abraham as the "fa
ther of the faithful;" and in his meek
submission to all the will of God, prefig
ured the only-begotten Son of the Fa
ther. At the age of forty he married
the pious and lovely Rebekah of Meso
potamia. Most of his life was spent in
the southern part of Canaan and its
vicinity. At the burial of his father, he
was joined by his outcast brother Ish-
niael. Two sons of Isaac are named in
Scripture. The partiality of the mother
for Jacob, and of the father for Esau, led
to unhappy jealousies, discord, sin, and
long separations between the brothers,
though all were overruled to accomplish
the purposes of God. At the age of one
hundred and thirty-seven, Isaac blessed
Jacob and sent him away into Mesopota
mia. At the age of one hundred and
eighty, he died, and was buried in the
tomb of Abraham by his two sons. In
his natural character, Isaac was humble,
tranquil, and meditative ; in his piety,
devout, full of faith, and eminently sub
missive to the will of God.

ISAI'AH, the son of Amoz, (not Amos,)
one of the most distinguished of the He
brew prophets. He began to prophesy
at Jerusalem towards the close of the
reign of Uzziah, about the year 759 B. C.,
and exercised the prophetical office some
sixty years, under the three following
monarchs, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah,
Isa. 1:1. Compare 2 Kin. 15-20; 2 Chr.
26-32. The first twelve chapters of his
209

ISA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ISA

prophecies refer to the kingdom of Ju-
dah; then follow chapters 13-23, directed
against foreign nations, except chapter 22,
against Jerusalem. In chapters 24-35,
which would seem to belong to the time
of Hezekiah, the prophet appears to look
forward in prophetic vision to the times
of the exile and of the Messiah. Chap
ters 36-39 give a historical account of
Sennacherib's invasion, and of the ad
vice given by Isaiah to Hezekiah. Thj.s
account is parallel to that in 2 Kiri.
18 : 13, to 20 : 1 9 ; and indeed chapter 37 of
Isaiah is almost word for word the same
with 2 Kin. 19. The remainder of the
book of Isaiah, chapters 40-66, contains a
series of oracles referring to the future
times of temporal exile and deliverance,
and expanding into glorious views of the
spiritual deliverance to be wrought by
the Messiah.

Isaiah seems to have lived and proph
esied wholly at Jerusalem; and disap
pears from history after the accounts con
tained in chapter 39. A tradition among
the Talmudists and fathers relates that
he was sawn asunder during the reign of
Manasseh, Heb. 11:37 ; and this tradition
is embodied in an apocryphal book, called
the "ascension of Isaiah ;" but it seems
to rest on no certain grounds.

Some commentators have proposed to
divide the book of Isaiah chronologically
into three parts, as if composed under
the three kings, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hez
ekiah. But this is of very doubtful pro
priety ; since several of the chapters are
evidently transposed and inserted out of
their chronological order. But a very
obvious and striking division of the book
into two parts exists ; the first part, in
cluding the first thirty-nine chapters,
and the second, the remainder of the
book, or chapters 40-66.

The first part is made up of those
prophecies and historical accounts which
Isaiah wrote during the period of his
active exertions, when he mingled in the
public concerns of the rulers and the peo
ple, and acted as the messenger of God
to the nation in reference to their internal
and external existing relations. These
are single prophecies, published at dif
ferent times, and on different occasions ;
afterwards, indeed, brought together into
one collection, but still marked as dis
tinct and single, either by the super
scriptions, or in some other obvious and
known method.

210

The second part, on the contrary, is
occupied wholly with the future. It was
apparently written in the later years of
the prophet, when, having left all active
exertions in the theocracy to his younger
associates in the prophetical office, he
transferred his contemplations from the
present to that which was to come.
In this part therefore, which was not,
like the first, occasioned by external cir
cumstances, it is not so easy to distin
guish in like manner between the differ
ent single prophecies. The whole is
more like a single gush of prophecy.
The prophet first consoles his people by
announcing their deliverance from the
approaching Babylonish exile, which he
had himself predicted, chapter 39 : 6, 7 ;
he names the monarch whom Jehovah
will send to punish the insolence of
their oppressors, and lead back the peo
ple to their home. But he does not stop
at this inferior deliverance. With the
prospect of freedom from the Babylon
ish exile, he connects the prospect of
deliverance from sin and error through
the Messiah. Sometimes both objects
seem closely interwoven with each oth
er ; sometimes one of them appears
alone with particular clearness and
prominency. Especially is the view of
the prophet sometimes so exclusively
directed upon the latter object, that,
filled with the contemplation of the
glory of the spiritual kingdom of God
and of its exalted Fotinder, he loses sight
for a time of the less distant future. In
the description of this spiritual deliv
erance also, the relations of time are
not observed. Sometimes the prophet
beholds the Author of this deliverance
in his humiliation and sorrows; and
again, the remotest ages of the Messiah's
kingdom present themselves to his en
raptured vision — when man, so long
estranged from God, will have again re
turned to him ; when every thing op
posed to God shall have been destroyed,
and internal and external peace univer
sally prevail ; and when all the evil in
troduced by sin into the world, will be
for ever done away. Elevated above all
space and time, the prophet contem
plates from the height on which the
Holy Spirit has thus placed him, the
whole development of the Messiah's
kingdom, from its smallest beginnings
to its glorious completion.

Isaiah is appropriately named "th<

ISH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ISR

evangelical prophet," and the fathers
called his book ' ' the Gospel according to
St. Isaiah. " In it the wonderful person
and birth of ' ' Emmanuel — God with us, ' '
his beneficent life, his atoning death,
and his triumphant and everlasting king
dom, are minutely foretold, Isa. 7:14-
16; 9:6,7; 11:1-10 ; 32 ; 42 ; 49; 52:13-
15; 53; 60; 61:1-3. The simplicity,
purity, sweetness, and sublimity of Isai
ah, and the fulness of his predictions
respecting the Messiah, give him the pre
eminence among the Hebrew prophets
and poets.

ISH'BI-BE'NOB, a giant who was on
the point of killing David in battle, but
was slain by Abishai, 2 Sam. 21:16, 17.

ISH'BOSHETH, son and successor of
Saul. Abner, Saul's kinsman and gen
eral, so managed that Ishbosheth was
acknowledged king at Mahanaim by the
greater part of Israel, while David reign
ed at Hebron over Judah. He was forty-
four years of age when he began to
reign, and he reigned two years peacea
bly ; after which he was involved in a
long and unsuccessful war against David.
Being abandoned by Abner, whom he
had provoked, he became more and more
feeble, and was at last assassinated, 2 Sam.
2:8-11; 3; 4. See ESHBAAL.

ISH'MAEL, I., Gen. 16; 21, son of
Abraham and Hagar, B. c. 1910. He
was at first regarded as ' ' the son of the
promise ;" but after the birth and wean
ing of Isaac he was driven from his fa
ther's house, at the age of about seven
teen, and took with his mother the way to
Egypt her native land. Overcome with
heat and thirst, and then miraculously
relieved, he remained in the wilderness
of Paran, took a wife from Egypt, and
was the father of twelve sons, heads of
Arab tribes. He seems to have become
on friendly terms with Isaac, and to
have attended at the bedside of their
dying father. At his own death, he was
one hundred and thirty-seven years old,
Gen. 25:9, 17.

The Ishmaelites, his posterity, were
said, in the days of Moses, to dwell
"from Havilah unto Shur that is be
fore Egypt," that is, in the north-west
ern part of Arabia. See HAVILAH II.
Subsequently they, with the descendants
of Joktan, the fourth from Shem, Gen.
10 : 26-29, and Jokshan, the son of
Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 25 : 3, and
perhaps also of some of the brethren

of Joktan and Jokshan, occupied the
whole peninsula of Arabia. See ARA
BIA. They became very numerous and
powerful, according to the divine prom
ise, Gen. 17:16. The prediction also
in Gen. 16 : 12, has been fully verified
in their history. Located near their
' ' brethren ' ' the Jews, they have al
ways led a roving, wild, and predatory
life. To a great degree unchanged, they
are to this day the untamed though
tributary masters of the desert. See

MlDIANITES.

II. A prince of Judah, who fled to the
Ammonites when Jerusalem was de
stroyed by the Chaldeans. Soon after,
he returned and assassinated Gedaliah
the governor and many others ; but was
obliged to flee for his life, Jer. 40 ; 41.

ISLE, ISLAND. The Hebrew word
which is more commonly translated isle,
means strictly dry land, habitable coun
try, in opposition to water, or to seas
and rivers, Isa. 42 : 15. Compare Isa.
50 : 2. Hence, as opposed to water in
general, it means land adjacent to water,
either washed or surrounded by it, that
is, maritime country, coast, island. Thus
it means coast, when used of Ashdod,
Isa. 20 : 6 ; of Tyre, Isa. 23 : 2, 6 ; of Pe
loponnesus, or Greece, Ezek. 27:7, "the
isles of Elishah. ' ' It means island when
used of Caphtor, for example, or Crete,
Jer. 47:4; also Jer. 2:10; so Psa. 97:1 ;
and also Esth. 10: 1, where the phrase
isles of the sea is in antithesis with the
land or continent. The plural of this
word, usually translated islands, was
employed by the Hebrews to denote dis
tant regions beyond the sea, whether
coasts or islands ; and especially the
islands and maritime countries of the
west, which had become indistinctly
known to the Hebrews, through the voy
ages of the Phoenicians, Isa. 24 : 15 ;
40 : 15 ; 42 : 4, 10, 12 ; Psa. 72 : 10. In
Ezek. 27 : 15, the East Indian Archipela
go would seem to be intended.

IS'RAEL, who prevails with God, a name
given to Jacob, after having wrestled
with the Ansrel-Jehovah at Penuel, Gen.
32:1, 2, 28, 30 ; Hosea 12:3. See JACOB.
By the name Israel is sometimes under
stood all the posterity of Israel, the seed
of Jacob, 1 Cor. 10 : 18 ; sometimes all
true believers, his spiritual seed, Rom.
9:6; and sometimes the kingdom of
Israel, or the ten tribes, as distinct from
the kingdom of Judah.

211

ISR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

IVO

ISRAELITES, the "children of Isra
el," a name of the twelve tribes unitedly
until the separation under Rehoboam,
when it became the usual designation of
the ten tribes forming the kingdom of
Israel. Ephraim, the leading tribe
among the ten, seems to have shown an
early spirit of rivalry towards Judah ;
Joshua had belonged to Ephraim, the
ark had long rested within its borders at
Shiloh, and Jeroboam was also an Ephra-
imite. After the division, in order to
prevent the ten tribes from repairing to
Jerusalem to worship, the two golden
calves were set up, at Bethel and Dan,
and thus idolatry was established in
those tribes, and corruption and ungod
liness increased more rapidly than in
Judah. Israel was chastised by sword,
famine, etc. ; and at length, having
been often reproved and hardening their
necks, they were suddenly destroyed, and
that without remedy. During the two
hundred and fifty-four years of the king
dom of Israel, B. c. 975-721, there were
nineteen different kings, of various lines.
See KINGS. Shechem, Thirzah, and Sa
maria were in turn the seats of govern
ment. After their captivity by Shal-
maneser, the Israelites as a nation never
returned. Those who did return were
merged in the tribes of Judah and Ben
jamin, and with them constituted the
Jews of our Saviour's day. See CANAAN,
HEBREWS, and JUDA.H.

IS'SACHAR, recompense, so named by
Leah his mother, Gen. 30:18, the ninth
son of Jacob, born B. c. 1749. The
character of his posterity was foretold by
Jacob and by Moses, Gen. 49 : 14, 15 ;
Deut. 33:18, 19.

The TRIBE OF ISSACIIAR numbered fifty-
four thousand men in the desert, and on
entering Canaan was the third in pop
ulation, Num. 1:28; 26:25. Their por
tion, having the Jordan on the east,
Manasseh on the west, Zebulun north,
and Ephraim south, included a consider
able part of the fine plain of Esdraelon,
the most fertile in the country. They
were industrious agriculturists, and are
mentioned with honor for their brave
and wise patriotism, Judg. 5:15; 1 Chr.
7:1-5: 12:32.

IT'ALY is not mentioned in the Old
Testament, unless under general terms,
as Chittim, Isles of the sea. In the New
Testament, Acts 18 : 2 ; 27 : 1, 6 ; Heb.
13:24, it is chiefly of interest on account
212

of HOME, which see. The Italian band,
mentioned in Acts 10:1, was probably a
Roman cohort from Italy, stationed at
Cccsarea ; so called to distinguish it from
the other troops, which were drawn from
Syria and the adjacent regions.

ITH'AMAR, the fourth son of Aaron,
consecrated to the priesthood, Ex. 6:23 ;
Num. 3:2, 3. His posterity took charge
of the tabernacle in the wilderness, Ex.
38:21 ; Num. 4:28. Some of this line
namely, Eli, Ahitub, Ahiah, Ahimelech,
and Abiathar, held the office of high-
priest, but under Solomon it reverted to
the family of Eleazar, 1 Kin. 2:7. See
ABIATHAR.

ITURE'A, a region in the extreme
north-east of Palestine, perpetuating the
name of Jetur a son of Ishmael, and be
longing to the half-tribe of Manasseh
1 Chr. 1 : 31 ; 5 : 19. The name Jedur
still remains there. In the time of
Christ, Iturea was in the tetrarchy of
Philip, Luke 3:1. It lay about midway
between the sea of Galilee and Damas
cus, but its limits are not well known.
Its inhabitants are said to have been skil
ful archers and dexterous robbers.

IVORY : FROM EGYPTIAN RUINS.

I'VORY is mentioned in the reign of
Solomon, and referred to in Psalm 45,
as used in decorating palaces. Solomon,
who traded to India, brought thence ele
phants and ivory to Judea. ' ' For the
king had at sea a navy of Tarshish, with
the navy of Hiram : once in three yean*
came the navy of Tarshish, bringing gold
and silver and ivory," 1 Kin. 10:22;
2 Chr. 9:21. Solomon had a throne dec
orated with ivory, and inlaid with gold,
these beautiful materials relieving the
splendor and heightening the lustre of

JAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JAC

each other, 1 Kin. 10 : 18. Ivory, as is
well known, is the substance of the tusks
of elephants, and hence it is always call
ed in Hebrew, tooth.

As to the "ivory houses," 1 Kin.
22 : 39, Amos 3:15, they may have had
ornaments of ivory, as they sometimes
have of gold, silver, or other precious
materials, in such abundance as to be
named from the article of their decora
tion ; as the emperor Nero's palace was
named aurea, or golden, because overlaid
with gold. This method of ornamenting
buildings or apartments was very ancient
among the Greeks, and is mentioned by
Homer. See Ezek. 27:6, 15 ; Amos 6:4;
Rev. 18:12.

J.

JA'BAL, son of Lamech and Adah,
and a descendant of Cain. He is sup
posed to have been the iirst to adopt the,
nomadic mode of life, still practised in
Arabia and Tartary, and to have invent
ed portable tents, perhaps of skins, Gen.
4:20.

JAB'BOK, now the Zerka, a perennial
stream, flowing into the Jordan midway
between the sea of Galilee and the Dead
sea, about thirty miles from each, after
a westerly course of some sixty miles. It
traverses at first an elevated and desert
region, and receives a branch from the
north and another from the south. This
latter branch separated the Ammonites
from Israel. The eastern part of the
Jabbok is dry in summer. Towards the
west, it flows through a deep ravine.
Penuel, where Jacob wrestled with the
Angel, was a fording-place of the Jab
bok, Gen. 32 : 22. This stream divided
the territory of Og from that of Sihon,
Josh. 12 : 2, 5, and traversed the region
afterwards assigned to the tribe of Gad.

JA'BESH, a city in the half-tribe of
Manasseh east of the Jordan, generally
called Jabesh-gilead because situated
within the territory commonly called
Gilead. Eusebius places it six miles
from Pella, towards Gerasa. It was
sicked by the Israelites for refusing to
aid in chastising the Benjamites, Judg.
21:8-10. At a later day, it was besieged
by the Ammonites, and relieved by Saul ;
in gratitude for which service the men of
•Jabesh-gilead rescued the dead bodies of
Saul and his sons from the insults of the

Philistines, 1 Sam. 11 ; 31:11-13 ; 2 Sam.
2:5.

JA'BEZ, a descendant of Judah, whose
high distinction among his brethren
seems to have been owing to his preva
lence in prayer, 1 Chr. 4:9, 10.

JA'BIN, I., a powerful king in the
time of Joshua, at Hazor in the north
of Canaan. The league which he or
ganized to crush Joshua, only made his
own ruin more complete, Josh. 11, B. c.
1450.

II. Another king of Hazor, a century
and a half later, who sorely oppressed
Israel for twenty years, till Deborah and
Barak were raised up as deliverers, Judg.
4; Psa. 83:9.

JAB'NEH, afterwards Jarnnia, now
Jebna, a Philistine city on the Mediter
ranean coast, some twelve miles south of
Joppa. It was conquered by the Jews,
2 Chr. 26:6.

JA'CHIN, God confirms, the name of
the right-hand brazen column at the
entrance of Solomon's temple, 1 Kin.
7:21. See BOAZ.

JACINTH, or HYACINTH, a gem of a
yellowish red or hyacinth color, nearly
related to zircon and to the amethyst.
It loses its color by being heated, and
resembles the diamond, Rev. 9 : 17 ;
21:20.

JA'COB, son of Isaac and Rebekah,
and twin-brother to Esau. As at his
birth he held his brother's heel, he was
called Jacob, that is, the heel-holder,
one who comes behind and catches the
heel of his adversary, a supplanter, Gen.
25 : 26. This was a kind of predictive
intimation of his future conduct in life.
Jacob was meek and peaceable, living a
shepherd life at home. Esau was more
turbulent and fierce, and passionately
fond of hunting. Isaac was partial to
Esau, Rebekah to Jacob. Jacob hav
ing taken advantage of his brother's
absence and his father's infirmity to
obtain the blessing of the birthright,
or primogeniture, was compelled to fly
into Mesopotamia to avoid the conse
quences of his brother's wrath, Gen. 27 ;
28. On his journey the Lord appeared
to him in a dream, (see LADDER,) prom
ised him His protection, and declared Hig
purpose relative to his descendants' pos
sessing the land of Canaan, and the de
scent of the Messiah through him, Gen.
28:10, etc. His subsequent days, which
he calls "few and evil," were clouded
213

JAG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JAM

with many sorrows, yet amid them all
he was sustained by the care and favor
of God. On his solitary journey of six
hundred miles into Mesopotamia, and
during the toils and injuries of his twen
ty years' service with Laban, God still
prospered him, and on his return to the
land of promise inclined the hostile spir
its of Laban and of Esau to peace. On
the border of Canaan the angels of God
met him, and the God of angels wrestled
with him, yielded him the blessing, and
gave him the honored name of Israel.
But sore trials awaited him : his mother
was no more ; his sister-wives imbittered
his life with their jealousies ; his chil
dren Dinah, Simeon, Levi, and Reuben
filled him with grief and shame ; his be
loved Rachel and his father were remov
ed by death ; Joseph his favorite son he
had given up as slain by wild beasts ;
and the loss of Benjamin threatened to
bring his gray hairs with sorrow to the
grave. But the sunset of his life was
majestically calm and bright. For sev
enteen years, he enjoyed in the land of
Goshen a serene happiness : he gave a
dying blessing in Jehovah's name to his
assembled sons ; visions of their future
prosperity rose before his eyes, especially
the long line of the royal race of Judah,
culminating in the glorious kingdom of
SHILOH. "He saw it, and was glad."
Soon after, he was gathered to his fathers,
and his body was embalmed, and buried
with all possible honors in the burial-
place of Abraham near Hebron, B. c.
1836-1689. In the history of Jacob we
observe that in repeated instances he
used unjustifiable means to secure prom
ised advantages, instead of waiting, in
faith and obedience, for the unfailing
providence of God. We observe also the
divine chastisement of his sins, and his
steadfast growth in grace to the last,
Gen. 25-50. His name is found in the
New Testament, illustrating the sove
reignty of God and the power of faith,
Rom. 9:13; Heb. 11:9, 21.

JACOB'S WELL. See SHECHEM.

JA'EL, wife of Heber the Kenite, slew
Sisera, general of the Canaanitish army,
who had fled to her tent, which was then
temporarily on the western border of the
plain of Esdraelon. Jael took her oppor
tunity, and while he was sleeping, drove
a large nail or tent-pin through his tem
ples, Judg. 4:17-23. The life of Sisera
was undoubtedly forfeited to the Israel-
214

ites by the usages of war, and probably
to society by his crimes. Besides this,
the life.or honor of Jael may have been
in danger, or her feelings of hospitality
may have been overpowered by a sudden
impulse to avenge the oppressed Israel
ites, with whom she was allied by blood.
The song of Deborah celebrates the act
as one of justice and heroism, and as a
divine judgment which, as well as the
defeat of Sisera' s host, was the more dis
graceful to him for being wrought by a
woman, Judg. 5:1, 24-27, 31.

JAH, a Hebrew contraction for JEHO
VAH, Psa. 68:4. It is often found in He
brew compound words, as in Adonijah,
Malachia, Hallelujah.

JA'HAZ, JAIIA'ZAII, or JAH'ZAH, a city
in the north of Moab, near which Moses
defeated Sihon, Num. 21:23. It was in
the limits of Reuben, and was a Levitical
city, Josh. 21:36. In Isa. 15:4, and Jer.
48:21, it appears as again in the hands
jof Moabites.

JAIR, I., a leader in the conquest of
Bashan, probably before the Jews crossed
the Jordan, B. c. 1451. Twenty-three
cities near Argob were called after him
Havoth-jair, which see.

II. The eighth judge of Israel, in Gil-
ead of Manasseh, B. c. 1210. He seems
to have been a descendant and heir of
the former, Judg. 10:3-5.

JAI'RUS, a ruler of the synagogue at
Capernaum, memorable for his faith in
Christ. His deceased daughter, twelve
years of age, was restored to life and
health by the Saviour, Mark 5:22 ; Luke
8:41.

JAM'BRES. See JAN'NES.

JAMES, I., surnamed the greater, or
the elder, to distinguish him from James
the younger, was one of the twelve apos
tles, brother of John the evangelist, and
son of Zebedee and Salome, Matt. 4:21 ;
27 : 56. Compare Mark 15 : 40. James
was of Bethsaida in Galilee, and left his
earthly occupation to follow Christ, Mark
1 : 19, 20. His mother Salome was one of
those women who occasionally attended
our Saviour in his journeys, and one day
desired that her two sons might be seated
at his right and left hand in his king
dom, Matt. 20:20-23.

James and John were originally fish
ermen, with Zebedee their father, Mark
1 : 19. They were witnesses of our Lord's
transfiguration, Matt. 17:1, 2 ; and when
certain Samaritans refused to receive him,

JAM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JAS

esia&d Johnwlsfeed fctfifi^efrom heav
en to <x>»&ume them , Luke 9-: -54, For this
freasoB, or because of their <ia?al and en-
•ergy ^s toiaisters of Christ, the name of
Boanerges, or -sons of thtmder, was after
wards givea to them-, -Mark 3:17. To
gether with Peter they appear to have
•enjoyed -special IIOHOTS and privileges
among the -disciples, -Mark 1 : 2'J ; 5 : 87 ;
9 : 2 ; 13,- 3 .; 14 ; 33 ; Luke 8 : 61. After
the .ascension, of our Lord, at which
James was present, he appears to have
a-emaiped at Jerusalem, and was put to
death by Herod, -about A. D. 44, the first
snartyr among the apostles, Acts 12:1, 2.

II. Another .apostle, son of Alphacus,
•or Cleophas, Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 3 : 18 ;
Luke 6 : 15. His mother's name was
Mary, {III.,) and his brethren were Joses
and Judas, {III.,) Matt. 27 :56; Mark
15:40. He is here called THE LESS, or the
younger, to distinguish him from James
the son of Zebedee.

III. "The Lord's brother," Gal. 1:19;
either a brother of Christ, being a son
of Joseph and Mary ; or as many think,
=a cousin of Christ, and identical with the
James above, II. He resided at Jerusa
lem, Acts 15:13; and is called "the
Just" by Josephus, and said to have
been stoned to death, about A. D. 62.
The epistle of James is ascribed to him
Toy those who distinguish him from James
the Less. The question of his true rela
tionship to Christ is involved in much
•doubt. The gospels repeatedly men
tion James, Joses, Juda, and Simon, as
"brothers" of our Lord, and speak in
the same connection of his "mother"
and his "sisters," Matt. 12 : 46 ; 13 : 56 ;
Mark 3:31 ; 6:3 ; Luke 8:19 ; moreover,
the inspired writers expressly distinguish
the brothers of Christ from the apostles,
while they include among the apostles
both James the Less and Jude, John
2 : 12 ; 7 : 3-10 ; Acts 1 : 13, 14, thus fur
nishing strong reasons, as many believe,
for the opinion that James the Just was
literally a brother of our Lord.

The EPISTLE OF JAMES is generally sup
posed to have been written at Jerusalem,
about A. D. 61, by James the Just, short
ly before his death. It is addressed
particularly to Jewish converts, but was
Intended for the benefit of Christians
generally. It is hence called catholic.
See CATHOLIC and EPISTLE. It has often
teen regarded as teaching a different
doctrine in respect to faith and works,

from what Paul teaches in his epistle
to the Romans. But the doctrine of
the two apostles is at bottom the same,
only that Paul dwells more on faith, the
sole origin of good works; and James
dwells more on good works, which result
from true faith. According to Paul,
there can be no true faith which does
not manifest itself in good works ; and
according to James, there can be no truly
good works which do not spring from
true faith.

JAN'NES and JAM'BRES were two of
the principal Egyptian magicians, who
withstood Moses and Aaron by attempt
ing to imitate the miracles which they
exhibited. See Exod. 7:11, etc. These
names are not found in the' Old Testa
ment, but are often mentioned in the
rabbinical books, 2 Tim. 3:8.

JAPHETH, enlargement, the eldest of
Noah's three sons, Gen. 9 : 24 ; 10 : 21,
born one hundred years before the flood.
He was perhaps the I'apetos, whom Greek
legends represent as the progenitor of
the Greek race. His seven sons, Gen.
10:2-5; 1 Chr. 1:5, occupied with their
posterity the north of Asia and most of
Europe. The probable location of each
of the seven is described in its place. In
later years the Greeks and Romans sub
dued large portions of Southern and
Western Asia, in accordance with the
prediction of Noah, Gen. 9 : 27. The
"enlargement " of Japheth now extends
over America also.

JAPH'O. See JOPPA.

JASH'ER, THE BOOK OF, that is, the
book of the upright, or of the excellent,
noble-minded. This work is mentioned
in Josh. 10 : 13, and 2 Sam. 1 : 18, and
would seem to have been a collection of
national, historical, triumphal, and ele
giac songs, which was still extant in the
time of David. Josephus speaks of a
book of Jasher as then existing in the
temple, but nothing is known respecting
it. The books now published under this
name are gross forgeries.

JA'SON, a kinsman and host of Paul,
at Thessalonica. His person and goods
were interposed to shield the apostle
from the rabble, A. ». 52, Acts 17:5-30.
He seems also to have been with him
at Corinth, five years afterwards, Rom.
16:21.

JAS'PER, a precious stone of various
colors, as green, purple, etc., often cloud
ed with white, and beautifully striped
215

JAV

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JEH

with red or yellow, Ex. 28:20 ; Rev. 4:3 ;
21:11.

JA'VAN, the fourth son of Japheth,
Gen. 10:2, 4. This name is the same as
the Greek Ion, whence comes Ionia, and
it is understood that Javan was the an
cestor of the Greeks. See GREECE.

JA'ZER, or JAAZER, Num. 21 : 32, a
city of the Amorites, in Gilead ; after
wards a Levitical city in Gad. It lay
some fifteen miles north of Heshbon,
near a small stream, Num. 32:1 ; Josh.
21:39; 1 Chr. 26:31 ; Jer. 48:32.

JEALOUSY. See under ADULTERY.
The idol of jealousy, Ezek. 8:3, 5, is the
same with Thammuz in verse 14. See
TIIAMMUZ.

JEB'USITES. See CANAANITES.

JECONI'AH. See JEHOIACHIN.
^ JEDIDI'AH, beloved of the Lord, a name
given to Solomon at his birth, by Nathan
the prophet, 2 Sam. 12:25.

JED'UTHUN, a Levite, one of the di
rectors of music at the temple, 1 Chr.
16 : 38-42. His descendants held the
same office, 2 Chr. 35:15; Neh. 11:17;
and the name of one of them appears
in the title of Psalms 39, 62, 77. See
ASAPII.

JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA, heap of imt-
ness, a Chaldee name, equivalent to Ga-
leed in Hebrew, both marking the scene
of the covenant between Jacob and La-
ban, Gen. 31:47.

JEHO'AHAZ, I., son and successor of
Jehu king of Israel, B. c. 856, reigned
seventeen years. In punishment for his
sins and those of his people, Israel was
invaded and reduced to great extremi
ties by the Syrians under Hazael and
Benhadad. The king humbled himself
before God, and deliverance came by the
hand of Joash his son, 2 Kin. 13:19, 25.

II. Also called Shallum, 1 Chr. 3:15,
the third son and the successor of Josiah
king of Judah, B. c. 609, reigned about
three months in Jerusalem. He was de
posed by the king of Egypt, 2 Kin. 23 :30-
34 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 1-4. See also Jer. 22 : 10-
13; Ezek. 19:3.

JEHO'ASH. See JOASII.

JEHOI'ACHIN, son and successor of
Jehoiakim, king of Judah, B. c. 509,
reigned three months, and was then car
ried away to Babylon, where he was im
prisoned for thirty-six years, 'and then
released and favored by Evil-merodach,
2 Kin. 24:6-16 ; 25:27 ; 2 Chr. 36:9, 10.
In this last passage he is said to have
216

been eight years old at the commence'
ment of his reign. If the text has not
here been altered from eighteen years,
as it stands in the first passage, we may
conclude that he reigned ten years con
jointly with his father. He is also called
Coniah, and Jecomah, 1 Chr. 3:16 ; Jer.
27 : 20 ; 37 : 1. The prediction in Jer.
22 : 30. signified that no son of his should
occupy the throne, 1 Chr. 3: 17, 18 ; Matt.

JEHOIADA, a high-priest, who pre
served the life and throne of the young
Josiah against the usurping Athaliah.
His wisdom and piety continued to bless
the kingdom until he died, B. c. 834,
aged 130, and was buried with royal
honors, 2 Kin. 11 ; 2 Chr. 23 ; 24.

JEHOIAKIM, or ELI'AKIM, second son
of Josiah, brother and successor of Je-
hoahaz or Shallum, king of Judah, for
whom he was substituted by the king
of Egypt. He was king during eleven
years of luxury, extortion, and idolatry.
In the third year, Nebuchadnezzar car
ried to Babylon a part of his princes and
treasures. A year after, his allies the
Egyptians were defeated on the Euphra
tes ; yet he despised the warnings of Jer
emiah, and cast his book into the fire.
At length he rebelled against Nebuchad
nezzar, but was defeated and inglorious-
ly slain, B. c. 599, 2 Kin. 23:34; 24:6;
2 Chr. 36:4-8; Jer. 22; 26; 36.

JEHO'RAM. See JORAM.

JEHOSHAPHAT, a pious king of Ju
dah, the son and successor of Asa. He
began to reign at the age of thirty-five,
about the year 9X4 B. c., and reigned
twenty-five years. His history is found
in 1 Kin. 15:24 ; 22 ; 2 Chr. 17-20. He
was distinguished by his zeal for true
religion, and his firm trust in God. He
thoroughly cleansed the land from idol
atry, restored the divine ordinances, and
provided for the religious instruction of
the people. His government was highly
prospered at home and abroad. The
great error of his life was, an entangling
alliance with the wicked Ahab, whose
infamous daughter Athaliah early began
to afflict the kingdom of Judah, of which
she was afterwards the queen. Jehosha-
phat was beguiled by Ahab into an un
successful war with the Syrians, but soon
resumed his labors in behalf of religion
and justice. Having failed in a commer-
ial enterprise with Ahaziah, he declined
a second trial', 1 Kin. 22:48, 49, but

JEH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JEP

united with Joram, his successor, in a
war with Moab. This seems to have led
to his being assailed by a vast host of Mo-
abites, Ammonites, Edomites, and Syr
ians ; but again he was victorious through
his faith in God. He died at the age of
sixty years.

JEIIOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF, or valley of
the judgment of God, a metaphorical name
of some place where God would judge
the foes of his people, Joel 3 : 2, 12.
There is no ground for applying it to
any known locality, or for connecting
it, unless for mere illustration, with the
great battle of Jehoshaphat described in
2 Chr. 20. Since the third century, how
ever, the name has been appropriated to
the deep and narrow glen east of Jeru
salem, running north and south between
the city and the mount of Olives, called
in the Bible the brook Kidron. See JE
RUSALEM.

JEHOSH'EBA, the aunt of Joash, king
of Judah, whose life in infancy and child
hood she saved, in spite of the designs of
Athaliah, 2 Kin. 11:1-3.

JEHO'VAH, the inenable name of God
among the Hebrews. It never has the
article before it, nor is it found in the
plural form. The Jews never pronounc
ed this name ; and wherever it occurs in
the Hebrew Scriptures, they substituted
for it, in reading, the word ADONAI, Lord,
or ELOIIIM, God. See GOD. In the He
brew Bible, it is always written with the
vowels of one or the other of these words.
Its ancient pronunciation is by many
thought to have been Yahveh, but this is
not certain. Its meaning is HE is, the
same as I AM, the person only being
changed. Thus it denotes the self-exist
ence, independence, immutability, and
infinite fulness of the divine Being, Avhich
is a pledge that he will fulfil all his
promises. Compare Ex. 3:14, I AM THAT
I AM, the meaning of which see under
the article GOD. In Ex. G:3, God says,
"I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac,
and unto Jacob, by the name of God
Almighty ; but by my name Jehovah
was I not known to them;" yet the
appellation Jehovah appears to have
been known from the beginning, Gen.
4 : 2. We have reason to believe that
God himself, who named man Adam,
named himself JEHOVAH ; but in his rev
elation to the patriarchs he had not ap
propriated to himself this name in a
peculiar way, as he now did, nor unfold-
10

ed the deep meaning contained in it.
He had said to them, "I am God Al
mighty," Gen. 17:1; 26:11; or, "lam
Jehovah, the God of Abraham," etc. ',
but never simply, " I am Jehovah." It
should be remembered that our English
version translates this name by the word
LORD, printed in small capitals.

JEIIOVAII-JIREII, Jehovah will provide,
the name given by Abraham to the place
where he had been on the point of slay
ing his son Isaac, Gen. 22:14. He gave
this name in allusion to his answer to
Isaac's question in verse 8, that God
would provide a victim for the sacrifice.

JEIIOVAII-NIS'SI, Jehovah my banner, Ex.
17:15.

JEIIOVAII-SIIA'LOM, Jehovah of peace or
prosperity, the name given by Gideon to
an altar which he built in the place
where the Angel-Jehovah had appeared
to him, and saluted him by saying,
"Peace be unto thee," Judg. 6:24.

JEHOVAH-SIIAM'MAII, Jehovah is there, the
name given by Ezekiel, 48:35, margin,
to a future holy city.

JEIIOVAII-TZIDKE'KU, Jehovah our right
eousness, a name given to the Saviour,
and through him to his church, Jer.
23:6; 33:16, margin.

JE'HU, I. , the son of Hanani, a proph
et, sent with messages from God to Baa-
sha king of Israel, and many years after
wards, to Jehoshaphat king of Judah,
1 Kin. 16:1-7; 2 Chr. 19:1-3; 20:34.

II. The "son" of Jehoshaphat and
grandson of Kimshi, (compare 1 Kin.
19:16, and 2 Kin. 9:2,) a general of the
army of Joram, slew his master, and
usurped the throne of Israel, B. c. 884.
He reigned twenty-eight years. See his
history in 1 Kin. 19:16, 17 ; 2 Kin. 9 ; 10.
He fulfilled the divine purpose in extir
pating the family of the impious Ahab,
and zealously destroyed the priests of
Baal and many other friends of Ahab.
But his heart was not right \vith God.
The Syrians possessed themselves of his
eastern frontier, and his dynasty was cut
short in the fourth generation.

JEPH'THAH, the son of Gilead, was
a judge of Israel, and successor to Jair.
His history is told in Judg. 11 ; 12. A
most affecting incident in it is his devot
ing his daughter to God as a sacrifice, in
consequence of a rash vow.

The arguments on the question wheth
er Jephthah's daughter was actually sac
rificed or not cannot here be cited. The
217

JEIl

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JER

natural repugnance we feel to such a vow
and its fulfilment has led many inter
preters to adopt the less obvious theory
that she was only condemned to live and
die unmarried. There is no intimation
in Scripture that God approved of his
vow, whatever it was. Paul numbers
Jephthah among the saints of the Old
Testament distinguished for their faith,
Heb. 11:32.

JEKEMI'AH, one of the chief prophets
of the Old Testament, prophesied under
Josiah; Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah, and
also after the captivity of the latter. He
was born at Anathoth, of the race of the
priests, and was destined of God to be a
prophet, and consecrated for that object
before his birth, Jer. 1:1,5. At an early
age he was called to act as a prophet,
B. c. 628, in the thirteenth year of king
Josiah. This good king no doubt coop
erated with him to promote the reforma
tion of the people ; but the subsequent
life of the prophet was full of afflictions
and persecutions. Jehoiakim threw his
prophetic roll into the fire, and sought
his life. Zedekiah was kindly instructed
by him, and warned of the woes impend
ing over his guilty people, and of their
seventy years' captivity, but to no pur
pose. The fidelity of the prophet often
endangered his life, and he was in prison
when Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchad-
nezzar. That monarch released him, and
offered him a home in Babylon ; but he
chose to remain with the remnant of the
Jews, and was carried by them erelong
into Egypt, B. c. 586, still faithfully ad
vising and reproving them till lie died.
For forty-two years lie steadfastly main
tained the cause of truth and of God
against his4 rebellious people. Though
naturally mild, sensitive, and retiring,
he shrank from no danger when duty
called ; threats could not silence him,
nor ill-usage alienate him. Tenderly
compassionate to his infatuated coun
trymen, he shared with them the woes
which he could not induce them to avert
from their own heads.

The BOOK or JEREMIAH, in the chro
nological order of its several predictions
and divine messages, is somewhat diffi
cult of arrangement ; but may be divid
ed, by a natural and sufficiently accu
rate method, into four general sections,
containing severally the prophecies ut
tered in the reigns of Josiah, Jehoiakim,
Zedekiah, and Gedaliah. The last chap-
218

ter of the book appears to have been
added, perhaps by Ezra ; it is taken al
most verbatim from 2 Kin. 24 : 18-20,
andch. 25. See Jer. 51:64.

Jeremiah wrote also the book of LAM
ENTATIONS, in which he utters the most
plaintive and pathetic sentiments over
the calamities of his people. See LAM
ENTATIONS.

JEE'ICHO, a city of Benjamin, Josh.
16:7 ; 18:21, about eighteen miles east-
north-east of Jerusalem, and seven miles
from the Jordan. It was the first city
in Canaan taken by Joshua, who being
miraculously aided by the downfall of
its walls, totally destroyed it, sparing
only Bahab and her household, and pro
nounced a curse upon the person who
should ever rebuild it, which was more
than five hundred years afterwards ful
filled on Kiel, Josh. 6:26 ; 1 Kin. 16:34.
Meanwhile a new Jericho had been built
on some neighboring site, Judg. 3:13;
2 Sam. 10:5. Jericho was also called the
"city of palm-trees," Dent. 34:3, Judg.
1 : 16, and became afterwards flourishing
and second in importance only to Jeru
salem. It contained a school of the
prophets, and was the residence of Eli-
sha, 2 Kin. 2 : 4, 18. Here also Christ
healed two blind men, Matt. 20 : 29-34,
and forgave Zaccheus, Luke 19:1-10.

The site of Jericho has usually been
fixed at Eihah, a mean and foul Arab
hamlet of some two hundred inhabit
ants. Becent travellers, however, show
that the probable location of Jericho
was two miles west of Eihah, at the
mouth of Wady Kelt, and where the road
from Jerusalem ccmes into the plain.
The city destroyed by Joshua may have
been nearer to the fountain of Elisha,
supposed to be the present A in es- Sultan,
two miles north- west of Eihah. On the
west and north of Jericho rise high lime
stone hills, one of which, the dreary
Quarantana, 1,200 or 1,500 feet high,
derives its name from the modern tra
dition that it was the scene of our Lord's
forty days' fast and temptation. Between
the hills and the Jordan lies " the plain
of Jericho," Josh. 4 : 13, over against
" the plains of Moab " east of the river.
It was anciently well watered and amaz
ingly fruitful. It might easily be made
so again, but now lies neglected, and the
palm-trees, balsam, and honey, for which
it was once famous, have disappeared.
' The road -from Jericho to Jerusalem

JER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JER

THE PLAIN OF JERICHO, FKOM THE HH.LS ON THE WEST.

ascends through narrow and rocky passes
amid ravines and precipices. It is an ex
ceedingly difficult and dangerous route,
and is still infested by robbers, as in
the time of the good Samaritan, Luke
JO: 30-34.

JEROBOAM, I., the first king of Is
rael, an Ephraimite, the son of Nebat.
During the latter part of Solomon's
reign, and while an officer under him,
he plotted against him, and was obliged
to flee into Egypt. On the death of
Solomon, he was summoned by the ten
tribes to return and present their de
mands to Rehoboam ; and when these
were refused, he was chosen king of the
revolted tribes, B. c. 975. He reigned
twenty-two years. The only notable act
of his reign marked him with infamy, as
the man " who made Israel to sin." It
was the idolatrous establishment of gold
en calves at Bethel and Dan, that the
people might worship there and not at
Jerusalem. He also superseded the sons
of Aaron by priests chosen from "the
lowest of the people. ' ' This unprincipled
but effective measure, in Avhich he was
followed by all the kings of Israel, was a
confession of weakness as well as of de
pravity. Neither miracles nor warnings,
nor the premature death of Abijah his
son, could dissuade him. He was at war

with Judah all his days, and with the
brief reign of Kadab his son the doomed
family became extinct, 1 Kin. 12-14 : 20 ;
2 Chr. 10 ; 13.

II. JEROBOAM SECOND, the thirteenth
king of Israel, son and successor of Jo-
ash, B. c. 825, reigned forty-one years.
He followed up his father's successes
over the Syrians, took Hamath and Da
mascus, and all the region east of the
Jordan down to the Dead sea, and ad
vanced to its highest point the prosper
ity of that kingdom. Yet his long reign
added heavily to the guilt of Israel, by
increased luxury, oppression, and vice.
After him, the kingdom rapidly declined,
and his own dynasty perished within a
year, 2 Kin. 14 : 23-29 ; 15 : 8-12. Sea
also the contemporary prophets, partic
ularly Amos and Hosea.

JERUB'-BAAL, let Baal plead, Judg.
6:31,32. See GIDEON.

JERU'SALEM, the chief city of the
Holy Land, and to the Christian the
most illustrious in the world. It is sit
uated in 31° 46' 43" N. lat., and 35° 13'
E. long., on elevated ground south of
the centre of the country, about thirty-
seven miles from the Mediterranean, and
about twenty-four from the Jordan. Its
site was early hallowed by God's trial of
Abraham's faith, Gen. 22; 2 Chr. 3:1.
219

JER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JER

It was on the border of the tribes of
Benjamin and Judah, mostly within the
limits of the former, but reckoned as
belonging to the latter, because con
quered by it, Josh. 15 :8 ; 18 : 16, 28 ;
Judg. 1:1-8. The most ancient name
of the city was Salem, Gen. 14: 18 ; Psa.
76:2; and it afterwards was called Je-
bus, as belonging to the Jcbusites, Judg.
19:10, 11. Being a very strong position,
it resisted the attempts of the Israelites
to become the sole masters of it, until at
length its fortress was stormed by David,
2 Sam. 5:6, 9 ; after which it received its
present name, and was also called "the
city of David. ' ' It now became the relig
ious and political centre of the kingdom,
and was greatly enlarged, adorned, and
fortified. But its chief glory was, that
in its magnificent temple the ONE LIVING
AND TRUE GOD dwelt, and revealed him
self.

After the division of the tribes, it con
tinued the capital of the kingdom of Ju
dah, was several times taken and plun
dered, and at length was destroyed at
the Babylonian captivity, 2 Kin. 14:13 ;
2 Chr. 12:9; 21: 16; 24:28; 25:23; 36:3,
10, 17-20. After seventy years, it was
rebuilt by the Jews on their return from
captivity about 536 B. c. , who did much to
restore it to its former splendor. About
332 B. c., the city yielded to Alexander
of Macedon ; and not long after his death,
Ptolemy of Egypt took it by an assault
on the Sabbath, when it is said the Jews
scrupled to fight. In 170 B. c., Jerusa
lem fell under the tyranny of Antiochus
Epiphanes, who razed its walls, set up
an image of Jupiter in the temple, and
used every means to force the people into
idolatry. Under the Maccabees, howev
er, the Jews, in 163 B. c., recovered their
independence. Just a century later, it
was conquered by the Romans. Herod
the Great expended vast sums in its em
bellishment. To the city and temple
thus renovated the ever-blessed Messiah
came, in the fulness of time, and made
the place of his feet glorious. By his
rejection and crucifixion Jerusalem filled
up the cup of her guilt ; the Jewish na
tion perished from off the land of their
fathers, and the city and temple were
taken by Titus and totally destroyed,
A. D. 70-71. Of all the structures of
Jerusalem, only three towers and a part
of the western wall were left standing.
Still, as the Jews began to return thith-
220

er, and manifested a rebellious spirit, the
emperor Adrian planted a Roman colony
there in A. D. 1C5, and banished the Jews,
prohibiting their return on pain of death.
He changed the name of the city to JElia,
Capitolina, consecrated it to heathen de
ities, in order to defile it as much as pos
sible, and did what he could to obliterate
all traces both of Judaism and Christian
ity. From this period the name .Mia
became so common, that the name Je
rusalem was preserved only among the
Jews and better informed Christians. In
the time of Constantino, however, it re
sumed its ancient name, which it has re
tained to the present day. Helena, the
mother of Constantino, built two church
es in Bethlehem and on mount Olivet,
about A. D. 326 ; and Julian, who, after
his father, succeeded to the empire of his
uncle Constantino, endeavored to rebuild
the temple ; but his design, and that of
the Jews, whom he patronized, was frus
trated, as contemporary historians relate,
by an earthquake, and by balls of fire
bursting forth among the workmen, A. D.
363.

The subsequent history of Jerusalem
may be told in a few words. In 613, it
was taken by Chosroes king of Persia,
who slew, it is said, 90,000 men, and
demolished, to the utmost of his power,
whatever the Christians had venerated :
in 627, Heraclius defeated Chosroes, and
Jerusalem was recovered by the Greeks.
Soon after commenced the long and
wretched era of Mohammedanism. About
637, the city was taken from the Chris
tians by the caliph Omar, after a siege
of four months, and continued under the
caliphs of Bagdad till 868, when it was
taken by Ahmed, a Turkish sovereign of
Egypt. During the space of 220 years,
it was subject to several masters, Turk
ish and Saracenic, and in 1099 it was
taken by the crusaders under Godfrey
Bouillon, who was elected king. He
was succeeded by his brother Baldwin,
who died in 1118. In 1187, Saladin, sul
tan of the East, captured the city, as
sisted by the treachery ©f Raymond,
count of Tripoli, who was found dead in
his bed on the morning of the day in
which he was to have delivered up the
city. It was restored, in 1242, to the
Latin princes, by Saleh Ismael, emir of
Damascus ; they lost it in 1291 to the
sultans of Egypt, who held it till 1382,
Selim, the Turkish sultan, reduced Egypt

JER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JER

and Syria, including Jerusalem, in 1517,
and his son Solyman built or reconstruct
ed the present walls in 1534. Since then
it has remained under the dominion of
Turkey, except when held for a short
time, 1832-4, by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt.
At present, this city is included in the
pashalic of Damascus, though it has a
resident Turkish governor.

Jerusalem is situated on the central
table-land of Judea, about 2,400 feet
above the Mediterranean. It lies on
ground which slopes gently down tow
ards the east, the slope being terminated
by an abrupt declivity, in some parts
precipitous, and overhanging the valley
of Jehoshaphat or of the Kidron. This
sloping ground is also terminated on the
south by the deep and narrow valley of
Hinnom, which constituted the ancient
southern boundary of the city, and which
also ascends on its west side, and comes
out upon the high ground on the north
west. See GIIION. But in the city itself,
there were also two ravines or smaller
valleys, dividing the land covered by
buildings into three principal parts or
hills. ZION, the highest of these, was in
the south-west quarter of the city, skirt
ed on the south and west by the deep
valley of Hinnom. On its north and
east sides lay the smaller valley ' ' of the
cheesemongers," or Tyropceon, opening
on the south-east into the valley of the
Kidron. The Tyropceon also united,
near the north-east foot of Zion, with
a valley coming down from the north.
Zion was also called, The city of David ;
and by Josephus, "the upper city."
Surrounded anciently by walls as well
as deep valleys, it was the strongest part
of the city, and contained the citadel and
the king's palace. The Tyropceon sepa
rated it from Acra on the north, and Mo-
riah on the north-east. ACRA. was less
elevated than Zion, or than the ground
to the north-west beyond the walls. It
is called by Josephus ' ' the lower city. ' '
MORIAH, the sacred hill, lay north-east
of Zion, with which it was anciently con
nected at its nearest corner, by a bridge
over the Tyropceon, some remnants of
which have been identified by Dr. Rob
inson. Moriah was at first a small emi
nence, but its area was greatly enlarged
to make room for the temple. It was
but a part of the continuous ridge on the
east side of the city, overlooking the deep
valley of the Kidron ; rising on the

north, after a slight depression, into the
hill Bezetha, the "new city" of Jose
phus, and sinking away on the south
into the hill Ophel. On the east of Je
rusalem, and stretching from north to
south, lies the mount of Olives, divided
from the city by the valley of the Kid-
ron, and commanding a noble prospect
of the city and surrounding country.
Over against Moriah, or a little further
north, lies the garden of Gethsemane,
with its olive-trees, at the foot of the
mount of Olives. Just below the city,
on the east side of the valley of the Kid
ron, lies the miserable village of Siloa;
farther down, this valley unites with
that of Hinnom, at a beautiful spot an
ciently "the king's gardens;" still be
low, is the well of Nehemiah, anciently
En-rogel ; and from this spot the united
valley winds among mountains south
ward and eastward to the Dead sea. In
the mouth of the Tyropceon, between
Ophel and Zion, is the pool of Siloam.
In the valley west and north-west of
Zion are the two pools of Gihon, the
lower being now broken and dry. In
the rocks around Jerusalem, and chiefly
in the sides of the valleys of the Kidron
and Hinnom opposite the city, are many
excavated tombs and caves.

Of the WALLS of ancient Jerusalem, the
most ancient, that of David and Solo
mon, encircled the whole of mount Zion,
and was also continued around Moriah
and Ophel. The depth of the valleys
south and east of Jerusalem, rendered it
comparatively easy to fortify and defend
it on these sides. This southern wall, in
the period of the kings and of Christ,
traversed the outmost verge of those
hills, inclosing the pool of Siloam, Ophel,
and portions apparently of the valleys of
Hinnom and the Kidron, 2 Chr. 33:14;
Neh. 2:14; 3:15.

A second wall, built by Jotham, Hez-
ekiah, and Manasseh, made some chang
es on the southern line, and inclosed a
large additional space on the north. It
commenced somewhat east of the tower
of Hippicus, on the north-west border of
Zion, included Acra and part of Bezetha,
and united with the old wall on the east.
This wall was destroyed, as well as the
first, at the captivity, but both were
afterwards reerected, it is believed, on
nearly the same lines, and were substan
tially the same at the time of Christ,
The precise course of the second wall
221

JER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JER

may perhaps be ascertained by future
excavations, but is now more disputed
than any other point of the topography
of Jerusalem. To ascertain the exact
location of " the tower Gennath," where
this wall began, and trace its course ' ' in
a circuit ' ' to Antonia, would show wheth
er the traditional site of Calvary, now
far within the city limits, lay within or
222

without the ancient wall. The argu
ments from topography are strongly
against the tradition; and it would
seem that this whole region, if not ac
tually within the wall, must have been
at least occupied by the city suburbs at
that time ; for

The third wall, commenced by Herod
Agrippa only ten years after the cruci-

JER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JER

fixion of Christ, ran from the tower Hip-
picus nearly half a mile north-west to the
tower of Psephinos, and sweeping round
by the "tombs of the kings," passed
down east of Bezetha, and joined the old
eastern wall. The whole circumference
of the city at that time was a little over
four miles. Now it is only two and three
quarters at the most ; and the large
space on the north, which the wall of
Agrippa inclosed, is proved to have been
built upon by the numerous cisterns

which yet remain, and the marble frag,
ments which the plough often turns up.
The preceding plan of ancient Jerusa
lem exhibits the walls, gates, towers, and
other prominent objects in and around
the city, with as much accuracy as can be
secured, now that it has borne the rava
ges of so many centuries, been nearly a
score of times captured, and often razed
to the ground. Fuller descriptions of
many of the localities referred to may be
found under their respective heads.

JERUSALEM FROM M HE BETHANY ROAD, ON THE SOUTH PART OF MOUNT OLIVET.

MODERN JERUSALEM, called by the
Arabs El-Kuds, the holy, occupies un
questionably the site of the Jerusalem
of the Bible. It is still "beautiful for
situation," and stands forth on its well-
defined hills "as a city that is compact
together," Psa. 48 : 2, 12 ; 122 : 3, 4 ;
125 : 1, 2. The distant view of its stately
walls and numerous domes and minarets
is highly imposing. But its old glory
has departed ; its thronging myriads are
no more ; desolation covers the barren
mountains around it, and the tribes go
up to the house of the Lord no longer.
She that once sat as a queen among
them, now sitteth solitary, " trodden
down of the Gentiles," "reft of her
sons, and mid her foes forlorn." "Zion
is ploughed as a field," and the soil is
mixed with the rubbish of ages, to the
depth in some places of forty feet.

The modern wall, built in 1542, varies
from twenty to sixty feet in height, and
is about two and a half miles in circuit.
On the eastern and shortest side, its
course is nearly straight ; and it coin
cides, in the southern half on this side,
with the wall of the sacred area now
called El-Haram, the holy. This area,
510 yards long from north to south, and
310 to 350 yards in breadth, is inclosed
by high walls, the lower stones of which
are in many parts very large, and much
more ancient than the superstructure.
It is occupied by the great octagonal
mosque called Kubbet es-Sukhrah, or
Dome of the Hock, and the mosque El-
Aksa, with their grounds. It covers the
site of the ancient temple and of the
great tower Antonia. See TEMPLE. At
its south-east corner,' where the wall is
seventy-seven feet high, the ground at
223

JER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JER

its base is one hundred and fifty feet
above the dry bed of the Kidron. From
this corner, the wall runs irregularly
west by south, crosses mount Zion, leav
ing the greater part of it uninclosed on
the south, and at its western verge turns
north to the Jaffa gate, where the lower
part of a very old and strong tower still
remains. The upper part of this tower is
less ancient and massive. It is known as
' ' the Tower of David, ' ' and is generally
thought to have been the Hippicus of Jo-
sephus. Thence the wall sweeps irregu
larly round to the north-east corner. It
is flanked at unequal distances by square
towers, and has battlements running all
around on its summit, with loop-holes in
them for arrows or muskets. There are
now in use only four gates : the Jaffa or
Bethlehem gate on the west, the Damas
cus gate on the north, St. Stephen's gate
on the east, and Zion gate on the south.
In the eastern wall of El-Haram is the
Golden gate, long since blocked up, and
in the city wall two smaller gates, more
recently closed, namely, Herod's gate on
the north-east, and Dung gate in the
Tyropceon on the south.

Within the city walls are seen narrow
and often covered streets, ungraded, ill-
paved, and in some parts filthy, though
less so than in most oriental cities. The
houses are of hewn stone, with few win
dows towards the streets. Their flat roofs
are strengthened and ornamented by
many small domes. The most beautiful
part of the city is the area of the great
mosque — from which until recently all
Christians have been rigorously exclud
ed for six centuries — with its lawns and
cypress-trees, and the noble dome rising
high above the wall. On mount Zion,
much of the space within the wall is oc
cupied by the huge Armenian convent,
with the Syrian convent, and the church
of St. James. Beyond the wall and far
to the south is a Mohammedan mosque,
professedly over the tomb of David. This
is more jealously guarded against Chris
tians than even the mosque of Omar.
Near it is the small cemetery of the Amer
ican missionaries. At the north-west cor
ner of Zion rises the high square citadel
i above referred to, ancient and grand.
Still farther north is the Latin convent,
in the most westerly part of Jerusalem ;
and between it and the centre of the city
stands the church of the Holy Sepulchre,
over the traditional scenes of the death
224

and the resurrection of our Lord. See
CALVARY. In various parts of the city
the minarets of eight or ten mosques
arise, amid an assemblage of about two
thousand dwellings, not a few of which
are much dilapidated.

The present population of Jerusalem
may be about 12,000 souls, of whom
about two-fifths are Mohammedans, and
the remainder Jews and Christians in
nearly equal numbers. There is also a
considerable garrison, 800 to 1,000, sta
tioned there ; and in April of each year
many thousands of pilgrims from foreign
lands make a flying visit to the sacred
places. The Moslemim reside in the cen
tre of the city, and towards the north
and east. The Jews' quarter is on the
north-east side of Zion. The Greek,
Latin, Armenian, Syrian, and Coptic
Christians are located chiefly around
their respective convents, and their bur
ial-places are on mount Zion, as well as
that of the American Protestant mission.
The Jews bury on mount Olivet, and the
Mohammedans in several places, though
preferring the eastern brow of Moriah.
Jerusalem is but the melancholy shadow
of its former self. The nominal Chris'
tians residing there are in a state of de
graded and ignorant subjection to the
Mohammedans, and their petty discords
and superstitions are a reproach to the
Christian name. The Jews, 3,000 to
5,000 in number, are still more oppress
ed and abject. Most of them were born
in other lands, and have come here to
die, in a city no longer their own. Dis
couraged by endless exactions, they sub
sist on the charities of their brethren
abroad. It is only as a purchased privi
lege that they are allowed to approach
the foundations of the sacred hill where
their fathers worshipped the only true
God. Here, in a small area near some
huge and ancient stones in the base of
the western wall of Moriah, they gather,
especially on sacred days, to sit weeping
and wailing on the ground, taking up
the heart-breaking lamentations of Jer
emiah—living witnesses of the truth of
God's word fulfilled in them. See WALL.

THE NEW JERUSALEM is a name given
to the church of Christ, and signifying
its firm foundations in the love, choice,
and covenant of God; its strong bul-
Avarks, living fountains, and beautiful
palaces ; its thronging thousands, its in
dwelling God, and its consummated glory

JES

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JES

In heaven, Gal. 4:26; Heb. 12:22; Rev.
3:12; 21.

JBSH'UA, or JOSHUA, son of Josedech,
was high-priest of the Jews at their re
turn from the captivity, and acted well
his part in the restoration of the city,
the temple, and the divine worship, Ezra
4:3 ; 5:2. His name occurs in the proph
ecies of the time, Hag. 1:1 ; 2:2 ; Zech.
3; 6:11-15.

JESH'URUN, a poetical name of Is
rael, probably derived from a root mean
ing to be upright, and applied to the peo
ple of God as the objects of his justifying
love, which does not "behold iniquity
in Jacob," Deut. 32:5; 33 : 5, 26 ; Isa.
44:2.

JES'SE, son of Obed and father of Da
vid. He was a grandson of Ruth the
Moabitcss, and in her native land he
found an asylum while David was most
in danger from the jealous pursuit of
Saul, Kuth 4 : 17 ; 1 Sam. ]6 ; 17 : 12 ;
22:3; Matt. 1:5.

- JE'SUS CHRIST, the Son of God, the
Messiah and Saviour of the world, the
first and principal object of the prophe
cies ; who was prefigured and promised
in the Old Testament ; was expected and
desired by the patriarchs ; the hope and
salvation of the Gentiles ; the glory, hap
piness, and consolation of Christians.
The name JESUS, in Hebrew JEIIOSHUAII
or Joshua, signifies Saviour, or Jehovah
saves. No one ever bore this name with
BO much justice, nor so perfectly fulfilled
the signification of it, as Jesus Christ,
who saves from sin and hell, and has
merited heaven for us by the price of his
blood. It was given to him by divine
appointment, Matt. 1 : 21, as the proper
name for the Saviour so long desired,
and whom all the myriads of the re
deemed in heaven will for ever adore as
their only and all-glorious Redeemer.

JESUS was the common name of the
Saviour ; while the name CHRIST, mean
ing The Anointed One, The Messiah, was
his official name. Both names are used
separately, in the gospels and also in the
epistles ; but JESUS generally stands by
itself in the gospels, which are narra
tives of his life ; while in the epistles,
which treat of his divine nature and of
his redeeming work, he is called CHRIST,
CHRIST JESUS, or THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.
See CHRIST.

Here, under the Redeemer's human
name, belong the facts relating to his

human nature and the history of his life
upon earth. His true and complete hu
manity, having the soul as well as the
body of man, is everywhere seen in the
gospel history. He who is "God over
all, blessed for ever," was an Israelite
"as concerning the flesh," Rom. 9:5,
and took upon him our whole nature, in
order to be a perfect Saviour. As a man,
Jesus was the King of men. No words
can describe that character in which such
firmness and gentleness, such dignity
and humility, such enthusiasm and calm
ness, such wisdom and simplicity, such
holiness and charity, such justice and
mercy, such sympathy with heaven and
with, earth, such love to God and love to
man blended in perfect harmony. Noth
ing in it was redundant, and nothing was
wanting. The world had never pro
duced, nor even conceived of such a
character, and its portraiture in the gos
pels is a proof of their divine origin
which the infidel cannot gainsay. Could
the whole human race, of all ages, kin
dreds, and tongues, be assembled to see
the crucified Redeemer as he is, and
compare earth's noblest benefactors with
Him, there would be but one voice among
them. Every crown of glory and every
meed of praise would be given to Him
who alone is worthy — for perfection of
character, for love to mankind, for sacri
fices endured, and for benefits bestowed.
His glory will for ever be celebrated as
the Friend of man, the Lamb sacrificed
for us.

The visit of JESUS CHRIST to the earth
has made it for ever glorious above less
favored worlds, and forms the most sig
nal event in its annals. The time of his
birth is commemorated by the Christian
era, the first year of which corresponds
to about the year 753 from the building
of Rome. It is generally conceded, how
ever, that the Saviour was born at least
four years before A. D. 1, and four thou
sand years after the creation of Adam.
His public ministry commenced when he
was thirty years of age; and continued,
according to the received opinion, three
and a half years. Respecting his ances
tors, see GENEALOGY. •

The life of the Redeemer must be stud
ied in the four gospels, where it was re
corded under the guidance of supreme
wisdom. Many efforts have been made,
with valuable results, to arrange the
narrations of the evangelists in the true
225

JES

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JES

order of time. But as neither of the
gospels follows the exact course of events,
many incidents are very indeterminate,
and are variously arranged by different
harmonists. No one, however, has been
more successful than Dr. Robinson ; and
we borrow from his valuable ' ' Harmony
of the Gospels ' ' the following elaborate
table, presenting in a condensed form the
various events of our Saviour's life, with
the supposed place and period of their
occurrence :

PART I.

EVENTS CONNECTED WITH THE BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD
OF OUR LORD.

TIME : About thirteen and a half years.

An angel appears to Zacharias — Jerusalem.

An angel appears to Mary — Nazareth.

Mary visits Elisabeth— Juttah.

Birth of John the Baptist— Juttah.

An angel appears to Joseph — Nazareth.

The birth of Jesus— Bethlehem.

An angel appears to the shepherds — Near
Bethlehem.

The circumcision of Jesus, and his presenta
tion in the temple — Bethlehem ; Jerusalem.

The Magi — Jerusalem; Bethlehem.

The flight into Egypt. Herod's cruelty. The
return — Bethlehem ; Egypt ; Nazareth.

At twelve years of age Jesus goes to the Pass
over — Jerusalem.

PART II.

ANNOUNCEMENT AND INTRODUCTION OF OUR LORD'S
PUBLIC MINISTRY.

TIME : About one year.

The ministry of John the Baptist — The Desert;
The Jordan.

The baptism of Jesus — The Jordan.

The temptation — Desert of Judea.

Preface to John's gospel.

Testimony of John the Baptist to Jesus— Beth
any beyond Jordan.

Jesus gains disciples — The Jordan ; Galilee ?

The marriage at Cana of Galilee.

PART III.

OUR LORD'S FIRST PASSOVER, AND THE SUBSEQUENT
TRANSACTIONS UNTIL THE SECOND.

TIME : One year.

At the Passover Jesus drives the traders out
of the temple — Jerusalem.

Our Lord's discourse with Nicodemus — Jeru
salem.

Jesus remains in Judea and baptizes. Fur
ther testimony of John the Baptist.

Jesus departs into Galilee after John's im
prisonment.

Our Lord's discourse with the Samaritan
woman. Many of the Samaritans believe
on him — Sheehem or Neapolis.

Jesus teaches publicly in Galilee.

Jesus again at Cana, where he heals the son
of a nobleman lying ill at Capernaum—
Cana of Galilee.

Jesus at Nazareth ; he is there rejected, and
fixes his abode at Capernaum.
226

The call of Simon Peter and Andrew, and
of James and John, with the miraculous
draught of fishes — Near Capernaum.

The healing of a demoniac in the synago"gue —
Capernaum.

The healing of Peter's wife's mother, and
many others — Capernaum.

Jesus with his disciples goes from Capernaum
throughout Galilee.

The healing of a leper — Galilee.

The healing of a paralytic — Capernaum.

The call of Matthew — Capernaum.

PART IV.

OUR LORD'S SECOND PASSOVER, AND THE SUBSEQUENT

TRANSACTIONS UNTIL TUB THIRD.

TIME : One year.

The pool of Bethesda ; the healing of the in
firm man ; and our Lord's subsequent dis
course — Jerusalem..

The disciples pluck ears of grain on the Sab
bath — On the way to Galilee.

The healing of the withered hand on the Sab
bath — Galilee.

Jesus arrives at the sea of Tiberias, and is fol
lowed by multitudes — Lake of Galilee.

Jesus withdraws to a mountain, and chooses
the twelve ; the multitudes follow him —
Near Capernaum.

The sermon on the mount — Near Capernaum.

The healing of the centurion's servant— Caper
naum.

The raising of the widow's son— Nain.

John the Baptist in prison sends disciples to
Jesus — Galilee ; Capernaum ?

Reflections of Jesus on appealing to his
mighty works — Capernaum ?

While sitting at meat with a Pharisee, Jesus
is anointed by a woman who had been a
sinner — Capernaum ?

Jesus, with the twelve, makes a second circuit
in Galilee.

The healing of a demoniac. The scribes and
Pharisees blaspheme — Galilee.

The scribes and Pharisees seek a sign. Our
Lord's reflections — Galilee.

The true disciples of Christ his nearest rela
tives — Galilee.

At a Pharisee's table, Jesus denounces woes
against the Pharisees and others— Galilee.

Jesus discourses to his disciples and the mul
titude— Galilee.

The slaughter of certain Galileans. Parable
of the barren fig tree — Galilee.

Parable of the sower — Lake of Galilee; Near
Capernaum ?

Parable of the tares. Other Parables — Near
Capernaum ?

Jesus directs to cross the lake. Incidents.
The tempest stilled— Lake of Galilee.

The two demoniacs of Gadara — South-east coast
of the lake of Galilee.

Le'vi's feast — Capernaum.

The raising of Jairus' daughter. The wom
an with a bloody flux — Capernaum.

Two blind men healed, and a dumb spirit
cast out — Capernaum ?

Jesus again at Nazareth, and again rejected.

A third circuit in Galilee. The twelve in
structed and sent forth — Galilee.

Herod holds Jesus to be John the Baptist,
whom he had just before beheaded — Galilee ?
Perm.

JES

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JES

The twelve return, and Jesus retires with
them across the lake. Five thousand are
led — Capernaum ; North-east coast of the lake of
Galilee.

Jesus walks upon the water — Lake of Galilee;
Gennesaret.

Our Lord's discourse to the multitude in the
synagogue — At Capernaum.

PART V.

FROM OUR LORD'S THIRD PASSOVER UNTIL HIS FINAL
DEPARTURE FROM GALILEE AT THE FESTIVAL OF TAB
ERNACLES.

TIME : Six months.

Our Lord justifies his disciples for eating with
unwashed hands. Pharisaic traditions —
Capernaum.

The daughter of a Syro Phoenician woman is
healed — Region of Tyre and Sidon.

A deaf and dumb man healed ; also many
others. Four thousand are fed — The Decap-
olis.

The Pharisees and Sadducees again require a
sign — Near Magdala, on the uxst side of the lake.

The disciples cautioned against the leaven of
the Pharisees, etc.— North-east coast of the lake
of Galilee.

A blind man healed — Bethsaida (Julias.)

Peter and the rest again profess their faith in
Christ — Region of Cesarea Philippi.

Our Lord foretells his own death and resur
rection, and the trials of his followers — Re
gion of Cesarea Philippi.

The transfiguration. Our Lord's subsequent
discourse with the three disciples— Region of
Cesarea Philifypi.

The healing of a demoniac, whom the disciples
could not heal — Region of Cesarea Philippi.

Jesus again foretells his own death and res
urrection — Galilee.

The tribute money miraculously provided—
Capernaum.

The disciples contend who should be greatest.
Jesus exhorts to humility, forbearance, and
brotherly love — Capernaum.

The seventy instructed and sent out— Caper
naum.

Jesus goes up to the festival of Tabernacles.
His final departure from Galilee. Incidents
in Samaria.

Ten lepers cleansed— Samaria.

PART VI.

THE FESTIVAL OF TABERNACLES, AND THE SUBSEQUENT
TRANSACTIONS UNTIL OUR LORD'S ARRIVAL AT I5ETH-
ANY, SIX DAYS BEFORE THE FOURTH PASSOVER.

TIME : Six months, less one week.

Jesus at the festival of Tabernacles. His pub
lic teaching — Jerusalem.

The woman taken in adultery — Jerusalem.

Further public teaching of our Lord. He
reproves the unbelieving Jews, and escapes
from their hands — Jerusalem.

A lawyer instructed. Love to our neighbor
denned. Parable of the good Samaritan—
Near Jerusalem.

Jesus in the house of Martha and Mary — Beth
any.

The disciples again taught how to pray — Near
Jerusalem.

The seventy return — Jerusalem ?

A man born blind is healed on the Sabbath.
Our Lord's subsequent discourses — Jerusa
lem.

Jesus in Jerusalem at the festival of Dedlca<
tion. He retires beyond Jordau — Jerusa
lem; Bethany Ueyvnd Jordan.

The raising of Lazarus — Bethany.

The counsel of Caiaphas against Jesus. He re-
tires from Jerusalem — Jerusalem ; Ephraim.

Jesus beyond Jordan is followed by multi
tudes. The healing of the infirm woman on
the Sabbath— Valley of Jordan ; Perea.

Our Lord goes teaching and journeying tow
ards Jerusalem, lie is warned against
Herod — Perea.

Our Lord dines with a chief Pharisee on the
Sabbath. Incidents— Perea.

What is required of true disciples— Perea.

Parable of the lost sheep, etc. Parable of the
prodigal son— Perea.

Parable of the unjust steward — Perea.

The Pharisees reproved. Parable of the rich
man and Lazarus — Perea.

Jesus inculcates forbearance, faith, humili
ty— Perea.

Christ's coming will be sudden-^Perea.

Parables : The importunate widow. The
Pharisee and publican — Perea.

Precepts respecting divorce — Perea.

Jesus receives and blesses little children — Pe
rea.

The rich young man. Parable of the laborers
in the vineyard— Perea.

Jesus a third time foretells his death and res
urrection — Perea.

James and John prefer their ambitious re
quest — Perea.

The healing of two blind men near Jericho.

The visit to Zaccheus. Parable of the ten
minae — Jericho.

Jesus arrives at Bethany six days before the
Passover — Bethany.

PART VII.

OUR LORD'S PUBLIC ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM, AXD
THE SUBSEQUENT TRANSACTIONS BEFORE THE FOURTH
PASSOVER.

TIME . Five days.

Our Lord's public entry into Jerusalem—

Bethany, Jerusalem.
The barren fig tree. The cleansing of the

temple — Bethany ; Jerusalem
The barren fig tree withers away — Between

Bethany and Jerusalem.
Christ's authority questioned. Parable of

the two sons — Jerusalem.

Parable of the wicked fiusbandmen-Jeri/saZpni.
Parable of the marriage of the k4ng's son —

Jerusalem.
Insidious question of the Pharisees : Tribute

to Caesar — Jerusalem.

Insidious question of the Sadducees : The res
urrection — Jerusalem. •
A lawyer questions Jesus. The two great

commandments — Jerusalem.
How is Christ the son of David ? — Jerusalem.
Warnings against the evil example of the

scribes and Pharisees — Jerusalem.
Woes against the scribes and Pharisees. Lam

entations over Jerusalem — Jerusalem.
The widow's mite — Jerusalem.
Certain Greeks desire to see Jesus — Jerusalem
Reflections upon the unbelief of the Jews-^

Jerusalem.
Jesus, on taking leave of the temple, foretells

its destruction and the persecution of his

disciples— Jerusalem; Mount of Olives.
227

JES

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JEW

Ihs signs of Christ's coming to destroy Jeru
salem, and put an end to the Jewish state
and dispensation — Mount of Olives.

Transition to Christ's final coining at the day
of judgment. Exhortation to watchful
ness. Parables : The ten virgins. The five
talents— Mount of Olives.

Scenes of the judgment-day — Mount of Olives.

The rulers conspire. The supper at Bethany.
Treachery of Judas — Jerusalem; Bethany.

Preparation for the Passover — Bethany ; Jeru
salem.

PART VIII.

THE FOURTH PASSOVER ; OUR LORD'S PASSION ; AND
THE ACCOMPANYING EVENTS UNTIL THE END OF THE
JEWISH SABBATH.

TIME; Two days.

The Passover meal. Contention among the
twelve — Jerusalem.

Jesus washes the feet of his disciples — Jerusa
lem.

Jesus points out the traitor. Judas with
draws — Jerusalem

Jesus foretells the fall of Peter, and the dis
persion of the twelve — Jerusalem.

The Lord's supper — Jerusalem.

Jesus comforts his disciples. The Holy Spirit
promised — Jerusalem.

Christ the true Vine. His disciples hated by
the world — Jerusalem.

Persecution foretold. Further promise of the
Holy Spirit. Prayer in the name of Christ —
Jerusalem.

Christ's last prayer with his disciples— Jerusa
lem.

The agony in Gethsemane— Mount of Olives.

Jesus Detrayed, and made prisoner — Mount of
Olives.

Jesus before Caiaphas. Peter thrice denies
him — Jerusalem.

Jesus before Caiaphas and the Sanhedrim.
He declares himself to be the Christ ; is con
demned and mocked — Jerusalem.

The Sanhedrim lead Jesus away to Pilate—
Jerusalem.

Jesus before Herod — Jerusalem.

Pilate seeks to release Jesus. The Jews de
mand Barabbas — Jerusalem.

Pilate delivers up Jesus to death. He is*
scourged and mocked — Jerusalem.

Pilate again seeks to release Jesus — Jerusalem.

Judas repents and hangs himself— Jerusalem.

Jesus is led away to be crucified— Jerusalem.

The crucifixion — Jerusalem.

The Jews mock at Jesus on the cross. He
forgives the penitent thief. He commends
his mother to John — Jerusalem.

Darkness prevails. Christ expires on the
cross — Jerusalem.

The veil of the temple rent, and graves open
ed. Judgment of the centurion. The wom
en at the cross — Jerusalem.

The taking down from the cross. The buri
al — Jerusalem.

The watch at the sepulchre— Jerusalem.

PART IX.

OUR LORD'S RESURRECTION, HIS SUBSEQUENT APPEAR
ANCES, AND HIS ASCENSION.

TIME : Forty days.

The morning of the resurrection — Jerusalem.
Visit of the women to the sepulchre. Mary
Magdalene returns— Jerusalem.
228

Vision of angels in the sepulchre — Jerusalem.

The women return to the city. Jesus meets
them — Jerusalem.

Peter and John run to the sepulchre — Jerusa
lem.

Our Lord is seen by Mary Magdalene at the
sepulchre— Jerusalem.

Report of the watch — Jerusalem.

Our Lord is seen of Peter. 1 hen by two dis
ciples on the way to Emmaus— Jerusalem ;
Emmaus.

Jesus appears in the midst of the apostles,
Thomas being absent — Jerusalem.

Jesus appears in the midst of the apostles,
Thomas being present — Jerusalem.

The apostles go away into Galilee. Jesus
shows himself to seven of them at the sea of
Tiberias — Galilee.

Jesus meets the apostles and above five hun
dred brethren on a mountain in Galilee—
Galilee.

Our Lord is seen of James ; then of all the
apostles — Jerusalem.

The ascension — Near Bethany.

The divine wisdom is conspicuous not
only in what is taught us respecting the
life of Jesus, but in what is withheld.
Curiosity, and the higher motives of
warm affection, raise numerous questions
to which the gospels give no reply ; and
in proportion as men resort to dubious
traditions, they lose the power of a pure
and spiritual gospel. See further, con
cerning Christ, MESSIAH, REDEEMER, etc.

JESUS was not an uncommon name
among the Jews. It was the name of
the father of Elymas the sorcerer, Acts
13:6 ; and of Justus, a fellow-laborer and
friend of Paul, Col. 4: 11. It is the Greek
form of the Hebrew name Joshua, or
Jeshua, borne by the high-priest in
Ezra's time, and by the well-known
leader of the Jews into the promised
land. See also 1 Sam. 6 : 14 ; 2 Kin. 23 : 8.
The Greek form of the word, Jesus, is
tAvice used in the New Testament when
Joshua the son of Nun is intended, Acts
7:45; Heb. 4:8.

JETH'RO, "Moses' father-in-law," a
shepherd-prince or priest of Midian, Ex.
3:1; 4 : 18 ; 18. When the Hebrews
were at mount Sinai, he visited Moses,
gave him some wise counsel as to the
government of the tribes, and then re
turned to his own people. See HOBAB
and RAGUEL. Jethro was a worshipper
of God, Ex. 18:10, 11, and some infer
that he was a descendant of Abraham,
through Midian, Gen. 25:2.

JEWS, the name borne by the He
brews among foreign nations, especially
after the return from Babylon ; from Ju-
dah their ancestor. See HEBREWS.

JEZ

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JOA

JEZ'EBEL, daughter of Ethbaal king
of Tyre and Zidon, and wife of Ahab
king of Israel, 1 Kin. 10:31. She spent
herself in efforts to establish idolatry in
Samaria, and exterminate the worship ol
God and the lives of his servants. Oba-
diah saved a hundred of them, at the
risk of his own life. Jezebel herseli
maintained four hundred priests of As-
tarte. When the prophets of Baal per
ished at Carmel, at the word of Elijah,
she sought to avenge herself on him.
Afterwards, she secured the vineyard of
Naboth for her husband by perjuries and
murder ; and her tragical death, the fit
ting close of a bloody life, took place,
according to the prediction of Elijah,
near the scene of this crime, 1 Kin. 18 ;
19 ; 21 ; 2 Kin. 9. Her name has be
come a proverb, and is given by John,
probably as a descriptive epithet, to a
certain female at Thyatira in his day
holding a like bad preeminence in station
and profligacy, in malice and in ruin,
Luke 20: 18; Rev. 2:20.

JEZ'REEL, I., a celebrated city of
Issachar, Josh. 19:18, lying westward of
Bethshean, 2 Sam. 4:4. Ahab had here
a palace ; and this city became famous
on account of his seizure of Naboth' s
vineyard, 1 Kin. 21 ; and the vengeance
executed on Ahab, 2 Kin. 9:10, 14-37;
10 : 1-11. Jezreel was called Esdraela
in the time of the Maccabees, and is now
replaced by a small and ruinous Arab
village, called Zerin, at the north-west
point of mount Gilboa. Its elevated site
gives one a fine view of the great plain
of Esdraelon on the west, and the hills
that border it; and towards the east it
overhangs the wide and fertile ' ' valley
of Jezreel," Josh. 17:10, Judg. 6:33,
Hos. 1:5, which runs down east-south
east from the great plain to the Jordan,
between Gilboa and little Herrnon. In
this valley, below and east of Zerin, is
the copious " fountain of Jezreel," near
which Saul perished, 1 Sam. 29:1 ; 81:1.
II. The great plain lying between Jez
reel and Acre, called from two cities on
its border in one part, "the valley of
Megiddo," 2 Chr. 35:22, and in its west
ern part or branch the "plain or valley
otJezrcd," afterwards Esdraelon, Judith
1 : 8. The body of this beautiful plain
forms a triangle, rising gradually from
the Mediterranean four hundred feet, and
being about thirteen or fourteen miles
long on the north side, seventeen on the

east, and twenty on the south-west.
The western part is level ; on the east it
is more undulating, and is at length bro
ken by mount Gilboa and "little Her-
mon" into three valleys two or three
miles wide, which sink down into the val
ley of the Jordan. Of these, the middle
valley, described above, is the proper
" valley of Jezreel." The river Kishon
traverses this plain. It was formerly
well watered and astonishingly fertile,
but is now under the blight of tyranny
and insecurity, comparatively unculti
vated and deserted. The highways are
unoccupied, the villages have ceased in
Israel, Judg. 5 : 6. There are a few
small hamlets, particularly on the higher
grounds that border it ; and the abun
dant crops which it yields, even with
poor cultivation, show that it might
again be made the granary of Syria.
Across this plain, from Carmel to Jez
reel, Elijah ran before the chariot of
Ahab, 1 Kin. 18 : 40. It has been the
chosen battle-ground of many armies.
Here the hosts of Sisera were swept
away, Judg. 4; and here Josiah fell,
fighting against Pharaoh-necho, 2 Kin.
23:29. Battles were fought here in the
later periods of the Romans, and of the
Crusaders ; and in our own century, near
mount Tabor, fifteen hundred French
under General Kleber sustained the as
sault of twenty-live thousand Turks for
half a day, and were succored by Napo
leon.

JOAB, son of Zeruiah, David's sister,
and brother of Abishai and Asahel, was
the commander of David's army during
almost the whole of his reign, 2 Sam.
5:0-10. He was a valiant warrior, and
an able general ; and his great influence
on public affairs was often exerted for
good, as in the rebellion of Absalom, and
the numbering of Israel, 2 Sam. 18 ; 19 ;
24. But as a man he was imperious,
revengeful, and unscrupulous: witness
his treacherous assassination of Abner,
and of his cousin \masa, 2 Sam. 3 : 27 ;
20 : 9, 10 ; his bearing towards David,
2 Sam. 3:39 ; 19:5, and connivance with
iim in the matter of Uriah ; his slaying
Absalom, and conspiring with Adonijah
against the divinely appointed heir to
the throne; for all which he was at
ength put to death by order of Solomon.
1 Kin. 2.

JOAN'NA, one of the faithful women
who ministered to Christ while living,
229

JOA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JOB

and brought spices to his tomh. Her
husband Chuza was a steward of Herod
Antipas, Luke 8: 3; 24:1-10.

JO ASH, or JEHO'ASH, I., the father of
Gideon, of the family of Abiezer, in Ma-
nasseh. For a long time he was a wor
shipper of Baal ; but when his son boldly
attacked idolatry, he also came out oil
the Lord's side, Judg. 6:11, 25-32.

II. An officer, appointed as keeper of
the prophet Micaiah, during Ahab's dis
astrous war with Syria, 1 Kin. 22 : 26 ;
2 Chr. 18.

III. The eighth king of Judah, B. c.
878-838. He was the only son of Aha-
ziah who was not slain by the usurping
Athaliah, his grandmother. Being res
cued by Jehoshebah his aunt, and seclud
ed six years in the temple, he was raised
to the throne when seven years of age
through the faithful care of Jehoiada ;
and while this venerable man survived,
Joash served God and prospered. Idols
were banished, and the temple was re
paired. But afterwards he followed less
wholesome counsels ; idolatry revived ;
and when Zechariah the high-priest re
buked the guilty people, the ungrateful
king caused this servant of God, the son
of his benefactor, to be stoned to death.
Misfortunes soon multiplied on his head ;
he was repeatedly humbled by the Syri
ans, and gave them the temple treasures
as a ransom ; a loathsome disease imbit-
tered his life, which was very soon cut
short by a conspiracy of his servants,
and he was not buried in the sepulchre
of the kings, 2 Kin. 11 ; 12 ; 2 Chr. 23 ;
24. The prophet Joel was contemporary
with him.

IV. The son and successor of Jehoa-
haz, king of Israel, B. c. 840-825. There
was much in his conduct to commend.
He had a great regard for the prophet
Elisha, and visited him on his death
bed, where by a divine oracle he was as
sured of three victories over the Syrians.
He was also victorious when forced to
give battle to Amaziah king of Judah,
and was one of the best of the kings of
Israel. The worship of the golden calf,
however, still continued during his reign,
2 Kin. 13:9-25; 14:1-8; 2 Chr. 25.

JOB, a patriarch distinguished for his
integrity and piety, his wealth, honors,
and domestic happiness, whom God per
mitted, for the trial of his faith, to be
deprived of friends, property, and health,
and at once plunged into deep affliction.
230

He lived in the land of Uz, lying, it is
generally thought, in Eastern Edom,
probably not far from Bozran.

The BOOK OF JOB has originated much
criticism, and on many points a consid
erable diversity of opinion still exists.
Sceptics have denied its inspiration, and
called it a mere philosophical romance ;
but no one who respects revelation can
entertain this notion, or doubt that Job
was a real person. Inspired writers tes
tify to both. See Ezek. 14 : 14, James
5:11 ; and compare 1 Cor. 3:19 with Job
5:13. The book itself specifies persons,
places, and circumstances in the manner
of true history. Moreover, the name
and history of Job are spread through
out the East ; Arabian writers mention
him, and many Mohammedan families
perpetuate his name. Five different
places claim the possession of his tomb.

The precise period of his life cannot
be ascertained, yet no doubt can exist
as to its patriarchal antiquity. The
book seems to allude to the flood, Job
22:15-17, but not to the destruction of
Sodom, to the exodus from Egypt, or
the giving of the Law. No reference is
made to any order of priesthood, Job
himself being the priest of his house
hold, like Noah and Abraham. There
is allusion to the most ancient form of
idolatry, star- worship, and to the earli
est mode of writing, 19:24. The lon
gevity of Job also places him among the
patriarchs. He survived his trial one
hundred and forty yaars, and was an old
man before his trial began-, for his chil
dren were established each at the head of
his own household, Job 1 :4 ; 42: 16. The
period of long lives had not wholly pass
ed away, 15:10. Hales places the trial
of Job before the birth of Abraham, and
Usher, about thirty years before the ex
odus, B. c. 1521.

As to the authorship of the book,
many opinions have been held. It has
all the freedom of an original composi
tion, bearing no marks of its being a
translation ; and if so, it would appear
that its author must have been a He
brew, since it is written in the purest
Hebrew. It exhibits, moreover, the
most intimate acquaintance with both
Egyptian and Arabian scenery, and is in
the loftiest style of oriental poetry. All
these circumstances are consistent with
the views of those who regard Moses as
its probable author. It has, however,

JOB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JOfl

been ascribed to various other persons. It
presents a beautiful exhibition of patri
archal religion. It teaches the being
and perfections of God, his creation of
all things, and his universal providence ;
the apostasy and guilt of evil spirits and
of mankind; the mercy of God, on the
basis of a sacrifice, and on condition of
repentance and faith, 33 : 27-30 ; 42 : G,
8 ; the immortality of the soul, and the
resurrection of the body, 14 : 7 - 15 ;
19:25-27.

The main problem discussed in Job is,
the justice of God in suffering the right
eous to be afflicted, -while the wicked
prosper. It is settled, by showing that,
while the hand of a just God is manifest
in his providential government of hu
man affairs, it is his sovereign right to
choose his own time and mode of retri
bution both to the evil and the good,
and to subject the graces of his people
to whatever trials he deems best.

The conference of Job and his friends
may be divided into three parts. In the
first, Eliphaz addresses Job, and Job re
plies ; then Bildad and Job, and Zophar
and Job, speak in turn. In the second
part, the same order is observed ; and in
the third also, except that after Job's
reply to Bildad, the three friends have
no more to urge, and instead of Zophar,
a fourth friend named Elihu takes up
the word ; and the whole is concluded
by the decision of Jehovah himself. The
friends of Job argue that his remarkable
afflictions must have been sent in pun
ishment of highly aggravated transgres
sions, and urge him to confession and
repentance. The pious patriarch, con
scious of his own integrity and love to
God, cast down and bewildered by his
sore chastisements, and pained by the
suspicions of his friends, warmly vindi
cates his innocence, and shows that the
best of men are sometimes the most af
flicted ; but forgets that his inward sins
merit far heavier punishment, and
though he still maintains faith in God,
yet he charges Him foolishly. After
wards he humbly confesses his wrong,
and is cheered by the returning smile of
God, while his uncharitable friends are
reproved. The whole book is written in
the highest style of Hebrew poetry, ex
cept the two introductory chapters and
part of the last, which are prose. As a
poem, it is full of sublime sentiments
and bold and striking images.

The DISEASE of Job is generally sup
posed to have been the elephantiasis,
or black leprosy. The word rendered
"boils" does not necessarily mean ab
scesses, but burning and inflammation ;
and no known disease better answers to
the description given, Job 2:7, 8; 7:5,
13, 14; 19:17; 30:17, than the leprosy
referred to above. See LEPER.

JOCH'EBED, wife of Amram, and
mother of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam,
Num. 26 : 59. She was a daughter of
Levi, and her husband's aunt, Ex. G:20,
though such marriages were afterwards
prohibited, Lev. 18:12.

JO'EL, one of the minor prophets, of
whom nothing is known beyond the few
hints furnished in his brief but valuable
prophecy. He lived in the kingdom of
Judah, and at a time when the temple
and temple-worship still existed, Joel
1 : 14 ; 2 : 1, 15, 32 ; 3 : 1. Different au
thors assign to his prophecy different
dates, but the prevailing opinion is that
he prophesied in the reign of Uzziah,
nearly 800 B. c.

The BOOK OF JOEL opens with a most
graphic and powerful description of the
devastation caused by swarms of divers
kinds of locusts, accompanied by a terri
ble drought. The plague of locusts, one
of the most dreadful scourges of the
East, (see LOCUSTS.) is highly suggestive
of an invasion of hostile legions such as
have often ravaged Judea ; and many
have understood, by the locusts of Joel,
the Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, or Ro
mans. The prophet, however, adheres
to his figure, if it be one ; depicts the
land as stripped of its verdure and parch
ed with drought, summons the stricken
people to fasting and penitence, and en
courages them by promising the removal
of the divine judgments and the return of
fertility. While describing this return
ing plenty and prosperity, the prophet
casts his view forward on a future still
more remote, and predicts the outpour
ing of the Holy Spirit, and the^signs and
wonders and spiritual prosperity of the
Messiah's reign, Joel 2: 28. This passage
is quoted by the apostle Peter, in Acts
2:16. The style of Joel is exceedingly
poetical and elegant ; his descriptions
are vivid and sublime, and his prophecy
ranks among the gems of Hebrew poetry.
It is well fitted to cheer the church mil
itant in all ages.

JOHANAN, son of Kareah, a leading
231

JOH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JOH

captain of the Jews after the destruction
of Jerusalem, B. c. 588, who recognized
the authority of Gedaliah, warned him
in vain of the plot of Ishmael, and
avenged his murder ; but afterwards
carried the remnant of the people to
Egypt against the remonstrances of Jer
emiah, who, unable to check his rebel
lious and idolatrous course, foretold di
vine judgments, which in due time were
fulfilled, 2 Kin. 25:23-26 ; Jer. 40-44.

JOHN", I., THE BAPTIST, the forerunner
of our Lord Jesus Christ, was the son of
Zacharias and Elisabeth, and was born
about six months before Christ, as Re-
land and Robinson suppose at Juttah,
Josh. 21 : 16, Luke 1 : 39, a town some
five miles south of Hebron, but accord
ing to tradition at a place about four
miles west of Jerusalem. Several Old
Testament predictions found their fulfil
ment in him. See Isa. 40:3, and Matt.
3:3; also Mai. 3:1; 4:5, and Matt.
11:14. His birth, name, and office were
also foretold by the angel Gabriel to his
father Zacharias while ministering at the
temple altar. Several other supernatu
ral incidents attended the visit of Mary
to Elisabeth, and the birth and naming
of John, Luke 1. He passed his early
life among the crags of Eastern Judea,
and when not far from thirty years of
age, appeared as a prophet of the Lord, j
Being also a priest by birth, and an aus- |
tere Nazarite in appearance and mode of
life, he was like a reproduction of Elijah
of old. Crowds nocked from all quar
ters to hear the word of God from his
lips boldly denouncing their sins, and to
receive the baptism of repentance pre
paratory to the full revelation of grace j
in Chi'ist. Among others, the Saviour \
at length came, and was baptized as an
example of obedience to all divine en-
joinments. John was at once satisfied
that Jesus was the Messiah, but "knew
him not" by any divine intimation till
he saw the appointed sign, the descend
ing Spirit. He then stood forth as the
representative of "all the law and the
prophets," pointing the world to Christ
as an atoning Saviour, and thus intro
duced Him to His public ministry : ' ' Be
hold the Lamb of God, which taketh
away the sin of the world, ' ' John 1 : 29 ;
GaL 3:24.

John enjoyed at this time a high de
gree of popular veneration, Luke 3:15;
the Sanhedrim sent a deputation to ques-
232

tion him, John 1 : 19-28 ; king Herod
' ' did many things, and heard him glad
ly. ' ' But he laid all he had at the Sav
iour's feet, John 1:27 ; 3:33. We read
several times of his "disciples," Matt.
9:14; Luke 5:33; John 3:23-15; 4:1;
and meet with subsequent traces of the
wide extent of his inriuence, Acts 18:25 ;
19:3. We know not why he continued
for a time his separate ministry, instead
of attending Christ. He persevered, how«
ever, in his faithful labors for reforma
tion; and these, in the second year after
wards, led to his imprisonment by Herod
Antipas. See HEROD III. It was while
in prison that he sent two of his disciples
to Christ to inquire, "Art thou he that
should come, or do we look for another ?' '
Matt. 11:3. He may have been moved
to send this message by some lingering
Jewish views as to a temporal Messiah,
who would right all their national
wrongs, or by some temporary unbeliev
ing haste to have Christ publicly an
nounce his Messiahship. It was on this
occasion that Christ calls him greater
than any other prophet ; because, of all
the prophets of the Messiah, he alone
saw Him entering on his work whom all
" desired to see ;" yet he was less than
the "least in the kingdom of God," in
asmuch as he died without seeing that
kingdom established in the death and
resurrection of his Lord. But his earth
ly work was soon done. Herod, accord
ing to Josephus, feared his great influ
ence over the people, and Herodias
dreaded his bold fidelity to her husband.
The dancing of her datighter Salome,
and the vow of the besotted king, fur
nished a pretext. John was beheaded
in prison ; his disciples buried his re
mains with honor, and ' ' went and told
Jesus," Matt. 14:3-12.

II. THE APOSTLE AND EVANGELIST, son
of Zebedee and Salome, was a native of
Bethsaida in Galilee. Zebedee and his
sons were fishermen, and appear to have
been in easy circumstances, Mark 1 : 20 ;
15:40; John 18:15; 19:27. In John's
character there was an admirable mix
ture of gentleness and force. The pic
ture the Bible gives of him has a pecul
iar charm, so much peace, humility, char
ity, and brotherly love glow in it. Hig
affectionate, meditative, spiritual charac
ter had also the elements of vigor and
decision, Luke 9 : 54. Though amiable,
he was firm and fearless. He was pres*

JOH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JON

ent at the scene of the Saviour's cruci
fixion, which he describes as an eye-wit
ness, John 19:35. He was early at the
tomb of the Redeemer, and after his as
cension, boldly proclaimed the gospel at
Jerusalem, Acts 4:13, though imprison
ed, scourged, and threatened with death.
He was remarkable for devotion to Christ ;
and it was this, perhaps, as much as am
bition, or false views of Christ's king
dom, that led him to request a place at
His right hand, Matt. 20:20-24. He is
supposed to have been the youngest of
the apostles. He had been a disciple of
John the Baptist ; but on being directed
to Christ, at once attached himself to
him. For a time he returned to his em
ployment by the sea of Galilee, but was
soon called to leave all and attend the
Saviour, Luke 5 : 5-10. Christ had a par
ticular friendship for this lovely and zeal
ous disciple, John 13: 23; 19:26; 20:2;
21:7. At the last supper, he reclined
next to the Saviour, and to his care the
dying Redeemer committed his mother.
Together with Peter and James he wit
nessed the transfiguration, and the ago
ny in the garden. See JAMES. After the
ascension of our Lord, John continued to
reside at Jerusalem, where he was one of
the chief pillars of the church, Gal. 2:9.
About A. D. 65, it is thought, he removed
to Ephesus, and labored to diffuse the
gospel in Asia Minor, where for many
years after the death of Paul his great
personal and apostolic influence was
widely exerted. About A. D. 95, he was
banished, probably by Domitian, to the
isle of Patmos, where he had the visions
described in the Apocalypse. He after
wards returned to Ephesus, where he
lived to a very great age, so that he
could scarcely go to the assembly of the
church without being carried by his dis
ciples. Being now unable to make long
discourses, his custom was to say in all
assemblies, "Little children, love one
another;" and when they wondered at
his frequent repetition of this concise
exhortation, his answer was, "This is
what the Lord commands you ; and this,
if you do it, is sufficient." Chrysostom,
Clement, and Eusebius relate that on his
return from Patmos he found that a
young man of promise under his charge
had been misled, and had joined a band
of robbers; and that the aged apostle
sought him out in his mountain haunts,
and by the blessing of God on his fear

less and faithful love, reclaimed his soul
from death. He died at Ephesus, in the
third year of Trajan, A. D. 100, being
then, according to Epiphanius, ninety-
four years of age. He was buried near
that city, and several of the fathers men
tion his sepulchre as being there.

Besides the invaluable gospel and the
Apocalypse, which bear his name, we
have three EPISTLES OF JOHN. The first
is a catholic or general letter, designed
apparently to go with his gospel, and
refute certain Gnostic errors as to the
person of Christ ; but also and chiefly to
build up the church universal in truth
and grace, and especially in holy love.
The second epistle is addressed ' ' to the
elect lady," or the excellent Kuria, who
was probably some Christian woman em
inent for piety and usefulness. The third
is directed to Gaius, the Latin Caius,
whom John praises for his fidelity and
hospitality, and exhorts to persevere in
every good work. The Revelation and
epistles of John, it is generally believed,
were written about 96-98 A. D. They
are the latest books of the New Testa
ment canon, which, as the last surviving
apostle, he must have greatly aided in
settling.

III. Surnamed MARK. See MARK.

JOK'SHAN, the second son of Abra
ham and Keturah, ancestor of the Sabe-
ans and Dedanites of Southern Arabia,
Gen. 25:1-3.

JOK'TAN, son of Eber, and by him
connected with the Hebrews and other
Shemite families, Gen. 10.25-30 ; 1 Chr.
1 : 19-23. He is believed to be the Kah-
tan, or Yektan, to whom Arabian writers
trace their purest and most ancient gen
ealogies.

JOK'-THEEL, I. , a city of Judah, Josh.
15:38.

II. The name given by Amaziah to the
capital of Arabia Petraa, 2 Kin. 14 : 7.
See SELA.

JON'ADAB, I., a son of Shimeah, the
cunning and unprincipled nephew of
David, and friend of Amnon, 2 Sam.
13:3-5. Yet he seems to have been
long aware of the purpose of Absalom to
avenge his sister's dishonor upon Am
non, and very coolly excused the assas
sination of his friend, ver. 32-35.

II. A son of Rechab, a Kenite, de
scended from Hobab the brother of Mo
ses. He was at the head of the Rechab-
ites in the time of Jehu, and seems to
233

JON

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JOP

have given them a command to abstain
from wine, 2 Kin. 10:15; 1 Chr. 2:55;
Jer. 35:6-10. See RECHABITES.

JO'NAH, one of the minor prophets,
was a native of Gath-hepher, in Zebu-
lun, 2 Kin. 14 : 25. Being ordered of
God to prophesy against Nineveh, prob
ably in or before the reign of Jeroboam
II., which begun 825 B. c., he endeav
ored to avoid the command by embark
ing at Joppa for Tarshish, in order to fly
as far as possible in the opposite direction.
But being overtaken by a storm, he was
thrown overboard at his own request,
and miraculously preserved by being
swallowed by a large fish. See WHALE.
Several Greek and Roman legends seem
to have been borrowed from this source.
After three days, typical of our Saviour's
stay in the tomb, the lish cast Jonah out
upon the shore ; the word of the Lord a
second time directed him to go to Nine
veh, and he obeyed. The allusions of
the narrative to the vast extent and
population of this city, are confirmed by
other ancient accounts and by modern
investigations. See NINEVEH. At the
warning word of the prophet, the Nin-
evites repented, and the destruction
threatened was postponed ; but the feel
ings of Jonah at seeing his predictions
unfulfilled and the enemies of God's peo
ple spared, rendered necessary a further
exercise of the forbearance of God. See
GOURD.

The literal truth of the narrative is
established by our Saviour's repeated
quotations, Matt. 12:39-41; 16:4; Luke
11:29-32. It is highly instructive, as
showing that the providential govern
ment of God extends to all heathen na
tions, and that his grace has never been
confined to his covenant people.

JON'ATHAN, I., a Levite, son of Ger-
shom, and grandson of Moses, who after
the death of Joshua impiously served as
a priest, first to Micah, and then to the
Danites in Laish or Dan, where his pos
terity succeeded him until the captivity,
Judg. 17 ; 18.

II. The eldest son of Saul, and one of
the loveliest characters in Old Testament
history. The narrative of his brilliant
exploit in Michmash, 1 Sam. 13 and 14,
illustrates his pious faith, his bravery,
(see also 1 Sam. 13 : 3,) and the favor
home him by the people, who would
not suffer him to be put to death in con
sequence of Saul's foolish vow. This val-
234

iant and generous prince loved David as
his own soul, 1 Sam. 18:1-4 ; 19:2 ; 20 ;
and though convinced that his friend
was chosen of God for the throne, nobly
yielded his own pretensions, and recon
ciled fidelity to his father with the most
pure and disinterested friendship for
David. He perished with his father, in
battle with the Philistines at mount
Gil boa ; and nothing can surpass the
beauty and pathos of the elegy in which
David laments his friend, 2 Sam. 1, whose
son Mephibosheth he afterwards sought
out and befriended, 2 Sam. 9.

JOPPA, Hebrew JAPHO, is one of the
most ancient seaports in the world. It
was a border town of the tribe of Dan,
Josh. 19:46, on the coast of the Mediter
ranean sea, thirty miles south of C«sarea,
and about thirty-five north-west of Jeru
salem. Its harbor is shoal and unpro
tected from the winds ; but on account
of its convenience to Jerusalem, it be
came the principal port of Judea, and is
still the great landing-place of pilgrims.
Here the materials for building both the
first and the second temple, sent from
Lebanon and Tyre, were landed, 2 Chr.
3:16 ; Ezra 3:7. Here Jonah embarked
for Tarshish. Here, too, Peter raised
Dorcas from the dead ; and in the house
of Simon the tanner, by the seaside, was
taught by a heavenly vision that salva-
vation was for Gentiles as well as Jews,
Acts 9-11. Joppa was twice destroyed
by the Romans. It was the seat of a
Christian church for some centuries after
Constantine. During the crusades it
several times changed hands ; and in
modern times, 1799, it was stormed and
sacked by the French, and twelve hun
dred Turkish prisoners, said to have
broken their parole, were put to death.

The present town of Jaffa, or Yafa, is
situated on a promontory jutting out
into the sea, rising to the height of
about one hundred and fifty feet, crown
ed with a fortress, and offering on all
sides picturesque and varied prospects.
Towards the west is extended the open
sea; towards the south are spread the
fertile plains of Philistia, reaching as far
as Gaza; towards the. north, as far as
Carmel, the flowery meads of Sharon
present themselves ; and to the east, the
hills of Ephraim and Judah raise their
towering heads. The town is walled
round on the south and east, towards
the land, and partially so on the north

Juh

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

7AFA, THE MODEH.N JOPPA, FROM THE NORTH.

and west, towards the sea. Its environs,
away from the sand-hills of the shore,
are full of gardens and orchards. From
the sea, the town looks like a heap of
buildings, crowded as closely as possible
into a given space ; and from the steep
ness of its site, they appear in some
places to stand one on the other. The
streets are very narrow, uneven, and
dirty, and might rather be called alleys.
The inhabitants are estimated at about
fifteen thousand, of who in more than half
are Turks and Arabs. There are several
mosques ; and the Latins, Greeks, and Ar
menians have each a church, and a small
convent for the reception of pilgrims.

JO'RAM, or JEIIO'RAM, I. , son of Ahab
king of Israel, succeeded his older broth
er Ahaziah in the throne, B. c. 896, and
reigned twelve years. He discontinued
the worship of Baal, but followed the
"sin of Jeroboam." During his reign,
the Moabites revolted. Joram secured
the aid of Jehoshaphat king of Judah,
and after receiving for his allies' sake a
miraculous deliverance from drought,
defeated the Moabites with great slaugh
ter. Not long after he was involved in
war with Ben-hadad king of Syria, and
Hazael his successor ; and in this time
occurred the miraculous deliverance of

Samaria from siege and famine, and also
various miracles of Elisha, including the
healing of Naaman. Joram was wound
ed in a battle with Hazael, and met his
death, in the suburbs of Ramoth-gilead,
by the hand of Jehu his general. His
body was thrown into the field of Na-
both at Jezreel, and with him perished
the race of Ahab, 1 Kin. 21 : 18-29 ; 2 Kin.
1:17; 3:1; 6:9

II. The son and successor of Jehosha
phat king of Judah. He reigned with
his father, from B, c. 889, four years,
and four years alone ; in all eight years.
Unhappily he was married to Athaliah,
daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, whose
evil influence did much to render his
reign a curse to the land. He slew his
own brothers, five in number, and seized
their possessions. He also introduced
Phoenician idols and their worship into
Judah. The divine wrath was shown in
leaving him unaided under a successful
revolt of the Edomites, and repeated in
vasions of the Philistines and Arabians. .
His country, the city, and his own house-'
hold were ravaged, his body was afflicted
with a frightful dysenteric illness, and
after death a burial in the royal sepul
chres was denied him, 2 Kin. 8:16-24;
2 Chr. 21.

235

JOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOR

JOK'DAN, the chief river of Palestine,
running from north to south, and divid
ing the Holy Land into two parts, of
which the larger and more important
lay on the west. There are two small
streams, each of which claims to be its
source. One of these, near Banias, an
ciently Cassarea Philippi, issues from a
large cave in a rocky mountain side, and
flows several miles towards the south
west, where it is joined by the second
and larger stream, which originates in
a fountain at Tell-el-Kady, three miles
west of Banias. But besides these, there
is a third and longer stream, which rises
beyond the northern limit of Palestine,
near Hasbeia on the west side of mount
Hermon, flows twenty-four miles to the
south, and unites with the other streams
before they enter the "waters of Mc-
rom," now lake Huleh. This marshy
lake, when full, is about seven miles
long, and receives several other but
smaller streams, chiefly from the west.
See MEROM. Issuing from lake Huleh,
the Jordan flows about nine miles south
ward to the sea of Tiberias, through
which its clear and smooth course may
be traced twelve miles to the lower end.
Hence it pursues its sinuous way to the
south, till its pure waters are lost in the
bitter sea of Sodom.

Between these two seas, that of Tibe
rias and the Dead sea, lies the great val-
236

ley or plain of the Jordan, 2 Kin. 25; 4;
2 Chr. 4:17. It is called by the Arabs
El-Ghor. Its average width is about
five miles, but near Jericho it is twelve
or fifteen miles, It is terminated o;i
both sides, through its whole length, by
hills, which rise abruptly on the western
border 1,000 or 1,200 feet high, and more
gradually on the east, but twice as high.
This valley is excessively hot, and except
where watered by fountains or rivulets,
is sandy and destitute of foliage. It is
covered in many parts with innumerable
cone-like mounds, and sometimes con
tains a lower and narrow terrace of sim
ilar character, perhaps an eighth of a
mile wide. Through this valley the
river takes its serpentine course in a
channel from fifteen to fifty feet below
the general level. Its immediate banks
are thickly covered with trees and
shrubs, such as the willow, tamarisk,
and oleander ; and often recede, and
leave a larger space for vegetation. In
the lower Jordan, the stream is bordered
by numerous canebrakes. The thickets
adjoining the river were formerly the
retreat of wild beasts, which of course
would be driven out by a freshet ; hence
the figure, "He shall come up like a
lion from the swelling of Jordan," Jer.
49 : 19 ; 50 : 44. The channel of the river
may be deeper sunk than of old, but
even now not only the intervales within

JOR

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

JOR

the banks are overflowed in spring, but
in many places the banks themselves,

1 Chr. 12 : 15. Lieut. Lynch of the Unit
ed States navy, who traversed the Jor
dan in 1848, ascertained that, although
the distance from the sea of Galilee to
the Dead sea is but sixty miles in a
straight line, it is two hundred miles by
the course of the river, which has innu
merable curves. Its width varies at dif
ferent points from seventy-five to two
hundred feet, and its depth from three
to twelve feet. Its volume of water dif
fers exceedingly at different seasons and
from year to year. The current is usu
ally swift and strong ; and there are nu
merous rapids and falls, of which no less
than twenty-seven are specified by Lieut.
Lynch as dangerous even to his.mctallic
boats. The sea of Tiberias ILs 312 (ac
cording to Lynch, 653) feet below the
level of the Mediterranean, and the
Dead sea 1,316 feet ; hence the fall of
the Jordan between the two seas is 1,000
feet. The waters of the Jordan are cool
and soft, and like the sea of Galilee, it
abounds in fish. It is crossed by a stone
bridge, below lake Hulch, (see GKSIIUR ;)
and the fragments of another, just south
of the sea of Tiberias, still remain. Sev
eral fords, available in ordinary seasons,
are mentioned in Scripture, Judg. 3:28 ;
12 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 22-24. Ferry-boats
were also used, 2 Sam 19 : 17, 18, 39.
See SEA IV.

It was during the annual "swelling of
the Jordan " that Joshua and the Israel
ites crossed it, Josh. 3:15. Yet the swift
and swollen current was arrested in its
course, opposite to Jericho ; and while
the waters below the city rolled on to
the sea, those above it were miracu
lously stayed, and left in the river bed
a wide passage for the hosts of Israel.
Twice afterwards the Jordan was mirac
ulously crossed, by Elijah and Elisha,

2 Kin. 2 : 8, 14. In its waters the lep
rosy of Namaan was healed, and the lost
axe-head floated, at the word of Elisha,
2 Kin. 5:14; 6:6. Here, too, our Sav
iour was baptized, Matt. 3:13 ; and this
event is commemorated, in the middle of
April of each year, by thousands of pil
grims of various sects of nominal Chris
tians, who on a given day, and under
the protection of a strong Turkish escort,
visit the sacred river, drink and bathe in
its waters, and after an hour or two re
turn to Jerusalem.

The principal branches of the Jordan
are the Yermak, anciently Hieromax, a
large stream, and the Jabbok, both on
the east. There are several gmall rivu
lets and many mountain brooks, .which
dry up more or less early in the sum
mer. The phrase, " beyond Jordan,"
usually indicates the east side of the
river, but before the conquest by Joshua
it meant the west side.

At the present day, ihe Jordan is lost
in the Dead sea ; but many have sup
posed that in very ancient times, before
the destruction of the cities in the vale
of Sodom, the Jordan passed through
the Dead sea and the vale of Siddim,
and continued its course southward to
the Elanitlc gulf of the Eed sea. The
southern end of the Dead sea is found to
be connected with the Elanitic gulf, or
gulf of Akaba, by the great valley, called
El-Arabah, forming a prolongation of El-
Ghor, the valley of the Jordan. See map
in EXODUS. Ihe course of this valley
is between south and south-south-west.
Its length, from the Dead sea to Akaba,
is about one hundred miles in a direct
line. From the extremity of the Dead
sea, a sandy plain extends southward be
tween hills, and on a level with the sea,
for the distance of eight or ten miles,
where it is interrupted by a chalky cliff,
from sixty to eighty feet high, which
runs nearly across the valley, but leaves
at its western end the opening of a val
ley nearly half a mile wide, which runs
up for many miles to the south within
the broad and desert valley El-Arabah,
upon which it at length emerges, and
the water of which it conveys to the
Dead sea. The cliff above referred to,
probably the Akrabbim of the Bible,
marks the termination of El-Ghor and
the commencement of El-Arabah, which
is thence prolonged without interruption
to Akaba. It is skirted on each side by
a chain of mountains ; but the streams
which descend from these, are in sum
mer lost in their gravelly beds before
they reach the valley below ; so that
this lower plain is in summer entirely
without water, which alone can produce
verdure in the Arabian deserts and ren
der them habitable. There is not the
slightest appearance of a road, or of any
other work of human art, in any part of
the valley. The opinion that the Jor
dan formerly traversed this great valle,y
is rendered untenable by the fact that
237

JOS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JOS

the Dead sea lies nearly 1,300 feet lower
than the gulf of Akaba, and that most
of the intervening region now pours its
streams north into the Dead sea. Of
course the Jordan must also have stop
ped there of old, as it does now, unless,
according to the somewhat startling the
ory of Lieut. Lynch and others, the Dead
sea — and with it, though less deeply, the
whole valley to the north and south —
sunk down from a higher level into its
present deep chasm, perhaps long before
that appalling catastrophe from which
Lot found refuge in "the mountain,"
Gen. 19:17-28, 30. See SEA III.

JO'SEPPI, I., the son of Jacob and his
beloved Rachel, born in Mesopotamia,
Gen. 30:22-24, B. c. 1747, He is mem
orable for the wonderful providence of
God which raised him from a prison to
be the grand-vizier of Egypt, and made
him the honored means of saving count
less human lives. His history is one of
the most pleasing and instructive in the
Bible ; and is related in language inim
itably natural, simple, and touching. It
is too beautiful for abridgment, and too
familiar to need rehearsal. It throws
much light on the superintending provi
dence of God, as embracing all things,
great and small, in the perpetual un
folding of his universal plan. No narra
tive in the Bible more strikingly illus
trates the protective and elevating power
of the fear of God, and its especial value
for the young. To behold this lovely
image of filial piety and unwavering
faith, of self-control in youth and pa
tience in adversity, of discretion and
fidelity in all stations of life, serenely
walking with (rod through all, and at
death intrusting soul and body alike
into his hands, Heb. 11 : 22, may well
lead the young reader to cry, Oh that
the God of Joseph were my God, Gen.
37 and 39-50. Joseph died, aged one
hundred and ten, B. c. 1637 ; and when
the Israelites, a century and a half later,
went up from Egypt, they took his bones,
and at length buried them in Shechem,
Ex. 13:19; Josh. 24:32. A Mohamme
dan wely or tomb covers the spot regard
ed generally, and it may be correctly, as
the place of his burial. It is a low stone
enclosure, and stands in quiet seclusion
among high trees, at the western entrance
of the valley of Shechem, at the right of
the traveller's path and nearer mount
Ebal than mount Gerizim.
238

II. The husband of Mary, Christ'f
mother. His genealogy is traced in
Matt. 1 : 1-15, to David, Judah, and
Abraham. See GENEALOGY. His resi
dence was at Nazareth in Galilee, where
he followed the occupation of a carpen
ter, to which Christ also was trained,
Mark 6 ; 3. He was a pious and hon
orable man, as appears from his whole
course towards Mary and her son. They
both attended the Passover at Jerusalem
when Christ was twelve years of age,
Luke 2 : 41-51 ; and as no more is said of
him in the sacred narrative, and Christ
committed Mary to the care of one of his
disciples, he is generally supposed to
have died before Christ began his public
ministry. He seems to have been well
known among the Jews, Mark 6:3 ; John
6:42.

III. A native of Arimathea, but at the
time of Christ's crucifixion a resident at
Jerusalem. He was doubtless a believer
in the Messiah, and •' waited for the
kingdom of God." He was a member of
the Jewish Sanhedrim, and opposed in
vain their action in condemning the Sav
iour, Luke 23:51. When all was over,
he "went in boldly unto Pilate, and
craved the body of Jesus." It was now
night, and the Jewish Sabbath was at
hand. He therefore, with the aid of
Nicodemus, wrapped the body in spices,
for the time, and laid it in his own tomb,
Mark 15:43-46; John 19:38-42.

IV. A disciple of Christ, also named
Justus, and Barsabas. See BARSABAS.

JO'SES, I., one of the brethren of our
Lord, Matt. 13 : 55 ; Mark 6 : 3 His
brethren did not at first believe on him,
but after his resurrection they are found
among his disciples, John 2:12; 7:6;
Acts 1:14.

II. A son of Cleophas and Mary, iden
tified by some with the above, Matt.
27:56. See JAMES III.

III. See BARNABAS.

JOSH'UA, I., the son of Nun, a dis
tinguished leader of the Hebrews, and
the successor of Moses. His name at
first was Oshea, Num. 13:8, 16 ; and in
the New Testament he is called Jesus,
Acts 7: 45; Heb. 4:8. Both the names,
Joshua and Jesus, signify saviour, deliverer.
See JESUS. Joshua led Israel over the
Jordan, and took possession of the prom
ised land ; he conquered the Canaanites,
and then distributed the country among
the tribes. He is first mentioned as the

JOS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JUB

leader of Israel against the Amalekites
at Rephidim, Ex. 17 : 8-16. See also
Num. 14:6. At the passage over Jordan
he was eighty-four years of age ; and
after about twenty-six years employed
in his appointed work, and then judging
Israel at his possession atTimnath-serah,
he died, u. c. 1426. His last grand convo
cation of all Israel, at Shechem, and his
solemn address to them and renewal of
their covenant with God, form the wor
thy close of a life on which in the sacred
records no blot rests. He seems to have
served the Lord with singular fidelity.
No man witnessed more or greater mir
acles than he ; and in his life may be
found many points of resemblance to
that of the greater ' ' Captain of the
Lord's host," who establishes his people
in the true promised land.

The BOOK OF JOSHUA contains the nar
rative of all these transactions, and was
written by Joshua himself, or under his
direction, B. c. 1427. From chap. 24:27
on, was of course added by a later hand ;
but all was done under the inspiration of
the Holy Spirit, 2 Tim. 3:16.

II. The son of Josedech. See JESIIUA.

JOSI'AH, son of Amon and great-
grandson of Hezekiah, a pious king of
Judah, who introduced great reforms in
the temple worship, and in the religious
character of the nation in general. No
king set himself more earnestly to de
stroy every vestige of idolatry out of the
land. Among other things, he defiled
the altars of the idols at Bethel by burn
ing upon them the bones from the tombs
of their deceased priests ; as had been
foretold more than three centuries be
fore, 1 Kin. 13:2. While cleansing and
repairing the temple at his command,
the priests found the temple copy of the
five books of the law, perhaps the origi
nal copy from Moses' own hand. The
sacred book was too much neglected in
those days of declension ; and even the
pious Josiah seems to have been impress
ed by the closing chapters of Deuterono
my as though he had never read them !
before. To avert the judgments there
threatened, he humbled himself before
God, and sought to bring the people to
repentance. He caused them to renew
their covenant with Jehovah, and cele
brated the Passover with a solemnity
like that of its first institution. The
repentance of the people was heartless,
and did not avert the divine judgments.

Josiah, however, was taken away from
the evil to come. He met death in bat
tle with Pharaoh-necho, whose passage
across his territory to attack the king of
Assyria, Josiah felt obliged to resist. The
death of this wise and pious king was
deeply lamented, by the prophet Jere
miah and all the people, Zech. 12:11.
He began to reign B. c. 641, at the age
of eight years, and reigned thirty-one
years, 2 Kin. 22 ; 23 ; 2 Chr. 34 ; 36.

JOT, a word which comes from the
name of the Greek letter iota ( i ) and the
Hebrew yod ( i) . It is the smallest let
ter of these alphabets ; and is therefore
put for the smallest thing or particle ;
which is also its meaning in English,
Matt. 5:18. See TITTLE.

JO'THAM, I , the youngest son of
Gideon, who escaped the massacre of his
brethren by Abimelech, and afterwards
boldly and prophetically denounced the
Shechemites in the beautiful parable of
the bramble and the other trees. He
escaped to Beer, and probably lived to
see his threatenings fulfilled, Judg. 9.
See ABIMELECH III.

II. The son and successor of Uzziah,
or Azariah, king of Judah, B. c. 758.
He appears to have been for some years
regent before the death of Uzziah his
leprous father, but ascended the throne
at the age of twenty-five years, and
reigned sixteen years in the fear of God.
The history of his wise and prosperous
reign, and of his useful public works, is
found in 2 Kin. 15 : 5, 32-38 ; 2 Chr.
26:21; 27:9.

JOUR'NEY. A "sabbath-day's jour
ney," among the Jews, seems to have
been reckoned at about seven furlongs,
or nearly one mile, Matt. 24:20; Acts
1 : 12. An ordinary day's journey is
about twenty miles. Persons starting on
a journey in the East frequently make
their first stage a short one, that they
may the more easily send back for any
forgotten articles or necessary supplies.
This may perhaps apply to the "day's
journey" of the parents of Jesus, men
tioned in Luke 2 : 44.

For the journeyings of the Israelites,
see EXODUS, and WANDERINGS.

JU'BAL, music, son of Lamech and
Adah, and a descendant of Cain. He
invented the lyre, and the shepherd 's-
pipe, Gen. 4:21.

JU'BILEE, a Hebrew festival, cele:
brated in every fiftieth year, which of
239

JUD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JUD

course occurred after seven weeks of
years, or seven times seven years, Lev.
25 : 10. Its name Jubilee, sounding or
flowing, was significant of the joyful
trumpet-peals that announced its arri
val. During this year no one sowed or
reaped ; but all were satisfied with what
the earth and the trees produced spon
taneously. Each resumed possession of
his inheritance, whether it were sold,
mortgaged, or otherwise alienated ; and
Hebrew servants of every description
were set free, with their wives and chil
dren, Lev. 25. The first nine days were
spent in festivities, during which no one
worked, and every one wore a crown on
his head. On the tenth day, which was
the day of solemn expiation, the sanhe
drim ordered the trumpets to sound, and
instantly the slaves were declared free,
and the lands returned to their heredi
tary owners. This law was mercifully
designed to prevent the rich from op
pressing the poor, and getting possession
of all the lands by purchase, mortgage,
or usurpation ; to cause that debts should
not be multiplied too much, and that
slaves should not continue, with their
wives and children, in perpetual bond
age. It served to maintain a degree of
equality among the Hebrew families ; to
perpetuate the division of lands and
households according to the original
tribes, and secure a careful registry of
the genealogy of every family. They
were also thus reminded that Jehovah
was the great Proprietor and Disposer of
all things, and they but his tenants.
"The land is mine ; for ye are strangers
and sojourners with me," Lev. 25:28.
And this memento met them constantly
and pointedly ; for every transfer of
land was valuable in proportion to the
number of years remaining before the
jubilee. Isaiah clearly refers to this
peculiar and important festival, as fore
shadowing the glorious dispensation of
gospel grace, Isa. 61 "1, 2 ; Luke 4: 17-21.

See also the notice of a similar institu
tion under SABBATICAL YEAR.

JU'DAH, the fourth son of Jacob and
Leah, born in Mesopotamia, B. c. 1755,
Gen. 29:35. His name appears honora
bly in the history of Joseph, Gen. 37:26,
27 ; 44:16-34; but disgracefully in that
of Tamar his daughter-in-law, Gen. 38.
The dying benediction of Jacob foretells
the superior power and prosperity of the
family of Judah, and their continuance
240

as chief of the Jewish race until the time
of Christ, Gen. 49:8-12. Though not the
iirst-born, Judah soon came to be consid
ered as the chief of Jacob's children, and
his tribe was the most powerful and nu
merous. The south-eastern part of Pal
estine fell to their lot. See JUDEA. On
the border of their territory was Jeru
salem, the seat of the Jewish worship ;
and from Judah sprung David and his
royal race, from which descended the
Saviour of the world.

After the return from the captivity,
this tribe in some sort united in itself
the whole HebreAv nation, who from that
time were known only as Judfei, Jews,
descendants of Judah. Judah — when
named in contradistinction to Israel,
Ephraim, the kingdom of the ten tribes,
or Samaria — denotes the kingdom of Ju
dah, and of David's descendants. See
HEBREWS and KIKGS. One of the princi
pal distinctions of this tribe is, that it
preserved the true religion, and the pub
lic exercise of the priesthood, with the
legal ceremonies in the temple at Jeru
salem ; while the ten tribes gave them
selves up to idolatry and the worship of
the golden calves.

JU'DAS, I., ISCARIOT, that is, man of
Carioth or Kerioth, a city of Judah,
Josh. 15 : 25. Being one of the twelve
apostles of our Lord, Judas seems to
have possessed the full confidence of his
fellow-apostles, and was entrusted by
them with all the presents which were
made them, and all their means of sub
sistence ; and when the twelve were sent
out to preach and to work miracles, Ju
das appears to have been among them,
and to have received the same powers.
He was accustomed, however, even at
this time, to appropriate part of their
common stock to his own use, John
12 : 6 ; and at length sealed his infamy
by betraying his Lord to the Jews for
money. For the paltry sum of about
$15, he engaged with the Jewish Sanhe
drim to guide them to a place where
they could seize him by night without
danger of a tumult. But when he learn
ed the result, a terrible remorse took
possession of him ; not succeeding in un
doing his fatal work with the priests, he
cast down before them the price of blood,
crossed the gloomy valley of Hinnom,
and hung himself, Matt. 27 : 3-10. Luke,
in Acts 1 : 18, adds that he fell headlong
and burst asunder, probably by the

JUD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JUD

breaking of the rope or branch. The
steep hill-side south of the valley of Hin-
nom might well be the scene of such a
twofold death. See ACELDAMA. The
remorseful confession of Judas was a sig
nal testimony to the spotless innocence
of Christ, Matt. 27 : 4 ; and his awful end
is a solemn warning against avarice,
hypocrisy, and all unfaithfulness, Matt.
26:34; John 17:12; Acts 1:25.

II. One of the apostles, called also
Jude, Lebbeus, and Thaddeus, Matt.
10 : 3, Mark 3:18, Jude 1, the son of
Alpheus and Mary, and brother of James
the Less. See JAMES II. and III. He
was the author of the epistle which bears
his name, Mark 6:3; Luke 6:16; Acts
1:13.

III. The brother of our Lord, Matt.
27:56. Supposed by many to have been
only a cousin, and the same as Judas II.
the apostle. But his "brethren" did
not believe in him until near the close
of his ministry. See JAMES III.

IV. A Christian teacher, called also
Barsabas, sent from Jerusalem to Anti-
och with Paul and Barnabas, Acts 15:22,
27, 32.

V. Surnamed "the Galilean," called
also, by Josephus, the GaulonHe. He
was born at Gamala, a city of Gaulonitis
near the south-eastern shore of the lake
of Tiberias. In company with one Sa-
doc, he attempted to excite a sedition
among the Jews, but was destroyed by
Quirinus, or Cyrenius, at that time gov
ernor of Syria and Judea, Acts 5:37.

VI. A Jew at Damascus, with whom
Paul lodged, Acts 9:11.

JUDE. See JUDAS II.

THE EPISTLE OF JUDE, assigned conjec-
turally to the year 66 A. D., is a fervid
and vehement voice of warning against
following certain false teachers in their
errors and corruptions, and so sharing
their awful doom. It resembles the sec
ond epistle of Peter. As to the quota
tion in ver. 14, 15, see ENOCH II.

JUDE'A, or land of the Jews, a name
sometimes given to the southern part of
the Holy Land ; and sometimes, especial
ly by foreigners, to the whole country.
In the general division of Canaan among
the tribes, the south-east part fell to the
lot of the tribe of Judah. With the in
creasing ascendency of that tribe the
name of Judah covered a more extended
territory, 2 Sam. 5:5; and after the
secession of the ten tribes, the kingdom
11

of Judah included the territory of the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, with a
part of that of Simeon and Dan. Judah
thus occupied all the southern portion of
Palestine, while the northern part was
called Galilee, and the middle Samaria.
After the captivity, as most of those
who returned were of the kingdom of
Judah, the name Judah, or Judea, was
applied generally to the whole of Pales
tine, Hag. 1:1, 14 ; 2:2 ; and this use of
the word has never wholly ceased. When
the whole country fell into the power of
the Romans', the former division into
Galilee, Samaria, and Judea seems to
have again become current, Luke 2:4;
John 4:3, 4. Jcsephus describes Judea
in his day as bounded north by Sarnaria,
east by the Jordan, west by the Mediter
ranean, and south by the territory of the
j Arabs. These boundaries seem to in
clude a part of Idumaja. Judea in this
' extent constituted part of the kingdom
of Herod the Great, and afterwards be
longed to his son Archelaus. When the
latter was banished for his cruelties, Ju-
.dea was reduced to the form of a Roman
province, annexed to the proconsulate of
Syria, and governed by procurators, un
til it was at length given as part of his
kingdom to Herod Agrippa II. During
all this time, the boundaries of the prov
ince were often varied, by the addition or
abstraction of different towns and cities.
The original territory of the tribe of
Judah was an elevated plain, much bro
ken by frequent hills, ravines, and val
leys, and sinking into fine plains and
pasture-grounds on the west and south,
Zech. 7:7. It was a healthy, pleasant,
and fruitful land. The valleys yielded
large crops of grain ; and the hills were
terraced, watered, covered with vines,
Gen. 49 : 11, 12, and rich in olives, figs,
and many other fruits. See CANAAN.
The ' ' hill-country ' ' of Judah lay south
and south-east of Jerusalem, Luke 1:39,
65, including Bethlehem, Hebron, etc.
"The plain" refers usually to the low
ground near the Jordan, 2 Sam. 2 : 29 ;
2 Kin. 25:4, 5.

The "wilderness of Judea," in which
John began to preach, and where Christ
was tempted, seems to have been in the
eastern part of Judah, adjacent to the
Dead sea, and stretching towards Jeri
cho, 2 Sam. 15 : 28. It is still one of the
most dreary and desolate regions of the
whole country. Matt. 3:1 ; 4:1.
241

JUD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JUD

JUDG'ES, in Hebrew Shophetim, were
the rulers, chiefs, or leaders of Israel,
from Joshua to Saul. They were very
different from the ordinary administra
tors of justice among the Hebrews, re
specting whom, see JUSTICE. The Cartha
ginians, a colony of the Tyrians, had
likewise governors, whom they called
Suffetes, or Sophetim, with authority
almost equal to that of kings.

The dignity of judge was for life ; but
the succession was not always constant.
There w«re anarchies, or intervals, dur
ing which the commonwealth was with
out rulers. There were likewise long
intervals of foreign servitude and op
pression, under which the Hebrews
groaned without deliverers. Although
God alone regularly appointed the judges,
yet the people, on some occasions, chose
that individual who appeared to them
most proper to deliver them from oppres
sion ; and as it often happened that the
oppressions which occasioned recourse to
the election of a judge were not felt over
all Israel, the power of such judge ex
tended only over- that province which he
had delivered. Thus it was chiefly the
land east of the Jordan that Ehud, Jeph-
thah, Elon, and Jair delivered and gov
erned ; Barak and Tola governed the
northern tribes ; Abdon the central ; and
Ibzan and Samson the southern. The
authority of judges was little inferior to
that of kings : it extended to peace and
war ; they decided causes with absolute
authority ; but had no power to make
new laws, or to impose new burdens on
the people. They were protectors of the
laws, defenders of religion, and aven
gers of crimes, particularly of idolatry ;
they were without salary, pomp, or splen
dor ; and without guards, train, or equi
page, other than that their own wealth
afforded.

The command of Jehovah to expel or
destroy all the Canaanites, was but im
perfectly executed ; and those who were
spared infected the Hebrews with the
poison of their idolatry and vice. The
affair of Micah and the Levite, and the
«rime at Gibeah which led to the ruin
ous war against the Benjamites, though
recorded at the close of the book of
Judges, chap. 17-21, occurred not long
after the death of Joshua, and show how
soon Israel began to depart from God.
To chastise them, he suffered the people
of Mesopotamia and of Moab, the Ca-
242

naanites, Midianites, Ammonites, and
Philistines, in turn to oppress by their
exactions a part of the tribes, and some
times the whole nation. But erelong,
in pity for their sufferings, he would
raise up one of the military and civil
dictators above described. Fifteen judges
are named in the Bible, beginning with
Othniel, some twenty years after Joshua,
and continuing till the coronation of
Saul. The recorded succession of the
judges, and of the periods of oppression,
is the following :

YEARS.

Othniel, about B. c. 1405 40

Under Eglon 18

Ehud, etc. 80

Under the Philistines unknown

Shamgar unknown

Under Jabin 20

Deborah and Barak 40

Under Midian 7

Gideon - 40

Abimelech T- 3

Tola 23

Jair 22

Under the Ammonites 18

Jephthah -- 6

Ibzan 7

Elon 10

Abdon- 8

Under the Philistines 40

Samson ) - - 20

Eli }-- 40

Under the Philistines - - 20

Samuel, about 12

Saul, the first king, B. c. 1095.

The time from Othniel to Saul, accord
ing to the above table, would be some
500 years ; according to the received
chronology, it is about 310 years. It is
supposed that some of the above periods
overlap each other ; but chronologists
are not agreed as to the mode of recon
ciling the accounts in Judges with other
known dates, and with 1 Kin. 6:1, and
Acts 13 : 20, though several practicable
methods are proposed, the examination
of which would exceed the limits of this
work.

The BOOK OF JUDGES contains the an
nals of the times in which Israel was
ruled by judges, and is often referred to
in the New Testament and other parts
of the Bible. It appears to have been
written before David captured Zion, 1:21,
and yet after a regal government was
introduced, 17 : 6 ; 18 : 1 ; 21:25. Who
was its author is unknown ; the major
ity of critics ascribe it to Samuel, B. c.
1403, but many regard it as a compila
tion by Ezra. It illustrates God's care
over his people, mingling his long-suf
fering with timely chastisements. The

JUD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JUS

period of the judges was, on the whole,
one of prosperity ; and while the provi
dence of God confirmed his word, "If
ye refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured
by the sword," it no less faithfully as
sured them, "If ye be willing and obe
dient, ye shall eat of the good of the
land. ' '

JUDG'MENT is put, in Matt. 5 : 21,
22, for a court of judgment, a tribunal,
namely, the tribunal of seven judges,
which Josephus mentions as existing in
every city, and which decided causes of
minor importance. See under SYNA
GOGUE.

For the expression, "judgment-hall,"
see PRETOKIUM.

The DAY OF JUDGMENT, for which the
word "judgment" alone is sometimes
used, is that great day, at the end of the
world and of time, when Christ shall sit
as judge over all the universe, and when
every individual of the human race will
be judged and recompensed according to
his works, whether they be good or evil.
The time of its coming and its duration
are known only to God. It will break
upon the world suddenly, and with a
glorious but awful majesty. It will wit
ness the perfect vindication of all the
ways of God. The revelation of his jus
tice, appalling but unstained, will fill
the universe with approving wonder ;
but the revelation of his yet more amaz
ing goodness will crown him with unut
terable glory. The Redeemer especially
will then receive his reward, and be glo
rified in his saints, who shall be raised
from the dead in his likeness. He will
divide all mankind into two classes : aJl
the righteous will be in one, and all the
wicked in the other ; all that love God
in the one, and all that hate him in the
other; all that penitently believed in
Christ while they lived in the one, and
all that died impenitent and unbelieving
in the other. And this judgment and
separation will be eternal ; the former
will rise in holiness and joy, and the lat
ter sink in sin and woe for ever, Eccl.
11:9; Dan. 12:2; Matt. 10:15; 12:36;
25 : 31-46 ; 26 : 64 ; John 5 : 22 ; Acts
17 : 31 ; Rom. 14 : 10-12 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 7-
10; 2 Pet. 2:9; 3:7 ; 1 John 4:17 ; Rev.
20:12-15.

JU'LIUS, a centurion of the cohort of
Augustus, to whom Festus, governor of
Judea, committed Paul to be conveyed
to Rome. Julius had great regard for

Paul. He suffered him to land at Sidon,
and to visit his friends there ; and in a
subsequent part of the voyage he op
posed the violence of the soldiers, direct
ed against the prisoners generally, in or
der to save the apostle, Acts 27.

JU'NIPER is found in the English Bi
ble, 1 Kin. 1(J:4, 5 ; Job 30: 4 ; Psa. 120:4.
The Hebrew word, however, signifies the

plant Genista, or Spanish broom, which
is common in the desert regions of Ara
bia, and has yellowish blossoms and a
bitter root.

JU'PITER, the supreme god of the
heathen Greeks and Romans. He was
called the son of Saturn and Ops, and
was said to have been born in Crete.
The character attributed to him in pa
gan mythology was a compound of all
that is wicked, obscene, and beastly in
the catalogue of human crime. Still he
was ever described as of noble and dig
nified appearance and bearing. Barna
bas was supposed by the people of Lys-
tra to represent him, Acts 14 : 12, 13 ;
19:35.

JUS'TICE, a principle of righteousness
and equity, controlling our conduct, and
securing a due regard to all the rights
of others— their persons, property, char
acter, and interests. It has to do, not
with pecuniary transactions alone, but
with all our intercourse with society. It
forms a chief element of the character
243

JITS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

JUS

approved in God's word; and a truly
just man has but to "love mercy, and
walk humbly with God," to fullil all
righteousness. Justice in magistrates,
rulers, and judges, must be fearless and
impartial, and all its decisions such as
will bear revision before the court of
heaven, Deut. 1 : 16-17 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 3 ;
2 Chr. 19:6-10. Judgment is peculiarly
the prerogative of God, and every earth
ly tribunal lies under the shadow of the
"great white throne." A just judg
ment is the voice of God ; and hence
an unjust one is doubly hateful in his
sight.

THE JUSTICE OP GOD is that essential
and infinite attribute which makes his
nature and his ways the perfect embod
iment of equity, and constitutes him
the model and the guardian of equity
throughout the universe, Deut. 32 : 4 ;
Psa. 89 : 14. The justice of God could
not leave the world without laws, and
cannot fail to vindicate them by exe
cuting their penalties ; and as all man
kind perpetually break them, every hu
man soul is under condemnation, ' and
must perish, unless spared through the
accepted ransom, the blood of Christ.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE, among
the Hebrews, was characterized by sim
plicity and promptitude. In early times
the patriarch of each family was its
judge, Gen. 38 : 24. Afterwards, in the
absence of more formal courts, the elders
of a hpusehold, tribe, or city, were its
judges by natural right. In the wilder
ness, Moses organized for the Jews a reg
ular system of judges, some having ju
risdiction over ten families, others over
fifty, one hundred, or one thousand.
The difficult cases were referred to Mo
ses, and he often sought divine direction
concerning them, Ex. 18 : 21-26 ; Lev.
24:12. These judges were perhaps the
"princes of the congregation," and the
chiefs of the families and tribes of whom
we afterwards read, Num. 27:3. In the
land of Canaan, local magistrates were
appointed for every city and village ; and
these were instructed to cooperate with
the priests, as being all together under
the theocracy, the actual government of
Jehovah, the supreme Judge of Israel,
Deut. 16:18; 17:8-10; 19:17 ; 21:1-6.
Their informal courts were held in the
gate of the city, as the most public and
convenient place, Deut. 21 : 9 ; 22 : 15 ;
25 : 7 ; and in the same place contracts
214

were ratified, Ruth 4:1, 9 ; Jer. 82:7-15.
Deborah the prophetess judged Israel
beneath a palm-tree, Judg. 4:5. Sam
uel established virtually a circuit court,

1 Sam. 7 : 16 ; 8: 1 ; and among the kings,
Jehoshaphat made special provision for
the faithful administration of justice,

2 Chr. 19. The kings themselves were
supreme judges, with almost unlimited
powers, 1 Sam. 22:16; 2 Sam. 4:9, 10;
1 Kin. 22:26. They were expected, how
ever, to see that justice was everywhere
done, and seem to have been accessible to
all who were wronged. Frequent com
plaints are on record in the sacred books
of the maladministration of judges, of
bribery and perjury, 1 Sam. 8:3 ; 1 Kin.
21 : 8-14 ; Isa. 1: 23 ; 10 : 1 ; Mic. 3:11 ;
7:3.

There was no class among the Jews
exactly corresponding to our lawyers.
The accuser and the accused stood side
by side before the judge, with their wit
nesses, and pleaded their own cause.
The accuser is named in several places,
Satan, that is, the adversary, Psa. 109:6 ;
Zech. 3 : 1-3. No one could be con
demned without the concurring testi
mony of at least two witnesses, Num.
35 : 30 ; and these failing, he was obliged
to make oath of his innocence, Ex. 22 : 11 ;
Heb. 6 : 16. The sentence of the judge
was instantly executed ; and in certain
cases the witnesses cast the first stone,
Deut. 17:5, 7 ; 25:2 ; Josh. 7:24 ; ISam.
22:18; 1 Kin. 2:24; Prov. 16:14. The
same frightful celerity still marks the
administration of justice in the East.
The application of torture to extract ev
idence is only once mentioned, and that
under the authority of Kome, Acts 22:24.
See SANHEDRIM and SYNAGOGUE.

JUSTIFICATION, the being regarded
and treated as if innocent ; or acquittal
from the consequences of guilt before
the tribunal of God. "Justification by
faith" means that a person, on account
of true and living faith in Christ as man
ifested by good works, will be delivered
from condemnation on account of his
sins ; that is, his sins will be forgiven,
and he be regarded and treated as if
innocent and holy. Thus, besides the
remission of sins and their penalty, it
includes the restoration and everlasting
enjoyment of the favor of God.

We obtain justification by faith in
Christ. Yet neither this nor any other
act of ours, as a work, is any ground of

KAD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

KEI

our justification. In acquitting us be
fore his bar, God regards not our works,
in whole or in part, but the atoning
work and merits of Christ. He was
treated as a sinner, that we might be
treated as righteous. "There is there
fore now no condemnation to them which
are in Christ Jesus;" the moment we
believe, our justification is as perfect as
the infinite worthiness of our Redeemer.
Its validity does not depend on the meas
ure of our assurance of hope, nor on spot
less holiness of life. Saiictification, in
deed, or progressive growth in holiness,
commences simultaneously with justifi
cation, and must in the end reach the
same perfectness. Yet it is important
to distinguish between the two, and to
observe that, could the believer's holi
ness become as perfect as an angel's, it
could not share with the atoning merits
of Christ in entitling him to admission
to heaven.

" The best obedience of my hands

Dares not appear before thy throne ;
But faith can answer thy demands,
By pleading what my Lord hath done."

True justification, by the gratuitous
gift of the Saviour, furnishes the most
powerful motive to a holy life. It is
followed by adoption, peace of con
science, and the fruits of the Spirit in
this life ; and by final sanctification, ac
quittal in the day of judgment, and ad
mittance to heaven, Rom. 3 : 20-31 ; 5 ;
8:1-4; 10 : 4-10 ; Gal. 2 : 16-21 ; Eph.
2:4-10.

K.

KA'DESH, or KA'DESII-BAR'NEA, called
also En-Mishpat, Gen. 14:7, the name of
a fountain, a city, and the desert around,
Psa. 29:3, in the southern border of the
promised land. It is said, in Num. 20 : 16,
to lie in the ' ' uttermost border of Edom, ' '
and was probably situated very near the
great valley El-Arabah, south of the Dead
sea. Dr. Robinson found a watering-
place answering well to the indications
in Scripture, on the western border of
El-Arabah, about twenty-seven miles
from the Dead sea. Kadesh was twice
visited by the Israelites in their wander
ings ; once soon after they left mount
Sinai, and again thirty-eight years after.
At the first visit the mission and return
of the twelve spies took place, the rebel

lion of the people, and their presumptu
ous effort to enter Canaan by the pass
Zephath, immediately north of Kadesh,
Num. 13 and 14. At their second visit
occurred the death of Miriam, the mur
muring of the people for water, the mi
raculous supply, the sin of Aaron and
Moses in smiting the rock, and the fruit
less request for a passage through Edom,
Num. 20:1-22. The southern herder of
Judah reached to Kadesh-barnea, Josh,
12:22; 15:3.

KAD'MONITES, Gen. 15 : 19, a tribe
of Canaanites who inhabited the prom
ised land east of the Jordan, about mount
Hermon. Some have fancied that Cad
mus, the supposed inventor of the Greek
alphabet, and who came from the East,
i was a Kadmonite. If so, he only intro-
' duced into Greece the alphabet of his
own country, since the Greek letters are
obviously derived from the Phoenician or
ancient Hebrew letters.

KA'NAH, I., a brook which separated
Ephraim and Manasseh, and fell into the
Mediterranean north of Joppa, Josh. 16:8;
17:9.

II. A town in the tribe of Asher, Josh.
19:24, 28. See CANA.

KE'DAR, a son of Ishmael, Gen. 25: 13,
the father of the Kedarcnians or Cedrei,
mentioned by Pliny, who dwelt in the
neighborhood of the Nabatheans, in Ara
bia Deserta. They were a numerous and
powerful tribe, not of the best reputa
tion, Psa. 120:5, and their name is some
times put for the whole of Arabia Deserta
audits wandering inhabitants, Isa. 21 :16,
17 ; 42 : 11. Their black camel' s-hair
tents are a picturesque feature in a land
scape, Song 1:5.

KEDE'MOTH, a city in the border of
Sihon king of Heshbon, whence Moses
sent him an embassage of peace. A des
ert lay near it, Deut. 2:26. It was after
wards a Levitical city of Reuben, Josh.
13:18; 21:37.

KE'DESH, I. , a city of refuge, in Naph-
tali ; now Kedis, three miles north-west
of lake Merom, Josh. 19:37 ; 20:7. Ba
rak the judge of Israel was born there,
Judg. 4:6.

II. A city in the south of Judah, Josh
15:23.

III. A city in Issachar, 1 Chr. 6:72.

KE'DRON. See KIDRON.

KEI'LAH, a city in the plains of Ju
dah, which David once relieved from a
siege by the Philistines, but which after-

245

KEN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

KID

wards sought to deliver him up to Saul,
ISam. 23.1-13; Neh. 3:17.

KEN'ITES, a people who dwelt west
of the Dead sea, and extended them
selves far into Arabia Petra^a. Jethro,
the father-in-law of Moses, was a Kenite,
and his family accompanied the Israel
ites, and settled with other Kenites in
various parts of the Holy Land, Judg.
1.16; 4:11; 1 Sam. 30.29; 1 Chr. 2:55.
Heber and the Rechabites were their de
scendants. The Kenites of whom we read
appear to have known and served Jeho
vah, and the whole tribe were friendly
to the Hebrews. Saul spared them,
when sent to destroy the Amalekites
among whom they dwelt, Num. 24.20,
21; ISam. 15:6.

KEN'IZZITES, an ancient people of
Canaan, whose land God promised to the
descendants of Abraham, Gen. 15 • 19.
They appear to have mingled with other
Canaanites, and lost their distinctive
name before the time of Joshua. They
should be distinguished from the Kenez-

ites, the children of Kenaz. Two men
so named are mentioned in Bible history,
both subsequent to the Kenizzites, Gen.
36:15, 42; Josh. 14:6; 15:17.

KETU'RAH, the wife of Abraham,
after the death of Sarah, Gen. 25 • 1-6.
Though she is called a ''concubine,"
this may have been to distinguish her
sons as well as Ishmael from Isaac the
son of promise, Gen. 25 -6 ; 1 Chr. 1:32 ;
Gal. 4:22, 30. Her sons were the anoes°
tors of many Arabian tribes.

KIB'ROTH-HATTAA'VAH, the graves
of lust, one of the encampments of Israel
in the wilderness, where they desired of
God flesh for their sustenance, declaring
they were tired of manna, Num. 11:34,
35 ; 33 . 16. Quails were sent in great
quantities ; but while the meat was in
their mouths, God smote so great a num
ber of them, that the place was called
•''the graves of those who lusted," Psa.
78 . 30, 31, a monument to warn man
kind against the sin of discontent 1 Cor.
10:6.

JERUSALEM AND ITS VALLEYS, FROM THE SOUTH', THE KJDRON VALLEY OPENING ON THE RIGHT, AJfE

IHNXOM ON THE LEFT.

KID'RON, or CE'DRON, a winter tor
rent, and the valley in which it flowed,
east of Jerusalem. This valley begins a
little north-west of the city, passes some
two hundred rods north of the present
wall, and turns to the south. Here it is
246

wide and open ; but as it runs south
between the city and mount Olivet, it
becomes narrow and deep. Opposite
mount Moriah, it is a mere torrent's bed,
one hun-dred and fifty feet below the city
wall. It sinks still deeper as it passes

KIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

KIN

Siloam, the valley of Hinnom, and the
well of Nehemiah, and then winds south
east, in a narrow and precipitous gorge,
through the horrid wilderness of St. Sa-
ba, to the Dead sea. The bed of the
Kidron is now dry most of the year ;
even in the rainy season it has no con
stant stream, though heavy and contin
ued rains may create an impetuous but
short-lived torrent. It is crossed by a
causeway and a bridge of a single arch,
between St, Stephen's gate and the gar
den of Gethsemane. By this route prco-
ably David fled from Absalom, 2 Sam.
15 : 23 ; and the Saviour often passed this
way in going to Bethany, mount Olivet,
and Gethsemane, John 18:1, 2. In this
valley and in that of Hinnom, at their
confluence, kings Asa, Josiah, and Heze-
kiah destroyed the idols and abomina
tions by which Jerusalem was denied,
1 Kin. 15:13; 2 Kin. 23 • 4, 6, 12 ; 2 Chr.
29:16. See HINNOM, and JERUSALEM. A
part of the waters of the ancient Kidron
were derived from the temple itself, flow
ing down by several channels to the
deep bed of the brook. The prophet
Ezekiel makes use of this fact in a beau
tiful and cheering allegory, foretelling
the river of divine grace that shall yet
renovate the world. The stream he
describes issues from the temple, beside
the altar of God; it flows with an ever
increasing volume ; it carries with it
into the dreary wilderness verdure, fruit-
fulness, and melody ; and even heals the
bitter waters of the Dead sea itself, Ezek.
47:1-12.

KING, KINGS. In Scripture, the
word king does not always imply either
a high degree of power or great extent of
territory. Many single towns, or towns
with their adjacent villages, are said to
have had kings ; and many persons are
called kings in Scripture, whom we
should rather denominate chiefs or lead
ers. Somewhat in this sense, Moses is
said to have been "king in Jeshurun,"
or Israel, Deut. 33:5 ; he was the chief,
the leader, the guide of his people,
though not king in the same sense as
pavid or Solomon. These remarks will
remove the surprise which some persons
have felt at seeing that so small a coun
try as Canaan contained thirty-one kings
who were conquered, Josh. 12:9-24, be
sides many who no doubt escaped the
arms of Joshua. Adonizedek, himself
no very powerful king, mentions seventy

kings whom he had subdued and muti
lated. See also 1 Kin. 4.21. These kings,
in many cases, were no doubt like the
sheikhs of Arab tribes at the present day.
The Israelites had no kings till Saul:
having been governed, first by elders, as
in Egypt ; then by rulers of God's ap
pointment, as Moses and Joshua ; then
by judges, as Othniel, Ehud, Gideon,
Samuel ; and lastly by kings, as Saul,
David, Solomon. Being peculiarly the
people of God, their form of government
was essentially a theocracy. God pre
scribed for them a code of laws ; he des
ignated their rulers; these laws and
rulers the people were to obey "in the
Lord ;" and in all cases of doubt, he, as
the actual head of the government, was
to be consulted, in the spirit of the
words, "The Lord is our Judge, the
Lord is our Lawgiver, the Lord is our
King." Their demand for a king was
offensive to him, as an unbelieving and
rebellious departure from the more imme
diate headship of Jehovah, 1 Sam. 8:7.
Yet even under the regal government,
they were still to regard him as their
king. Idolatry was treason against the
throne. Their code of laws was still his
holy book. It was a prophet or high-
priest of Jehovah who anointed the king,
and placed the crown upon his head and
the sceptre in his hand, Deut. 17 : 15,
18-20; ISam. 10:1; 12:12-15; 2 Sam.

I : 14, 21 ; 1 Kin. 1 : 39 ; 2 Kin. 9 : 1-6 ;

II -. 12 ; Psa. 21 : 3. By the instrumen
tality of his sacred ministers, God gave
such directions concerning public affairs
as were needed and sought for ; and
these agents of God, with their instruc
tions and warnings, performed a most
important part in the national history.
So far as people and kings looked to God
as their Head, they prospered ; and it
was for lack of this, that they were ru
ined. Of the two kingdoms, Judah and
Israel, the latter most rapidly and fully
threw off its allegiance, 2 Chr. 13:4-12 ;
and therefore it was the first to per
ish, having continued two hundred and
fifty-four years from the death of Solo
mon, B. c. 975-721, with nineteen kings
of nine different dynasties. The king
dom of Judah continued three hundred
and eighty-seven years after the separa
tion, B. c. 975-588, having been held by
nineteen successive kings of the line of
David.

The following table presents in one
247

KIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

view the kings of Judah and Israel, as
given in the Bible, with the year when
each one began to reign, and the length
of his reign. The chronology is that of
Usher and Winer, who nearly coincide.

KINGS OF THE ENTIRE NATION.

Saul B. c 1095 reigned 40 years.

David " 1055---- " 40 "

Solomon "• 1015---. " 40 "

OF JTJDAH.

Rehoboam--

Abijah

Asa

OF ISRAEL. B C.
975-

Jeroboam- 975-

958-

955-

-954-
-C53-

-Xadab-

-Baasha

-Elah

-Zimri

-Omri --

-Ahab

Jehoshaphat--

Jehoram

Ahaziah

(Athaliah, )

usurper ) j

Joash

Ahaziah

Joram

-929-
-929-
-918-
-914-
-897-
-896-
-892-
-885-

-884-
-878-

• -17 years.
.-22 "

- 3 "
-41 «

- 2 «
-23 «

- 1 "

- 7 days.
-12 years.
-22 «
-25 "

- 2 "
-12 "

Amaziah —
Uzz'iah---

-Jchoahaz

-Joash

Jotham

Ahaz -

Jeroboam II.

- (Interregnum.) -784- - -

-Zachariah 772---

-Shallum

-Mcnahcm

-Pekahiah

-Pekah

840-
838-
825-
810-
784-
772-
772-
771-
760-
768-
768-
741-

Hezekiah

-(Interregnum.) -738- -

(Samaria cap
tured.)

7;;s-

29-
-726-

•721-

-697-
-642-

-40 "
-17 "
-16 «
-29 «
-41 «
-52 «
-12 • "
6 mos

- 1 mo.
-10 years.

- 2 "
-20 "
-16 "
-16 "
-10 "
-19 "
-29 "

-C40-
-609-
-609-
-598-
-598-

-588-

-55 years.

- 2 «
-31 "

- 3 mos.
-11 years.

- 3 mos.
-11 years.

Manasseh

Ampn

Josiah

Jehoahaz

Jehoiakim - -
Jehoiachin --

Zedekiah

(Jerusalem )
captured) j

The two BOOKS OF KINGS contain a his
tory of the kings of Judah and Israel in
termingled, commencing with Solomon
and ending with Zedekiah ; unlike the
books of Chronicles, which give an ac
count only of the kings of Judah. In
the Septuagint and Vulgate, our two
books of Samuel are also called books of
Kings. The various histories comprising
the two books of Kings were evidently
the work of a single inspired writer, and
not a mere collection. They are belie v-
248

ed to have been written before the books
of Chronicles, and Jewish tradition makes
the prophet Jeremiah their author, B. c.
G20. The writer probably drew a part of
his materials from the records of each
reign left by contemporary prophets and
priests, 1 Kin. 11: 41. See CHRONICLES.
All these sacred annals are highly in
structive. They show us the perfect ful
filment of the divine promises and warn
ings by Moses ; and every page confirms
the inspired declaration, ' ' The fear of the
Lord is the beginning of wisdom."

KINGDOM OF HEAVEN is an expres
sion used in the New Testament to sig
nify the reign, dispensation, or adminis
tration of Jesus Christ. The ancient
prophets, when describing the character
of the Messiah, Dan. 2 : 44 ; 7 : 13, 14 ;
Mic. 4 : 1-7, and even when speaking of
his humiliation and sufferings, were
wont to intersperse hints of his power,
his reign, and his divinity. The Jews,
overlooking the spiritual import of this
language, expected the Messiah to appear
as a temporal king, exercising power over
his enemies, restoring the throne of Da
vid to all its splendor, subduing the
nations, and rewarding his friends and
faithful servants in proportion to their
fidelity and services. Hence the contests
among his disciples, ere they had fully
learned Christ, about precedency in his
kingdom ; and hence probably the sons of
Zebedee desired the two chief places in it,
or those nearest to their endeared Master
and Lord. They afterwards learned that
his kingdom was not of this world, John
18:36, 37 ; that its origin, spirit, means,
and ends were spiritual and heavenly.
It has indeed its outward form, the visi
ble church, Matt. 13:47, and bestows on
the world the richest of temporal bless
ings ; but its true dominion is in the
souls of men. It embraces all who by
the Spirit of Christ are united to him as
their divine Head and King, to love,
serve, and enjoy him for ever. His work
on earth was to establish it, Matt. 3:2.
He introduced his disciples into it while
on earth, and more fully after his resur
rection and ascension, John 20:22 ; Acts
2:32-36; is "head over all things," iij
order to make it triumphant and su
preme even on earth, Dan. 7 : 27 ; Eph.
1 : 20-22. It will be perfected in heaven,
Matt. 8: 11, and will never cease, Luke
1:33, even when the mediatorial reign of
the Saviour is accomplished, 1 Cor. 15 : 28-

KIR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

KOR

KIR, I. , a strong city of Moab ; called
also Kir-hareseth, Kir-haresh, and Kir-
heres, Isa. 15 : I ; 16 ; 7, 11 ; Jer. 48 : 31.
It was once nearly destroyed by Joram
king of Israel, 2 Kin. 3 : 25. It is now
called Kerak, and is a town of three hun
dred families, on a steep hill at the head
of a ravine running up fifteen miles into
the mountains of Moab. Three-fourths
of its present inhabitants are nominal
Christians, greatly oppressed by the Mo
hammedan Arabs around them.

II. A region to which Tiglath-pileser
transported the captive people of Damas
cus, 2 Kin. 16:9 ; believed to have been
in the vicinity of the river Kur or Cyrus,
on the north-east of Armenia. The Kur
flows south-east, unites with the Araxes,
and empties into the Caspian sea.

KIRJATHA'IM, I., the dual form of
Kirjath, a city. It was an ancient city of
the Emim, east of the Jordan ; after
wards inhabited by the Moabites, Amo-
rites, and Israelites in turn, Gen. 14:5;
Deut. 2:9-11; Ezek. 25:9. It fell with
in the limits of the tribe of Reuben,
Num. 32:37; Josh. 13:19.

II. A Levitical city in Naphtali, 1 Chr.
6:76 ; called Kartan, in Josh. 21:32.

KIR'JATH-AR'BA. See HEBRON.

KIR'JATH-JEA'RIM, or KIRJATII-BA-
AL, Josh. 15:9, 60; a city of the Gibeon-
ites, afterwards given to Judah. It was
on the confines of Benjamin, Josh. 18: 14,
15, about nine miles from Jerusalem in
the way to Lydda. Here the ark was
lodged for many years, in the house of
Abinadab, till David removed it to Jeru
salem, 1 Sam. 7:2; 2 Sam. 6:2; 1 Chr.
13.

KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH, and KIR'JATII-
SEPII'ER. See DEBIR.

KI'SHON, now the Mukutta, a brook
which rises in the plain of Esdraelon,
near the foot of mount Tabor. After
passing through the great plain and re
ceiving the waters of various smaller
streams, it flows along the foot of mount
Carmel, and discharges itself into the
Mediterranean, a short distance south of
Acre. The supplies it receives from the
Carmel ridge, see CARMEL II., make it a
perennial stream for about seven miles
from its mouth. But all the eastern
part of its channel, now that the great
plain through which it flows is unwood-
ed, is dry throughout the summer sea
son ; and yet, in the winter, and after
heavy rains, it swells to a full and rapid

torrent. The drowning of Sisera's host,
Judg. 4:13 ; 5:21, is paralleled by a sim
ilar destruction of Arabs fleeing from the
French after the battle of mount Tabor.
April 18, 1799.

KISS. This salutation was customary
in the East, to express regard and rever
ence, as well as affection, Gen. 29:13;
Ruth 1:14; Acts 20 : 37 . Sometimes the
beard was kissed, 2 Sam. 20: 9 ; and, iu
token of humble affection, the feet, Luke
7:38. Images and the heavenly bodies
were worshipped by kissing the hand
towards them, 1 Kin. 19:18 ; Job 31:27 ;
Hos. 13 : 2. The expression, "Kiss the
Son," Psa. 2 : 12, may be illustrated by
1 Sam. 10 : 1, where king Saul receives
the kiss of allegiance from Samuel. This
salutation being customary in those days
between man and man, was used in the
early church as a pledge of Christian
peace and charity, Rom. 16 : 16 ; 1 Pet.
5:14.

KITE, a bird of prey, and therefore
placed by Moses among the unclean birds,
Lev. 11:14. See BIRDS.

KIT'TIM, son of Javan, and grandson
of Noah, Gen. 10:4. See CIIITTIM.

KNEAD'ING -TROUGHS. In the de
scription of the departure of the Israel
ites from Egypt, Exod. 12 : 34, we read
that "the people took their dough be
fore it was leavened, their kneading-
troughs being bound up in their clothes
upon their shoulders." These were
either small wooden bowls, or circular
pieces of leather which might be drawn
up like a bag, by a cord encircling the
edge. The Arabs of the present day use
both.

KO'HATH, son of Levi, Gen. 46:11,
and father of the Kohathites, who were
appointed to carry the ark and sacred
utensils of the tabernacle during the
journeyings of the Israelites in the des
ert, Ex. 6:16-24; Num. 4:4-15.

KO'RAH, a Levite, who rebelled
against Moses and Aaron, and so against
Jehovah. He was a cousin of Moses;
for their fathers Izhar and Amram were
brothers, Ex. 6:16-21. He was jealous
of the civil authority and priestly dig
nity conferred by God upon Moses and
Aaron, his own cousins, while he was
simply a Levite ; and to obtain a part at
least of their power for himself, he stir
red up a factious spirit in the people.
Too much, alas, of what may seem to be
zeal for the honor of God, has its true
249

LAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LAM

character displayed in the pride and am
bition of this rebellious Levite. The two
hundred and fifty Levites whom he had
enticed to join him were destroyed by
fire from the Lord ; while Korah, Da-
than, and Abiram were swallowed up by
the miraculous opening of the earth,
Num. 16. But Koran's children escap
ed, Num. 26 : 11 ; and the Korahites or
"sons of Korah," were a celebrated fam
ily of singers and poets in the time of
David, 1 Chr. 9: 19 ; 26: 1. To them are
inscribed several Psalms, Psa. 42, 44, 49,
84, 85, 87, 88.

L.

LA'BAN, a rich herdsman of Mesopo
tamia, son of Bethuel, and grandson of
Nahor, Abraham's brother, Gen. 24:28-
31. His character is shown in the glad
ness with which he gave his sister Re-
bekah in marriage to the only son of his
rich uncle, Abraham, Gen. 24 : 30, 50 ;
and in his deceitful and exacting treat
ment of Jacob his nephew and son-in-
law, against which Jacob defended him
self by cunning as well as fidelity. When
the prosperity of the one family and tbe
jealousy of the other rendered peace im
possible, Jacob, at the command of God,
secretly departed, to go to Canaan. La-
ban pursued him ; but being warned by
God to do him no harm, returned home
after making a treaty of peace. He
seems to have known and worshipped
God, Gen. 24 : 50 ; 30 : 27 ; 31 : 53 ; but
the "gods" or teraphim which Rachel
stole from her father, Gen. 31 : 30, 34,
show that he was not without the taint
of idolatry.

LA'CHISH, a city in the south-west
part of Judah, Josh. 10 : 3, 5, 31 ; forti
fied by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 : 9, and
strong enough to resist for a time the
whole army of Sennacherib, 2 Kin.
18:17; 19:8; 2 Chr. 32:1, 9, 21; Mic.
1:13. It was here that king Amaziah
was slain, 2 Kin. 14:19. For a wonder
ful confirmation of the truth of Scrip
ture, see SENNACHERIB.

LAD'DER, Gen. 28:12-17. The com
forting vision of the heavenly ladder
shown to the fugitive Jacob, assured him
of the omnipresent providence of God,
and of his communication of all needed
good to his people in the desert of this
world, Heb. 1 : 14. It was also an assur-
250

ance that there was a way open from
earth to heaven, as well as from heaven
to earth ; and we may see in it an illus
tration of the nature of Christ, in which
heaven and earth meet ; and of his work,
which brings man home to God.

LA'ISH. See DAN.

LAKE. See MEROM and SEA. That
most terrible description of hell, as a
lake burning with fire and brimstone,
Rev. 19 : 20 ; 21 : 8, recalls the fire and
sea in which Sodom was consumed and
swallowed up.

LAMB, the young of the sheep, and
also the kid of the goat, Ex. 12:5.
Christ is the Lamb of God, John 1 : 29,
as being the accepted sacrifice for hu
man sin. The sacrifices of the Old Tes
tament were an ordained and perpetual
foreshadowing not only of his expia£ory
death, but of his spotless holiness and
his unresisting meekness, Isa. 53:4-9.
He is described in Rev. 5 : 6 ; 12 : 11, as
wearing the form of a sacrificial lamb in
heaven itself. See PASSOVER and SAC
RIFICES.

LAMECH, L, Gen. 4:18-24, a descend
ant of Cain, in the fifth generation, and
ancestor of a numerous posterity distin
guished for skill in agriculture, music,
and several mechanic arts. He is the
first polygamist on record. His address
to his two wives is the oldest specimen
of poetry extant, and is a good illustra
tion of Hebrew parallelism.

"AdahandZillah,

Hear my voice ;
Ye wives of Lamech,

Hearken unto my speech.
I have slain a man

To my wounding,
And [or even] a young man

To my hurt.
If Cain shall be avenged

Seven-fold,
Truly Lamech

Seventy and seven fold."

Many explanations of this abrupt frag
ment have been suggested. The most
satisfactory, perhaps,'is that Lamech had
accidentally or in self-defence killed a
man, and was exposed to the vengeance
of "the avenger of blood;" but quiets
the fears of his wives by saying, that as
God had prohibited the slaying of Cain
under heavy penalties, Gen. 4:15, much
more would he guard the life of Lamech
who was comparatively innocent.

II. The son of Methuselah, and father
of Noah ; he lived seven hundred and

LAM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LAN

eeventy-seven years, and died only five
years before the flood, Gen. 5:25-31.

LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH, an
elegiac poem, composed by the prophet
on occasion of the destruction of Jerusa
lem by Nebuchadnezzar. The first two
chapters principally describe the calami
ties of the siege of Jerusalem ; the third
deplores the persecutions which Jeremiah
himself had suffered ; the fourth adverts
to the ruin and desolation of the city and
temple, and the misfortune of Zedekiah ;
and the fifth is a kind of form of prayer
for the Jews in their captivity. At the
close, the prophet speaks of the cruelty
of the Edomites, who had insulted Jeru
salem in her misery, and threatens them
with the wrath of God, B. c. 586.

The first four chapters of the Lamenta
tions are in the acrostic form ; every
verse beginning with a letter of the He
brew alphabet, in regular order. The
first, second, and fourth chapters contain
twenty-two verses each, according to the
letters of the alphabet ; the third chap
ter has three successive verses beginning
with the same letter, making sixty-six
in all. Moreover, all the verses in each
chapter are nearly of the same length.
The fifth chapter is not acrostic. See
LETTERS. The style of Jeremiah's Lam
entations is lively, tender, pathetic, and
affecting. It was the talent of this
prophet to write melancholy and moving
elegies, 2 Chr. 35 . 25 ; and never was a
subject more worthy of tears, nor treat
ed with more tender and affecting sen
timents. One would think, as it has
often been said, that every letter was
written with a tear, and every word was
the &ob of a broken heart. Yet he does
not forget that a covenant God still
reigns.

LAMP. The lamps of the ancients,
sometimes called " candles" in our Bible,
were cups and vessels of many conven
ient and graceful shapes ; and might be
carried in the hand, or set upon a stand.
See CANDLESTICK. The lamp was fed
with vegetable oils, tallow, wax, etc.,
and was kept burning all night. The
poorest families, in some parts of the
East, still regard this as essential to
health and comfort. A darkened house
therefore forcibly told of the extinction
of its former occupants, Job 18 : 5, 6 ;
Prov. 13:9; 20 : 20 ; Jer. 25 : 10, 11 ;
while a constant light was significant of
prosperity and perpetuity, 2 Sam. 21 : 17 ;

1 Kin. 11: 86 ;Psa. 132:17. Lamps to be
carried in the streets presented a large
surface of wicking to the air, and need
ed to be frequently replenished from a
vessel of oil borne in the other hand,
Matt. 25:3, 4. Torches and lanterns,
John 18 • 3, were very necessary in ancient
cities, the streets of which were never
lighted.

LAND'MAEK. Fences and walls seem
to have been little used in Judea, Mark

2 : 23, though gardens were sometimes
inclosed. The ancient and permanent
limits, therefore, of individual property
in the open field, Ruth 2:3, were marked
by trees or heaps of stones at the corners ;
and as it was easy, by removing these,
to encroach on a neighbor's ground, a
peculiar form of dishonesty arose, requir
ing a severe punishment, Deut. 19:14;
Prov. 22:28; Hos. 5:10.

LAN'GUAGE, one of the distinguish
ing gifts of God to man, essential to all
high enjoyment and improvement in so
cial life, and to be prized and used in a
manner worthy of its priceless value for
the glory of God and the benefit of man
kind. The original language was not
the growth of a mere faculty of speech
in man, but a creation and gift of God.
Adam and Eve when created knew how
to converse with each other and with the
Creator. For some two thousand years,
"the whole earth was of one language
and of one speech," Gen. 11:1. But
251

LA N BIBLE DICTIONARY.

about one hundred years after the flood,
according to the common chronology,
and later according to others, God mi
raculously "confounded the language"
of the Cushite rebels at Babel ; and peo
pling the earth by these scattered fam
ilies of diverse tongues, He frustrated
their designs and promoted his own
There are now several hundreds of lan
guages and dialects spoken on the earth,
and infidels have hence taken occasion
to discredit the Bible doctrine of the
•unity of the human race. It is found,
however, that these languages are dis
tributed in several great classes, which
have striking affinities with each other ;
and as comparative philology extends its
researches, it finds increasing evidence
of the substantial oneness of the human
race and of the truth of Scripture.

The miracle performed at Jerusalem
on the day of Pentecost was the reverse
of that at Babel, Acts 2:1-18, and beau
tifully illustrated the tendency of the
gospel to introduce peace and harmony
where sin has brought discord, and to
reunite all the tribes of mankind in one
great brotherhood.

To the student of the Bible, one of the
most important subjects is the character
and history of the original languages in
which that holy book was written. In
respect to the original Greek of the New
Testament, some remarks have been
made under the article GREECE. The He
brew language, in which the Old Testa
ment was written, is but one of the clus
ter of cognate languages which anciently
prevailed in Western Asia, commonly
called the Shemitic languages, as belong
ing particularly to the descendants of
Shem. A proper knowledge of the He
brew, therefore, implies also an acquaint
ance with these other kindred dialects.

The Shemitic languages may be di
vided into three principal dialects, name
ly, the Aramaoan, the Hebrew, and the
Arabic. 1. The Aramaean, spoken in
Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia, is
subdivided into the Syriac and Chaldee
dialects, sometimes called also the West
and East Aramaean. 2. The Hebrew
or Canaanitish dialect, Isa. 19 : 18, was
spoken in Palestine, and probably with
little variation in Phoenicia and the Phoe
nician colonies, as for instance, at Car
thage and other places. The remains of
the Phoenician and Punic dialects are too
few and too much disfigured to enable
253

us to judge with certainty how exten
sively these languages were the same as
the dialect of Palestine. 3. The Arabic,
to which the Ethiopic bears a special re
semblance, comprises, in modern times,
a great variety of dialects as a spoken
language, and is spread over a vast ex
tent of country ; but so far as we are ac
quainted with its former state, it appears
more anciently to. have been limited prin
cipally to Arabia and Ethiopia.

These languages are distinguished from
European tongues by several marked pe
culiarities : they are all, except the Ethi
opic, written from right to left, and their
books begin at what we should call the
end ; the alphabet, with the exception of
the Ethiopic which is syllabic, consists
of consonants only, above or below which
the vowel-points are written ; they have
several guttural consonants very difficult
of pronunciation to Europeans ; the roots
of the language are, in general, verbs of
three letters, and pronounced, according
to the various dialects, with one or more
vowels ; the verbs have but two tenses,
the past and the future ; and the pro
nouns in the oblique cases are generally
united in the same word with the noun
or verb to which they have a relation.
These various dialects form substantially
one language, of which the original home
was Western Asia. That they have all
diverged from one parent stock is mani
fest, but to determine which of them has
undergone the fewest changes would be
a difficult question. The language of
Noah and his son Shem was substantially
that of Adam and all the antediluvians.
Shem and Heber wrere contemporary with
Abraham, and transmitted, as we have
good reason to believe, their common
tongue to the race of Israel ; for it is not
to be assumed that at the confusion of
Babel no branch of the human family
retained the primitive language. It
does not appear that the descendants of
Shem were among the builders of Ba
bel, Gen. 10 : 8-10. The oldest records
that are known to exist are composed
in the Hebrew language. It flourished
in its purest form in Palestine, among
the Phoenicians and Hebrews, until the
period of the Babylonish exile ; soon
after which it declined, and finally was
succeeded by a kind of Hebra?o-Aramaean
dialect, such as was spoken in the time
of our Saviour among the Jews. The
West Aramaean had flourished before

LAO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LAP

this for a long time in the east anc
north of Palestine ; but it now advanced
farther west, and during the period that
the Christian churches of Syria flour
ished, it was widely extended. It is at
present almost a dead language, and has
been so for several centuries. The He
brew may be regarded as having been a
dead language, except among a small
circle of literati, for about the space of
two thousand years. Our knowledge
of Arabic literature extends back very
little beyond the time of Mohammed.
But the followers of this pretended
prophet have spread the dialect of the
Koran over vast portions of the world.
Arabic is now the vernacular language
of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and in a great
measure of Palestine and all the north
ern coast of Africa ; while it is read and
understood wherever the Koran has
gone, in Turkey, Persia, India, and Tar-
tary.

The remains of the ancient Hebrew
tongue are contained in the Old Testa
ment and in the few Phoenician and
Punic words and inscriptions that have
been here and there discovered. The
remains of the Aramaean are extant in a
variety of books. In Chaldee, we have
a part of the books of Daniel and Ezra,
Dan. 2:4 to 7:28; Ezra 4:8 to 6:18, and
7:12-26, which are the most ancient of
any specimens of this dialect. The Tar-
gum of Onkelos, that is, the translation
of the Pentateuch into Chaldee, aifords
the next and purest specimen of that
language. In Syriac, there is a consid
erable number of books and manuscripts
extant. The oldest specimen of this lan
guage that we have, is contained in the
Peshito, or Syriac version of the Old and
New Testament, made perhaps within a
century after the time of Christ. A mul
titude of writers in this dialect have
flourished, many of whose writings are
probably still extant, although but few
have been printed in Europe. In Ara
bic, there exists a great variety of man
uscripts and books, historical, scientilic,
and literary. A familiar knowledge of
this and its kindred dialects throws much
valuable light on the Old Testament
Scriptures.

LAODICE'A, a large and opulent city
of Asia Minor, the metropolis of Phrygia
Pacatiana. It was situated on the river
Lycus, not far above its junction with
the Meander, and in the vicinity of Co-

losse and Hierapolis. Its earlier name
was Diospolis ; but after be|ng enlarged
by Antiochus II., it was called Laodicea,
from his wife Laodice. About ±. D. 65
or 66, this city, together with Hie -ppolis
and Colosse, was destroyed by an earth
quake, but was quickly rebuilt by Mar
cus Aurelius. It is now in ruins, and the
place is called Eski-hissar, or the old cas*
tie. A Christian church was early gath
ered here. It was addressed by Paul in
his letter to Colosse, and in another now
lost, Col. 2:1; 4 : 13-16, though some
think the " Epistle to the Ephesians" is
the one alluded to. The church at La
odicea was probably visited by Paul,
A. D. 63, and is one of the seven which
received special messages from Christ
after his ascension, Eev. 1 : 11 ; 3 : 14-
22. We know little of its after-history,
except that an important council was
held there near the middle of the fourth
century, and that some form of Chris
tianity lingered there until the tune of
the Turks.

LAPWING, supposed to mean the
hoopoe, a beautiful migratory bird, of
filthy habits and a loud, hoarse voice;
pronounced unclean by Moses, Lev.
11: 19. It is about the size of a thrush ;
its beak is long, black, thin, and a little
hooked ; its legs gray and short. On its
head is a tuft of feathers of different col
ors, which it raises or lowers as it pleases.
253

LAS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LAW

Its neck and breast are somewhat red
dish, and its wings and tail black, with
white streaks.

LASE'A, a city near Fair-Havens, on
the south side of Crete. Paul passed it
on his voyage to Rome, Acts 27:8.

LATTICE. See HOUSE.

LAUD, to extol, by words of praise or
in song, Rom. 15:11.

LAYER, a large circular vessel, cast
from the polished brass mirrors contrib
uted by the Hebrew women, and placed
between the door of the tabernacle and
the altar of burnt-offering, with water
for the necessary sacred ablutions, Ex.
30:18-21; 38:8; 40:7, 30-32.

For the temple of Solomon, besides the
vast brazen sea for the use of the priests,
(see SEA,) ten lavers were made for
cleansing the sacrifices, 2 Chr. 4:6. Each
laver contained about three hundred gal
lons, and was supported above a highly
elaborate and beautiful base, 1 Kin. 7:27-
39. They were stationed within the
court of the priests, in front of the tem
ple, five on each side. See TEMPLE.

LAW, in the Bible, signifies sometimes
the whole word of God, Psa. 19 : 7-11 ;
119; Isa. 8:20; sometimes the Old Tes
tament, John 10 : 34 ; 15 : 25, and some
times the five books of Moses, which
formed the first of the three divisions of
the Hebrew Scriptures, Luke 24:44 ; Acts
13 : 15. The Pentateuch was probably
"the law," a copy of which every king
was to transcribe for himself and study,
and which was to be made known to
young and old, in public and in private,
Dent. 6:7; 17:18, 19; 31:9-19, 26. In
other places the Mosaic institutions as a
whole are intended by "the law," in
distinction from the gospel, John 1 : 17 ;
Acts 25:8.

When the word refers to the law of
Moses, careful attention to the context
is sometimes requisite to judge whether
the civil, the ceremonial, or the moral
law is meant. The ceremonial or ritual
laws, concerning the forms of worship,
sacrifices, priests, purifications, etc., were
designed to distinguish the Jewish nation
from the heathen, and to foreshadow the
gospel dispensation. They were annulled
after Christ's ascension, Gal. 3:24 ; Eph.
2:15 ; Heb. 9 ; 10:1-22. The civil laws,
Acts 23 : 3 ; 24 : 6, were for the government
of the Jews as a nation, and included the
ten commandments. The whole code was
adapted with consummate wisdom to the
254

condition of the Jews, and has greatly
influenced all wise legislation in later
years. Its pious, humane, and just spirit
should characterize every code of human
laws. The moral law, Deut. 5:22, Matt.
5 : 17, 18, Luke 10 : 26, 27, is more im
portant than the others, from its bear
ings on human salvation. It was writ
ten by the Creator on the conscience of
man, and sin has never fully erased it,
Rom. 1:19; 2 : 12-15. It was more fully
taught to the Hebrews, especially at
mount Sinai, in the ten commandments,
and is summed up by Christ in loving
God supremely and our neighbor as our
selves, Matt. 22 : 37-40. It was the off
spring of love to man, Rom. 7 : 10, 12 ;
required perfect obedience, Gal. 3 : 10 ;
James 2: 10 ; and is of universal and per
petual obligation. Christ confirmed and
enforced it, Matt. 5 : 17-20, showing its
demand of holiness in the heart, apply
ing it to a variety of cases, and supply
ing new motives to obedience, by reveal
ing heaven and hell more clearly, and
the'gracious guidance of the Holy Spirit.
Some have argued from certain passages
of Scripture that this law is no longer
binding upon Christians ; that they ' ' are
not under the law, but under grace,"
Rom. 6 : 14, 15 ; 7:4, 6 ; Gal. 3 : 13, 25 ;
5 : 18 ; and the perversion of these pas
sages leads men to sin and perish because
grace abounds. Rightly understood, they
harmonize with the declarations of the
Saviour, Matt. 5:17. To the soul that is
in Christ, the law is no longer the arbiter
of his doom ; yet it still comes to him
as the divinely appointed teacher of that
will of God in which he now delights,
Psa. 119:97; Matt. 5:48; 11:30.

The word " law " sometimes means an
inward guiding and controlling power.
The ' ' law in the mind ' ' and the ' ' law
in the members," mean the holy im
pulses of a regenerated soul and the per
verse inclinations of the natural heart,
Rom. 7:21-23. Compare also Rom. 8:2;
9:31; James 1:25; 2:12.

LAWYERS, men who devoted them
selves to the study and explanation of
the Jewish law, particularly of the tra
ditionary or oral law. They belonged
nostly to the sect of the Pharisees, and
fell under the reproof of our Saviour for
having taken from the people the key
of knowledge. They were as the blind
leading the blind, Matt. 32 : 35 ; Luke
10:25; 11:52. See SCRIBES.

LAZ

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LEB

LAZARUS, I., a friend and disciple of
Christ, brother of Martha and Mary, with
whom he resided at Bethany near Jeru
salem. Our Saviour had a high regard
for the family, and often visited them ;
and when Lazarus was dangerously ill,
word was sent to Christ, "Lord, behold,
he whom thou lovest is sick. ' ' The Sav
iour reached Bethany after he had lain
four days in his grave, and restored him
to life by a word, "Lazarus, come forth."
This public and stupendous miracle drew
so many to Christ, that his enemies
sought to put both him and Lazarus to
death, John 11; 12:1-11. The narra
tive displays Christ as a tender and com
passionate friend, weeping for and with
those he loved, and at the same time as
the Prince of life, beginning his triumph
over death and the grave. Happy are
they who, in view of their own death, or
that of friends, can know that they are
safe in Him who says, " I am the resur
rection and the life;" and, "because I
live, ye shall live also."

II. The helpless beggar who lay at the
rich man's gate in one of Christ's most
solemn and instructive parables. The
one, though poor and sorely afflicted,
was a child of God. The other, describ
ed as self-indulgent rather than vicious
or criminal, was living without God in
the enjoyment of every earthly luxury.
Their state in this life was greatly in
contrast with their real character before
God, which was revealed in the amaz
ing changes of their condition at death,
Luke 16 : 19-31. See ABRAHAM'S BOSOM.
Our Saviour plainly teaches us, in this
parable, that both the friends and the
foes of God know and begin to experi
ence their doom immediately after death,
and that it is in both cases unchangeable
and eternal.

LEAD. There are early allusions to
this well-known metal in Scripture. The
Egyptians "sank as lead" in the Red
sea, Exod. 15 : 10 ; Num. 31 : 22 ; Ezek.
27:12. Job refers to its use in preserv
ing a permanent record of events, by
being melted and poured into letters
deeply cut in a rock, Job 19:24. Leaden
tablets also were used by the ancients for
similar records. This metal was em
ployed, before the use of quicksilver was
known, in purifying silver ; and the pro
cess by which these metals are purged from
their dross, illustrates God's discipline of
his people, Jer. 6:29, 30 ; Ezek. 22:17-22.

^ the elder daughter of Laban,
and the first wife of Jacob, though less
beloved than her sister Rachel. She
had, through life, the remembrance of
the deceit by which her father had im
posed her upon Jacob. She was the
mother of seven children, among whom
were Reuben — Jacob's first-born — and
Judah, the ancestor of the leading tribe
among the Jews, of the royal line, and
of our Lord, Gen. 29 : 16-35 ; 30 : 1-21.
She is supposed to have died before the
removal of the family into Egypt, Gen.
49:31.

LEASING, falsehood, Psa. 4:2; 5:6.

LEAVEN, is sour dough which is kept
over from one baking to another, in or
der to raise the new dough. Leaven was
forbidden to the Hebrews during the
seven days of the Passover, in memory
of what their ancestors did when they
went out of Egypt, they being then
obliged to carry unleavened meal with
them, and to make bread in haste, the
Egyptians pressing them to be gone, Ex.
12 : 15, 19. They were very careful in
cleansing their houses from it before this
feast began, 1 Cor. 5:6. God forbade
either leaven or honey to be offered to
him in his temple, Lev. 2:11. The per
vading and transforming effect of leaven
is used in illustration of the like influ
ence on society, exerted by the purify
ing principles of the gospel, or by false
doctrines and corrupt men, Matt. 13:23 ;
16:6-12; 1 Cor. 5:6-8.

LEBANON, white, a long chain of
mountains on the north of Palestine, so
named from the -whitish limestone of
which they are composed, and in part
perhaps from their snowy whiteness in
winter. It consists of two main ridges
running north-ea?t and south-west, near
ly parallel with each other and with the
coast of the Mediterranean. See view in
SIDON. The western ridge was called
Libanus by the Greeks, and the eastern
Anti-Libanus. Between them lies a long
valley called Coele-Syria, that is, Hollow
Syria, and the "valley of Lebanon,"
Josh. 11 :17, at present Bukkah. It opens
towards the north, but is exceedingly
narrow towards the south, where the
river Litany, anciently Orontes, issues
from the valley and flows west to the
sea, north of Tyre. The western ridge
is generally higher than the eastern, and
several of its peaks are thought to be
towards 10,000 feet high. One summit,
255

LEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LEG

however, in the eastern range, namely,
mount Hermon, now called Jebel-esh-
Sheikh, is higher still, and rises nearly
into the region of perpetual ice. See
HERMON. An Arab poet says of the high
est peak of Lebanon, "The Sannin bears
winter on his head, spring upon his
shoulders, and autumn in his bos am,
while summer lies sleeping at his feet."

The Hebrew writers often allude to
this sublime mountain range, Isa. 10:34 ;
35:2, rising like a vast barrier on their
north, Isa. 37 :24. They speak of its sea
of foliage agitated by the gales, Psa.
72 : 16 ; of its noble cedars and other
trees, Isa. 60:13; Jer. 22:23; of its in
numerable herds, the whole of which,
however, could not atone for one sin,
Isa. 40 : 16 ; of its excellent wine, Hos.
14:7, its snow-cold streams, Jer! 18:14,
and its balsamic perfume, Hos. 14 : 5.
Moses longed to enter the Holy Land,
that he might "see that goodly moun
tain and Lebanon," Deut. 3:24, 25;
and Solomon says of the Beloved, the
type of Christ, "his countenance is as
Lebanon," Song 5:15. "The tower of
Lebanon which looketh towards Damas
cus," Song 7: 4, is brought to recollection
by the accounts given by modern travel
lers of the ruins of ancient temples, built
of stones of vast size. Many such ruinous
temples have been discovered in differ
ent parts of Lebanon, several of them on
conspicuous points, high up in the moun
tains, where the labor of erecting them
must have been stupendous.

At present, Lebanon is inhabited by a
hardy and turbulent race of mountain
eers. Its vast wilderness of mountains
forms almost a world by itself. Its west
ern slopes particularly, rising by a suc
cession of terraces from the plain of the
coast, are covered with vines, olives,
mulberries, and figs; and occupied, as
well as the valleys among the mountains,
by numberless villages. Anti-Lebanon
is less populous and cultivated. The
chief inhabitants of Lebanon are Druses
and Maronites ; the former Mohamme
dan mystics, and 4he latter bigoted Ro
manists. Among them are interspersed
many Greeks and Armenians.

For "cedar of Lebanon," see CEDAR.

LEBBE'US. See JUDAS II.

LEBO'NAH, Juclg. 21 : 19, a town of
Ephraim, near Shiloh, between Bethel
and Shechem. Its name and site are pre
served in the present village of Lubban.
256

LEEK, a bulbous vegetable resembling
the onion. The Hebrews complained in
the wilderness, that manna grew insipid
to them ; they longed for the leeks and
onions of Egypt, Num. 11 : 5. Hassel-
quist says the karrat, or leek, is surely
one of those after which the Israelites
pined ; for it has been cultivated in
Egypt from time immemorial. The He
brew word is usually translated ' ' grass ' '
in the English Bible. Its original mean
ing is supposed to be greens or grass.

LEES, or dregs, the refuse and sedi
ment of wine. Wines that have been
allowed to stand a long time on the
lees, thereby acquire a superior color and
flavor. Hence such wines are used as a
symbol of gospel blessings, Isa. 25 : 6 ;
also of a nation or community that,
from long quiet and prosperity, has be
come rich and luxurious, and has settled
down in carnal security, Jer. 48:11;
Zeph. 1:12. To drink the dregs of the
cup of God's wrath, Psa. 75:8, Isa.
51:17, is to drink it to exhaustion ; that
is, to suffer God's wrath without mitiga
tion or end.

LE'GION. The number in a Roman
legion varied at different periods, from
three thousand to more than twice that
number. In the time of Christ a legion
contained six thousand, besides the cav
alry. There were ten cohorts in each
legion; which were divided each into
three maniples or bands, and these into
two centuries containing one hundred
men each. In the Bible a legion means
a number indefinitely large. The Sav
iour cured a demoniac who called him
self "Legion," as if possessed by myri
ads of demons, Mark 5:9. The expres
sion, "twelve legions of angels," Matt

LEH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LEP

26 : 53, illustrates the immensity of the
heavenly host, and their zealous devotion
to Christ.

LEHA'BIM. See LIBYA.

LE'HI, jaw-bone, a place in Judah,
where Samson was enabled to slay one
thousand Philistines with the jaw-bone
of an ass, and where, in answer to his
petition, a fountain sprung up to relieve
his thirst, Judg. 15:9-19. Probably the
Hebrew word Lehi in ver. 19, should be
left untranslated, as in the marginal
reading: " God clave a hollow place that
was in Lehi, and there came water there
out." This spring he called En-hakkore,
the fountain of him that prayed. It con
tinued to flow, and may even to this day
be testifying that God hears the cry of
his people, and can turn a dry land into
springs of water for their use, Gen. 21 : 19 ;
Num. 20:11.

LEM'UEL, the author of Proverbs 31.
Some suppose it to be an enigmatical
name for Solomon.

LEN'TILE, a species of pulse or bean.
We find Esau longing for a mess of pot
tage made of lentiles, Gen. 25 : 34. Au
gustine says, "Lentiles are used as food
in Egypt, for this plant grows 'abundant
ly in that country, which renders the
lentiles of Alexandria so valuable that
they are brought from thence to us, as
if none were grown among us." In
Barbary , Dr. Shaw says, ' ' Lentiles are
dressed in the same manner as beans,
dissolving easily into a mass, and mak
ing a pottage of a chocolate color. ' ' See
2 Sam. 17:28; 23:11.

LEOPARD, a fierce wild beast of the
feline genus, beautifully spotted with a
diversity of colors ; it has small eyes,

wide jaws, sharp teeth, round ears, a
large tail; five claws on the fore feet,
and four on those behind. It is swift-,
crafty, and cruel ; dangerous to all do
mestic cattle, and even to man, Jer. 5:6;
13:23; Dan. 10:6; Hos. 13:7; Hab. 1:8.
Its name, leo-pard, implies that it has
something of the lion and of the pan
ther in its nature. It seems from Scrip
ture that the leopard could not be rare
in Palestine. Its Hebrew name occurs
significantly in several names of places ;
as Beth-nimrah, the haunt of leopards,
Num. 32 : 36. So in Nimrah, Nimrim,
and perhaps Nimrod the mighty hunter.
Isaiah, describing the happy reign of the
Messiah, says, chap. 11:6, "The leopard
shall lie down with the kid, and the
calf and the young lion and the fatling
together." The spouse in the Canticles
speaks of the mountains of the leopards,
Song 4:8; that is to say, such as Leba
non and Hermon, where wild beasts
dwelt.

LEP'ER, a person afflicted with lepro
sy. As it now exists, leprosy is a scaly
disease of the skin, occurring in several
distinct forms and with many degrees of
severity ; beginning with slight reddish
eruptions, followed by scales of a greyish
white color, sometimes in circles an inch
or two in diameter, and at other times
much larger ; in many cases attacking
only the knees and elbows, in others the
whole body ; usually not affecting the
general health, but considered impossible
of cure. It is said not to be infectious ;
but is communicated from father to son
for several generations, gradually becom
ing less noticeable. It corresponds in
the main with the disease the symptoms
and treatment of which are so fully de
scribed in Lev. 13 ; 14. There is little
doubt, however, that the ancient lep
rosy, in its more aggravated form, is to
be regarded as a plague or judgment
257

LES"

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LET

from God, Deut. 24:8. It was peculiar
ly dreaded among the Jews as unclean
and infectious ; and also as being a spe
cial inrtiction from Jehovah, as we know
it to have been in the cases of Miriam,
Num. 12 : 10, Gehazi, 2 Kin. 5 : 27, and
Uzziah, 2 Chr. 20:16-28. No remedies
were effectual. The sufferer was com
mended to the priest, not to the physi
cian ; and was separated from many of
the privileges of society. We find that
lepers associated chieny with each other,
2 Kin. 7:8; Luke 17 : 12. The term,
' ' the plague of leprosy, ' ' is applied not
only to this disease in men, but to a sim
ilar infection sometimes sent into houses
and garments, Lev. 14. The exact na
ture of this latter cannot be ascertain
ed ; but it bears the marks of a special
aggravation, as a judgment from God,
of some evil not unknown in that cli
mate. It illustrates the awful result of
moral corruption in society, uncounter-
acted by the grace of God. The disease
in all its forms is a lively emblem of sin.
This malady of the soul is also all-per
vading, unclean, contagious, and incur
able ; it separates its victim from God
and heaven; it proves its existence by
its increasing sway and its fatal termina
tion. But the Saviour has shown his
power to heal the worst maladies of the
soul by curing the leprosy with a word,
Luke 17 : 12-19, and to admit the restor
ed soul to all the privileges of the sons
of God.

ELEPHANTIASIS, supposed by some to
have been the disease of Job, and the
1 ' botch ' ' or ulcer of Egypt, Deut. 28 : 27,
35, is a tuberculous malady somewhat
akin to the leprosy, but more dreadful.
Its name is derived from the dark, hard,
and rough appearance of the skin ; and
from the form of the feet, swollen, and
despoiled of the toes. This horrid mal
ady infects the whole system ; ulcers and
dark scales cover the body ; and the hair,
beard, fingers, and all the extremities
drop off. It is still met with in tropical
countries, and was introduced into Eu
rope by the crusaders; but after occa
sioning dreadful navoc, and the building
of thousands of " hospitals for lepers,"
it disappeared or changed its form.

LES'BOS. See MIITLENE.

LET, sometimes used in the Bible in
the old English sense, that is, to hinder,
Isa. 43:13; Horn. 1:13.

JnET'TERS, Luke 23 : 38. The Hebrews
258

have certain acrostic poems which begin
with the letters of the alphabet, ranged
in order. The most considerable of these
is Psalm 119, which contains twenty-two
stanzas of eight verses each, all acrostic ;
that is, the first eight begin with Aleph,
the next eight with Beth, and so on.
Psalms 25, 84, have but twenty-two verses
each, beginning with the twenty-two
letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Others,
as Psalms 111, 112, have one-half of the
verse beginning with one letter, and the
other half with the next. Thus,

Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord,
Who delighteth greatly in his commandments.

The first half of the verse begins in the
Hebrew with Aleph ; the second with
Beth. Psalms 37 and 145 are acrostic.
The Lamentations of Jeremiah are also in
acrostic verse, as well as the thirty-first
chapter of Proverbs, from the eighth
verse to the end. In John 7 : 15, the
word "letters" means learning; the
Jews said of Christ, Whence this man's
qualifications to teach us the Scriptures,
since he has not learned of the doctors of
the law ?

Paul speaks of "the letter" in dis
tinction from "the spirit," Rom. 2:27,
29 ; 7:6; 2 Cor. 3:6; contrasting the
mere word of the law and its outward
observance, with its spiritual meaning,
and cordial obedience to it through the
Spirit of Christ.

AN ANCIENT EPISTLE.

Epistolary correspondence seems to
have been little practised among the an*
cient Hebrews. Some few letters are
mentioned in the Old Testament, 2 Sam.
11:14 ; Ezra 4:8. They were conveyed
to their destination by friends or travel
lers, Jer. 29 : 3 ; or by royal couriers,
2 Chr. 30:6 ; Esth. 8:10. The letter was
usually in the form c'f a roll, the last
fold being pasted down. They were seal
ed, 1 Kin. 21:8, and sometimes wrapped
in an envelope, or in a bag of costly ma
terials and highly ornamented. To send
an open letter was expressive of con
tempt, Neh. 6:5. In the New Testa
ment we have numerous examples of
letters, from the pens of the apostles.

LEV

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LEV

LE'VI, I. , the third son of Jacob and
Leah, born in Mesopotamia ; and father
of three sons, and of Jochebed the moth
er of Moses, Gen. 29 : 34 ; Ex. 6 : 16-20.
For his share in the treacherous massa
cre of the Shechemites, Gen. 34, his
father at death foreboded evil to his pos
terity, Gen. 49 : 5-7 ; but as they after
wards stood forth on the Lord's side,
Moses was charged to bless them, Ex.
32 : 26-29 ; Deut. 33:8-11. The tribe of
Levi was, according to Jacob's predic
tion, scattered over all Israel, having no
share in the division of Canaan, but cer
tain cities in the portions of other tribes.
It was not the worse provided for, how
ever, since God chose this tribe for the
service of the temple and priesthood,
and bestowed on it many privileges above
the other tribes. All the tithes, first-
fruits, and offerings, presented at the
temple, as well as several parts of all the
victims that were offered, belonged to
the tribe of Levi. See LEVITES.

II. The apostle Matthew was also
called Levi. See MATTHEW.

LEVI'ATHAN, Psa. 74 : 14 ; 104 : 26,
an aquatic monster described in the book
of Job, ch. 41. Probably the animal de
noted is the crocodile, the terror of the
Nile ; as BEHEMOTH, in Job 40, is the hip
popotamus of the same river.

The crocodile is a native of the Nile,
and other Asiatic and African rivers ; in
some instances even thirty feet in length ;
of enormous voracity and strength, as
well as fleetness in swimming; attacks
mankind and the largest animals, with
most daring impetuosity; when taken
by means of a powerful net, will often
overturn the boats that surround it ; has
proportionally the largest mouth of all

monsters whatever ; moves both its jaws
alike, the upper of which has not less
than thirty-six, and the lower thirty
sharp, but strong and massy teeth ; and
is furnished with a coat of mail so scaly
and callous as to resist the force of a
musket-ball in every part, except under
the belly. The general character of the
LEVIATHAN, in tact, seems so well to ap
ply to this animal, in modern as well as
in ancient times the terror of all the
coasts and countries about the Nile, that
it is unnecessary to seek further. In sev
eral passages in the Bible, the king of
Egypt appears to be addressed as levia
than, Isa. 27:1; Ezek. 29:3.

The following extract of a letter from
an American gentleman in Manilla gives
a graphic view of the strength and si/e
of the crocodile: "My last operation in
the sporting line, was no less than kill
ing a crocodile, which for a year or two
before had infested a village on the bor
ders of the lake, taking off horses and
cows, and sometimes a man. Having
understood that he had killed a horse a
day or two before, and had taken him
into a small river, I proceeded to the
spot, accompanied by my host, closed
the mouth of the river with strong nets,
and attacked the huge brute with guns
and spears. After something of a des
perate battle, we succeeded in driving
him against the nets, where, being con
siderably exhausted by the wounds he
( had received from balls and lances, he
/ got entangled, was dragged on shore,
and the coup de grace given to him. He
measured twenty feet in length, and
from eleven to thirteen feet in circum
ference, the smallest part being eleven
and the largest thirteen. The head
alone weighed two hundred and seventy-
five pounds. He had nearly the whole
of the horse in him, and the legs, with
the hoofs, were taken out entire."

LE'VITES. All the descendants of
Levi may be comprised under this name,
Ex. 6:16, 25; Josh. 3:3, (see LEVI ;) but
chiefly those who were employed in
the lower services in the temple, by
which they were distinguished from the
priests, who were of the race of Levi by
Aaron, and were employed in higher
offices, Num. 3:6-10; 18:2-7. God
chose the Levites for the service of his
tabernacle and temple, instead of the
first-born of all Israel, to whom such
duties naturally belonged, and who were
259 *

LEV

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LEV

already sacred to God in memory of the
great deliverance in Egypt, Ex. 13 ;
Num. 3 : 12, 13, 39-51. In the wilder
ness, the Levites took charge of the tab
ernacle and its contents; and conveyed
it from place to pL-«,ce, each of the three
families having a separate portion, Num.
1 : 51 ; 4 ; 1 Chr. 15 : 2, 27. After the build
ing of the temple they took charge of
the gates, of the sacred vessels, of the
preparation of the show-bread and other
offerings, and of the singing and instru
mental music, 1 Chr. 9 ; 23 ; 2 Chr. 29.
They brought wood, water, etc. , for the
priests ; aided them in preparing the
sacrilices, and in collecting and disburs
ing the contributions .of the people,
2 Chr. 30 : 16, 17 ; 35 : 1. They were
also the temple guards, Neh. 13:13, 22;
and the salutation and response in Psalm
134, are thought by Bishop Lowth to have
been their song in the night. But be
sides their services in the temple, they
performed a very important part in teach
ing the people, 2 Chr. 30 : 22, Neh. 8:7,
among whom they were scattered, bind
ing the tribes together, and promoting
virtue and piety. They studied the law,
and were the ordinary judges of the
country, but subordinate to the priests,
2 Chr. 17:9; 19 : 8-11 . God provided for
the subsistence of the Levites, by giving
to them the tithe of corn, fruit, and cat
tle ; but they paid to the priests the
tenth of their tithes; and as the Levites
possessed no estates in land, the tithes
which the priests received from them
were considered as the first-fruits which
they were to offer to the Lord, Num.
18 : 21-32. The payment of tithes to the
Levites appears not to have been en
forced, but depended on the good-will
of the people ; hence the special charges
laid on their brethren, not to forget
them, Deut. 12:12, 18, 19.

God assigned for the habitation of the
Levites forty-eight cities, with fields,
pastures, and gardens, Num. 35. Of
these, thirteen were given to the priests,
all in the tribes near Jerusalem. Six of
the Levitical cities were appointed as
cities of refuge, Josh. 20; 21. While
the Levites were actually employed in
the temple, they were supported out of
the provisions kept in store there, and
out of the daily offerings. The same
privilege was granted to volunteers,
drawn to Jerusalem by the fervor of their
love to God's service, Deut. 12 : 18, 19 ;
2GO

18 : 6-8. The consecration of Levites was
without much ceremony. See Num.
8:5-22; 2 Chr. 29:34.

The Levites wore no peculiar dress to
distinguish them from other Israelites,
till the time of Agrippa. His innova
tion in this matter is mentioned by Jo-
sephus, who remarks that the ancient
customs of the country were never for
saken with impunity.

The Leytes were divided into different
classes : the Gershomites, Kohathites,
and Merarites, Num. 3 : 17-20. They
were still further divided into courses,
like the priests, 1 Chr. 23-26. At first,
they entered in full on their public du
ties at thirty years of age, Num. 4:3;
8 : 25 ; but David fixed the age for com
mencing at twenty years ; and at fifty
they were exempt, 1 Chr. 23 : 24-27.
The different courses of porters, singers,
guards, etc. , were on duty in succession,
one week at a time, 1 Chr. 23-26 ; 2 Chr.
23 : 4, 8 ; 31 : 17 ; Ezra 3 : 8-12. After
the revolt of the ten tribes, a large por
tion of the Levites abandoned their cit
ies in Israel, and dwelt in Judah, 2 Chr.
11:12-14; 13:9-11. After the captivity,
numbers of them returned from beyond
the Euphrates to Judea, Neh. 11:15-19 ;
12:24-31. In the New Testament they
are not often mentioned, Luke 10 : 32 ;
John 1:19; Acts 4 : 36. The ' ' scribes ' '
and "doctors," however, are supposed
to have belonged chiefly to this class.

LEVIT'ICUS, the third book in the
Pentateuch ; called Leviticus, because it
contains principally the laws and regula
tions relating to the Levites, priests, and
sacrifices. The Hebrews call it "the
priests' law." In the first section, the
various bloody and unbloody sacrifices
are minutely described : the burnt-offer
ing, the meat, sin, peace, ignorance, and
trespass offerings ; the sins for which
and the mode in which they were to be
offered. The fulness of these details not
only signified the importance of God's
worship, but forbade all human addi
tions and changes, that might lead to
idolatry. The whole scheme was "a
shadow of good things to come," typi*
cal of the Lamb ' ' who through the eter
nal Spirit offered himself without spot
unto God." Its best commentary is the
epistle to the Hebrews.

A full account of the consecration of
Aaron and his sons as priests, is followed
by the instructive narrative of Nadab

LIB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LIG

and Abihu. Then are given the laws
respecting personal and ceremonial puri
fications, a perpetual memento of the
defilement of sin, and of the holiness of
God. Next follows a description of the
great day of Expiation ; after which the
Jews are warned against the supersti
tions, idolatry, impurity, etc., of the
Canaanites; and laws are given guard
ing their morals, health, and civil order.
The observance of their distinguishing
festivals is enjoined upon them; and
laws are given respecting the Subbath
and the jubilee, vows and tithes. The
warnings and promises in the latter part
of the book point their attention to the
future, and aim to unite the whole na
tion in serving their covenant God. The
book is generally held to be the work
of Moses, though he was probably assist
ed by Aaron. Its date is B. c. 1490. It
contains the history of the first month of
their second year after leaving Egypt.

LIB'ERTINES, Acts 6:9. This word
is from the Latin libertinus, which signi
fies a freedman, that is, one who, having
been a slave, either by birth or capture,
has obtained his freedom ; or one born
of a parent who was a freedman. The
"synagogue of the Libertines" stands
connected with the Cyrenians and Alex
andrians, both of whom were of African
origin ; it is therefore supposed by some,
that the Libertines were of African ori
gin also. It is, however, most probable
that this word denotes Jews who had
been taken captive by the Romans in
war, and carried to Italy ; and having
there been manumitted, were accustom
ed to visit Jerusalem in such numbers as
to erect a synagogue for their particular
use ; as was the case with Jews from
other cities mentioned in the context.
They originated the persecution against
Stephen, which resulted in his martyr
dom. See SYNAGOGUE.

LIB'NAH, a city in the western part
of Judah, not far from Lachish, conquer
ed by Joshua from the Canaanites, and
assigned to the priests, Josh. 10:29, 30;
15:42; 21:13; 1 Chr. 6:57. Its inhab
itants revolted against the idolatrous
and cruel Jehoram, 2 Chr. 21 : 10. It
was a strongly fortified place, and under
its walls the Assyrian army was miracu
lously cut off, 2 Kin. 19:8, 9, 35.

LIB'YA, a country in the north of
Africa, stretching along on the Mediter
ranean between Egypt and Carthage, and

running back somewhat into the interior.
The part adjoining Egypt was sometimes
called Libya Marmarica ; and that around
Cyrene, Cyrenaica, from its chief city ; or
Pentapolitana, from its five cities, Cyrene,
Apollonia, Berenice, Arsinoe, and Ptol-
emais. In these cities great numbers of
Jews dwelt in the time of Christ ; and
they, with their Libyan proselytes, re
sorted to Jerusalem to worship, Acts
2:10. Libya received its name from the
Lehabim or Lubim, Gen. 10:13 ; a war
like people, who assisted Shishak king
of Egypt, and Zerah the Ethiopian, in
their wars against Judea, 2 Chr. 12:3;
14 : 9 ; 16 : 8 ; Dan. 11 : 43. They were
also allies of ancient Thebes, Nah. 3 : 9.
Compare Jer. 46:9 ; Ezek. SO: 5. Libya
fell at length under the power of Car>
thage ; and subsequently, of the Greeks,
Romans, Saracens, and Turks.

LICE, the third plague of Egypt, Ex.
8:16 ; Psa. 105 : 31 ; peculiarly offensive
to the priests, who were obliged to shave
and wash their entire body every third
day, lest they should carry any vermin
into the temples. According to many
interpreters, they were the small sting
ing gnats which abound in Egypt.

LIFE, in the Bible, is either natural,
Gen. 3:17 ; spiritual, that of the renew
ed soul, Rom. 8:6; or eternal, a holy
and blissful immortality, John 3 : 36 ;
Rom. 6 : 23. Christ is the great Author
of natural life, Col. 1 : 16 ; and also of
spiritual and eternal life, John 14 : 6 ;
6:47. He has purchased these by laying
down his own life ; and gives them free
ly to his people, John 10 : 11, 28. He is
the spring of all their spiritual life on
earth, Gal. 2 : 20; will raise them up at
the last day ; and make them partakers
for ever of his own life, John 11 : 25 ;
14:19.

LIGHT, one of the most wonderful,
cheering, and useful of all the works of
God ; called into being on the first of
the six days of creation, by his voice :
"Let there be light;" and there was
light. No object better illustrates
whatever is pure, glorious, spiritual, joy
ful, and beneficent. Hence the beauty
and force of the expressions, "God is
light," 1 John 1:5, and "the Father of
lights," Jas. 1 : 17 ; Christ is the " Sun
of righteousness," and "the light of the
world," John 1 : 9 ; 8 : 12. So also the
word of God is " a light," Psa. 119:105 ;
truth and Christians are lights, John
261

LIG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LIO

8: 19; 12:36; prosperity is "light,"
Esth. 8:16 ; and heaven is full of light,
Rev. 21 : 23-25. The opposite of all
these is ' ' darkness. ' '

LIGN-ALOES. See ALOES.

LIG'URE, probably the same with the
jacinth, a stone in the high -priest's
breastplate, Ex. 28 : 19 ; 39 : 12, said to
have been of a deep and brilliant red
color, with a tinge of yellow, and trans
parent.

LILITJM CHALCEDONICUM.

LIL'Y. Of this queenly plant, several
varieties are found among the wild flow
ers of Palestine, the profusion, beauty,
and fragrance of which are the delight
of travellers. The lily is a spring flower,
and appears early in all parts of the Holy
Land. It was introduced in the orna
mental work of the temple, 1 Kin. 7 : 19-
26 ; 2 Chr. 4:5. In Canticles it is often
employed as a symbol of loveliness. More
commonly it is applied to the bride and
her various perfections: chap. 2:1, 2,
where the bride speaks, ver. 1, the
bridegroom answers, ver. 2, and the
bride again responds, ver. 3. The bride
groom's lips are compared to lilies in
chap. 5:13, and he is described as feed
ing among the lilies, chap. 2:16; 6:3;
which typically represents Christ as de
lighting himself with the graces of his
people. From the lily our Saviour has
also drawn one of his most striking fig
ures: "Consider the lilies of the field,
how they grow;" "even Solomon in
262

all his glory was not arrayed like one of
these. If God so clothe the grass of the
field, shall he not much more clothe
you?" Matt. 6 : 28. We must be care
ful not to confound the lily of the valleys,
Song 2:1, which means simply the lily
growing in valleys, with our "lily of the
valley," which belongs to another class-
of flowers.

LIN'EN, as is well known, is made of
the fine fibres of flax, and was much used
by the ancients. Four different words
in Hebrew are translated in our Bible,
"linen," "fine linen," and "silk:"
PISHTAH, Judg. 15:14; Ezek. 44:17, 18;
BAD, worn by the priests, Ex. 28 : 42 ;
39 : 28, and by king David, etc., 2 Sam.
6:14; SIIESII, worn by Joseph when gov
ernor of Egypt, Gen. 41 : 42, and by the
virtuous woman in Prov. 31 : 22, (see
SILK ;) and BUTZ, of which the veil of the
temple and David's outer mantle were
made, 1 Chr. 15:27; 2 Chr. 2:14; 3:14;
5:12. These words may indicate differ
ent qualities of linen, but are thought to
mean in part cloth of different materials,
particularly the two last. Some think
BUTZ, in Latin byssus, denotes cotton
cloth, and SHESH that made of hemp.
See COTTON, and FLAX. Fine linen was
sometimes made of snowy whiteness,
and was a symbol of the purity of an
gels and of the redeemed church, liev.
15:6; 19:8.

LINES, the cords used in measuring
and settling the bounds of landed prop
erty, Psa. 16:6; Isa. 34:17.

LI'NUS, a Christian at Rome, whose
salutation Paul sent to Timothy, 2 Tim.
4:21.

LI'ON, the well-known and noble king
of beasts, frequently spoken of in Scrip
ture. He often exceeds eight feet in
length and four feet in height ; and his
majestic and dauntless aspect, his pro
digious strength and agility, and his pe
culiar roar, make him the terror of the
forests. Lions were common in Pales
tine, (see JORDAN,) and the Hebrews
had seven different names for them, to
distinguish the different ages, etc. Five
of these occur together in Job 4 : 10, 11.
See also Nah. 2 : 11, 12. The psalmist
alludes to the stealthy creeping of the
lion till he can spring upon his prey,
when he says of the crafty wicked man,
' ' He lieth in wait secretly as a lion in
his den ; .... he croucheth, and hum-
bleth himself, that the poor may fall by

LIT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LOG

his strong onfis/v The Bible reader \vill
remember the exploits of Samson and of
David, Judg. 14:5, 6; 1 Sam. 17:34-36,
the story of the disobedient prophet slain
by a lion, 1 Kin. 13:28, and of the obe
dient Daniel, safe in the lions' den, Dan.
6 ; also the sublime image of Jehovah's
care for his people, in Isa. 31:4.

"The Lion of the tribe of Judah,"
Kev. 5:5, is Jesus Christ, who sprung
from the tribe of Judah and the race of
David, and overcame death, the world,
and the devil. It is supposed that a lion
was the device of the tribe of Judah ;
whence this allusion, Gen. 49:9.

LIT'TER, a light, covered conveyance,
resembling a sedan-chair, or a palanquin ;
borne by men, but oftener at the present
day in Syria between two mules or cam
els. Solomon's chariot, Song 3:9, or
bed as in the margin, is supposed to have
been an elegant mule-litter. The He
brew word translated litters in Isa.
66:20, is rendered wagons in Num. 7:3.

LIVER, Lev. 3:4. This organ in man
was regarded by the ancients as the seat
of the passions Idolaters consulted the
liver of the victim offered in sacrifice, for
purposes of divination, Ezek. 21:21.

LIZ'ARD, a cold-blooded animal, with
much resemblance to the serpent, but
having four feet. Large numbers are

found in Syria, varying greatly in size,
appearance, and place of abode ; some
dwelling partly in water, and others on
the rocks of the desert, or among old
ruins. Lizards were unclean by the Le-
vitical law, Lev. 11:30.

LOANS. Jehovan. as the sole pro
prietor of the land occupied by the Jews,
required them, as one condition of its
use, to grant liberal loans to their poor
brethren ; and every seven years, the
outstanding loans were to become gifts, -
and could not be reclaimed. If a pledge
was taken on making a loan, it must be
done with mercy and under certain be
nevolent restrictions, Exod. 22 : 25, 27 ;
Deut. 15:1-11; 23:19, 20; 24:6, 10-13,
17. The great truth so prominent in
this and similar features of the Mosaic
laws, ought to be restored to its funda
mental place in our theories of prop
erty ; and no one who believes in God
should act as the owner, but only as the
steward of what he possesses, all of which
he is to use as required by its great Own
er. In the same spirit, our Saviour en
joins the duty of loaning freely, even to
t enemies, and without hope of reward,
Luke 6: 34, 35.

LO'CUST, a voracious winged insect,
belonging to the genus known among
naturalists as the Grylli, closely resem
bling the grasshopper, and a great
scourge in oriental countries in both an
cient and modern times. There are ten
different names in the Hebrew Bible for
insects of this kind ; but some of these
probably designate different forms or
stages in life of the same species. The
Bible represents their countless swarms
as directed in their flight and march by
God, and used in the chastisement of
guilty nations, Deut. 28 : 38-42 ; 1 Kin.
8:37 ; 2 Chr. 6:28. A swarm of locusts
was among the plagues of Egypt ; they
covered the whole land, so that the earth
263

LOG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LOG

was darkened, and devoured every green
herb of the earth, and the fruit of every
tree which the hail had left, Ex. 10:4-19.
But the most particular description of
this insect, and of its destructive career,
in the sacred writings, is in Joel 2:3-10.
This is one of the most striking and ani
mated descriptions to be met with in the
whole compass of prophecy; and the
double destruction to be produced by
locusts and the enemies of which they
were the harbingers, is painted with the
most expressive force and accuracy. We
see the destroying army moving before us
as we read, and see the desolation spread
ing. It should also be mentioned, that
the four insects specified in Joel 1 : 4,
the palmer-worm, the locust, the canker-
worm, and the caterpillar, are strictly,
according to the Hebrew, only different
forms of locusts, some perhaps without
wings, as mentioned below. The follow
ing extracts from Dr. Shaw and Mr. Mo-
rier, which are also corroborated by Nie-
buhr, Burckhardt, and other travellers,
may serve as a commentary upon this
and other passages of Scripture.

Dr. Shaw remarks, "Those which I
saw, were much bigger than our com
mon grasshoppers, and had brown spot
ted wings, with legs and bodies of a
bright yellow. Their first appearance
was towards the end of March, the wind
having been some time from the south.
In the middle of April, their numbers
were so vastly increased, that in the
heat of the day they formed themselves
into large and numerous swarms, flew
in the air like a succession of clouds, and
as the prophet Joel expresses it, they
darkened the sun. When the wind blew
briskly, so that these swarms were crowd
ed by others, or thrown one upon anoth
er, we had a lively idea of that compari-
264

son of the psalmist, Psa. 109:23, of being
tossed up and down as the locust. In
the month of May, these swarms gradu
ally retired into the Metijiah and other
adjacent plains, where they deposited
their eggs. These were no sooner hatch
ed, in June, than each of the broods col
lected itself into a compact body of a fur
long or more square, and marching after
wards in a direct line towards the sea,
they let nothing escape them ; eating up
every thing that was green and juicy,
not only the lesser kinds of vegetables,
but the vine likewise, the fig-tree, the
pomegranate, the palm, and the apple-
tree, even all the trees of the field, Joel
1:12; in doing which, they kept their
ranks like men of war, climbing over, as
they advanced, every tree or wall that
was in their way ; nay, they entered into
our very houses and bedchambers like
thieves. The inhabitants, to stop their
progress, made a variety of pits and
trenches all over their fields and gar
dens, which they filled with water ; or
else they heaped up therein heath, stub
ble, and such like combustible matter,
which were severally set on fire upon
the approach of the locusts. But this
was all to no purpose, for the trenches
were quickly filled up and the fires ex
tinguished by infinite swarms succeeding
one another, while the front was regard
less of danger and the rear pressed on
so close that a retreat was altogether
impossible. A day or two after one of
these broods was in motion, others were
already hatched to march and glean after
them, gnawing off the very bark and the
young branches of such trees as had be
fore escaped with the loss only of their
fruit and foliage. So justly have they
been compared by the prophet to a great
army ; who further observes, that the
land is as the garden of Eden before
them, and behind them a desolate wil
derness."

Mr. Morier says, "On the llth of
June, while seated in our tents about
noon, we heard a very unusual noise,
that sounded like the rustling of a great
wind at a distance. On looking up, we
perceived an immense cloud, here and
there semi-transparent, in other parts
quite black, that spread itself all over
the sky, and at intervals shadowed the
sun. These we soon found to be locusts,
whole swarms of them falling about us.
These were of a red color, and I should

LOG

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

LOR

suppose are the red predatory locusts,
one of the Egyptian plagues. As soon
as they appeared, the gardeners and hus
bandmen made loud shouts, to prevent
their settling on their grounds. They
seemed to be impelled by one common
instinct, and moved in one body, which
had the appearance of being organized
by a leader, Joel 2:7."

The locust was a ' ' clean ' ' animal for
the Jews, Lev. 11:22, and might be used
for food. In Matt. 3:4, it is said of John
the Baptist, that "his meat was locusts,
and wild honey." They are still eaten
in the East, and regarded by some as a
delicacy, though usually left to the poor
est of the people. Niebuhr remarks,
' ' Locusts are brought to market on
strings, in all the cities of Arabia, from
Babel mandel to Bassorah. On mount
Sumara I saw an Arab who had collect
ed a whole sackful of them. They are
prepared in different ways. An Arab in
Egypt, of whom we requested that he
would immediately eat locusts in our
presence, threw them upon the glowing
coals, and after he supposed they were
roasted enough, he took them 'by the
legs and head, and devoured the remain
der at one mouthful. When the Arabs
have them in quantities, they roast or
dry them in an oven, or boil them and
eat them with salt. The Arabs in the
kingdom of Morocco boil the locusts,
and then dry them on the roofs of their
houses. One sees there large baskets full
of them in the markets. ' '

Burckhardt also relates the fact in a
similar manner: "The Bedaween eat
locusts, which are collected in great
quantities in the beginning of April,
when they are easily caught. After
having been roasted a little upon the
iron plate on which bread is baked, they
are dried in the sun, and then put into
large sacks, with the mixture of a little
salt."

In Rev. 9 : 7-10, there is a terrific de
scription of symbolical locusts, in which
they are compared to war-horses, their
hair to the hair of women, etc. Niebuhr
heard an Arab of the desert, and another
in Bagdad, make the same comparison.
They likened ' ' the head of the locust to
that of the horse ; its breast to that of
the lion ; its feet to those of the camel ;
its body to that of the serpent ; its tail
to that of the scorpion ; its antennas, if
[ mistake not, to the locks of hair of a
12

virgin ; and so of other parts. ' ' In like
manner, the Italians still call locusts lit~
tie horses, and the Germans hay-horses.

LOD. See LYDDA.

LODGE. See GARDEN.

LOG, a Hebrew measure for liquids,
containing five-sixths of a pint, Lev.
14:10, 12, 24.

LOINS. See GIRDLE.

LO'IS, a pious Jewess, whose "ua«
feigned faith" Paul traces in her daugh
ter Eunice, and her grandson Timothy,
2 Tim. 1:5.

LOOK'ING-GLASS'ES, or rather, mir
rors, were anciently made of metal,
chiefly copper, Ex. 38 : 8 ; Job 37 : 18,
melted and cast in a circular form, high
ly polished, and attached to an orna
mental handle. Similar mirrors have
been found in the ruins of ancient
Egypt.

LORD. This name belongs to God by
preeminence ; and in this sense ought
never to be given to any creature. Je
sus Christ, as the Messiah, the Son of
God, and equal with the Father, is often
called Lord in Scripture, especially in
the writings of Paul. The word LORD,
in the English Bible, when printed in
small capitals, stands always for JEHO
VAH in the Hebrew. See JEHOVAH.

LORD'S-DAY. See SABBATH.

LORD'S SUPPER, called also "the
breaking of bread," Acts 2 : 42 ; 20 : 7,
and the communion of the body and
blood of Christ, 1 Cor. 10 : 16, is one of
the two simple ordinances of the Chris
tian church ; instituted by our Saviour
in the most affecting circumstances on
the Passover night in which he was be-
265

LOT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LOV

trayed, to be observed by his followers
until his second coming. Bread and
wine, the symbols of his body broken
and his blood shed for our redemption,
are to be tasted by each communicant,
to keep in mind that great sacrifice, the
foundation of all our hopes and the
strongest motive to a holy and devoted
life. In the Lord's supper the covenant
is renewed between Christ and his peo
ple. It is also the visible token of
Christian fellowship ; and all true be
lievers, and none but they, should claim
to partake of it, 1 Cor. 5 : 6-8. In it
Christians may expect and should seek
to receive of the fulness of Christ, grace
for grace, 2 Cor. 1 : 21, 22 ; Eph. 4 : 15,
16 ; while those who partake heedlessly
incur great guilt, and may look for chas
tisement, 1 Cor. 11: 20-84. The dogma
of the Romish church, that the bread is
changed into the very body and soul of
Christ, which the priest offers anew in
sacrifice, is contrary to the Scripture and
to all the senses, as it is also to common-
sense.

LOT, the son of Haran, and nephew
of Abraham, followed his uncle from Ur,
and afterwards from Haran, to settle in
Canaan, Gen. 11 : 31 ; 12 : 4-6 ; 13 : 1.
Abraham always had a great affection for
him, and when they could not continue
longer together in Canaan, because they
both had large flocks and their shep
herds sometimes quarrelled, Gen. 13:5-
7, he gave Lot the choice of his abode.
Lot chose the plain of Sodom, which ap
pears then to have been the most fertile
part of the land. Here he continued to
dwell till the destruction of Sodom and
the adjacent cities. He was a righteous
man even in Sodom, 2 Pet. 2:7 ; but the
calamities consequent upon his choice of
this residence — his capture by eastern
marauders, the molestation caused by
his ungodly and vicious neighbors, the
loss of his property in the burning city,
the destruction of his sons-in-law and of
his wife — if they do not prove that he
regarded ease and profit more than duty,
show that the most beautiful and fruit
ful land is not always the best ; the prof
ligacy of its citizens may sink it into the
abyss of perdition, and endanger all who
have any concern with it. Lot's wife,
looking back with disobedient regrets,
and arrested by "the threatened judg
ment midway in her flight to the moun
tain, is an awful warning to all who
266

turn their faces Zionward, but are un
willing to leave all for Christ, Gen. 19 ;
Luke 17:32.

LOTS were often cast by the Jews, as
well as other ancient nations, with the
expectation, when God was appealed to,
that he would so control them as to
give a right direction in doubtful cases,
Psa. 22 : 18 ; Prov. 16 : 33 ; 18 : 18. They
were often used by the divine appoint
ment. The portions of the twelve tribes
were thus assigned to them ; and hence
each tribe's portion was called "the lot
of its inheritance," Num. 26:55, 56 ; Psa.
125:3; Acts 8: 21. The scape-goat was
to be selected, and the order of the
priests' service determined by lot, Lev.
16:8 ; 1 Chr. 24:5 ; 25:8. By the same
means Achan, Jonathan, and Jonah were
discovered, Josh. 7 : 14 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 41,
42 ; Jonah 1:7; and thus Matthias was
designated by Christ to be an apostle in
the place of Judas, Acts 1 : 26. A com
mon mode of casting lots was by the use
of pebbles, one or more of them being
marked, and all of them being shaken
together in some fold of a garment, an
urn, or a helmet, before drawing, Prov,,
16:33 ; John 19:24. As the use of lots
by one who believes in the particular
providence of God involves a solemn ap
peal to the Disposer of all events, they
should never be used on trivial occa
sions ; and in this day, a case can hardly
occur when such an appeal would be
warranted. See PURIM.

LOVE. GOD is LOVE ; AND HE THAT

DWELLETII IN LOVE DWELLETII IN GOD, AND

GOD IN HIM, 1 John 4: 16. Love is a chief
attribute of Jehovah, the length and
breadth and height and depth of which
are beyond comprehension, for they are
infinite, Eph. 3:18,19. Between the
three Persons of the Godhead, love is
unutterably full, perfect, and blissful ;
towards holy angels and Christians, God's
love is an infinite fatherly complacency
and affection ; towards sinners, it is im
measurable compassion. It is shown in
all his works and ways, and dictated his
holy law, but is most signally displayed
in the gospel, John 3 : 16. "Herein is
love."

Holy love in man would make the
whole heart and soul supremely delight
in and obey God, and cordially and prac
tically love all beings according to their
character— the good with fellowship of
soul, and the evil with a Christ-like be'

LOW

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

LYC

nevolence. Such a love would meet and
fulfil all the ends of the law, Matt.
22:37-40; Rom. 13:8-10. Without it,
none can enter heaven ; and as the affec
tions of every unreuewed heart are all
mixed with sin, being given to forbidden
objects, or sellishly and unduly given to
objects not forbidden, we must be "born
again" in order to see God, John 3:3;
1 John 4:7, 19; 5:4.

LOWER PARTS OF THE EARTH,
valleys, Isa. 44 : 23 ; also the grave, or
the abode of disembodied spirits secluded
from our view,

"That undiscovered country from whose

bourne
No traveller returns."

Psa. 63:9; 139:15: Eph. 4:9.

LU'BIM. See LIBYA.

LU'CAS, the same with LUKE.

LU'CIFER, light-bringer, the Latin
name of the morning-star, or "son of
the morning." In the figurative lan
guage of Scripture, a brilliant star de
noted an illustrious prince, Num. 24:17.
Christ was given to men as the " bright
and morning Star," Rev. 2 : 28 ; 22 : 16.
The word Lucifer is used once only in
the English Bible, and then of the king
of Babylon, Isa. 14:12. It is now com
monly, though inappropriately, given to
the prince of darkness.

LU'CIUS of Cyrene, mentioned Acts
13: 1, was one of the ministers and teach
ers of the Christian church at Antioch,
and probably a kinsman of Paul, Rom.
16:21. He is supposed by some to be
the same with the evangelist Luke ; but
of this there is no evidence.

LUD, a son of Shorn, Gen. 10:22, and
ancestor, it is thought, of the Lydians in
Asia Minor.

LU'DIM, descendants of Mizraim, Gen.
10:13, dwelling in Africa, probably near
Ethiopia; they were famous bowmen,
Isa. 66:19, and are mentioned as soldiers
with the Ethiopians, Libyans, and Tyr-
ians, Jer. 46:9; Ezek. 27:10; 30:5.

LUKE, the evangelist, probably the
same person who is called by St. Paul,
"the beloved physician," Col. 4:14.
The name Luke, or Lucas, Phile. 24, is
the same as Lucanus in Latin. Luke
was the writer of the gospel which bears
his name, and of the Acts of, the Apos
tles, having been the friend and com
panion of St. Paul in most of the jour
neys recorded in the latter book. Thus,

in Acts 16 : 11, he first uses the word
we," and shows that he was with Paul
at Troas and in his first Macedonian
tour. After they reach Philippi, an in
terval of separation occurs ; but they are
again together at Philippi when Paul
sails thence for Jerusalem, and from that
time he continues with the apostle in his
labors, voyages, and sufferings, to the
close of his first imprisonment at Rome,
Acts 17:1 ; 20:5, 6, 13-16; 21-28; Phile.
24; 2 Tim. 4:11. His personal history
before and after this period of his com
panionship with Paul, is unknown, or
rests on uncertain traditions. His own
narrative contains the least possible men
tion of himself; yet we cannot doubt
that he was eminently useful to the early
church, by his learning, judgment, fidel
ity, and even his medical skill, besides
leaving to the church universal the in
valuable legacy of his writings.

LU'NATIC, a word formed from the
Latin luna, the moon, and thus corre
sponding to the original Greek word
and to the English "moonstruck;" ap
plied to a class of persons mentally and
often corporally diseased, who were
believed to suffer most when the moon
was full. Insanity, epilepsy, and mor
bid melancholy were among the frequent
effects of demoniac possession, yet this
possession existed independently of these
effects, and wras a more dreadful calam
ity. Lunatics are expressly mentioned
in distinction from men possessed by evil
spirits, Matt. 4:24; 17:15. See DEVILS.

LUST originally meant any longing
desire, however innocent, Deut. 12:15;
14 : 26. But, in tacit acknowledgment
of the depravity of man's passions, gen
eral usage soon attached the idea of guilt
to the word; and now it usually denotes
carnal, lascivious desire. In Gal. 5:17,
we see that the aspirations of the heart
renewed by the Holy Spirit, oppose and
will subdue the native evil desires, 1 Cor.
15:57 ; but in the unrenewed heart these
reign uncontrolled, lead to greater and
greater outward sins, and secure eternal
death, James 1:14, 15.

LUZ, the ancient name of a part at
least of Bethel, Gen. 28:19; Josh. 16:2;
18 : 13 ; afterwards given to a smaller
place founded by a refugee from Bethel,
Judg. 1:26. See BETHEL.

LYCAO'NIA, a small province of Asia
Minor, bounded north by Galatia, east
by Cappadccia, south by Isauria and
267

•LYC

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAC

Cilicia, and west by Phrygia. It appears |
to have been within the limits of Phry
gia Major, but was erected into a Roman
province by Augustus. The country is
level, but not fertile, though peculiarly
adapted to pasturage. Of its cities, Ico-
nium, Derbe, and Lystra are mentioned
in the New Testament, Acts 14 :G. The
" speech of Lycaonia," ver. 11, is gener
ally supposed to have been a dialect of
Greek, corrupted by a large mixture of
Syriac. Lycaonia now forms part of the
Turkish province of Caramania.

LY'CIA, a province in the south-west
of Asia Minor, bounded west by Caria,
east by Pamphylia, north by Phrygia
and Pisidia, and south by the Mediterra
nean. The country is somewhat moun
tainous, though not barren. Of its cit
ies, only Patara and Myra are mention
ed in the New Testament, Acts 21:1, 2 ;
27:5.

LYD'DA, in Hebrew Lud or Lod,
1 Chr. 8 : 12 ; Ezra 2 -. 33, and by the
Greeks called Diospolis, was a city nine
miles east of Joppa, on the way to Jeru
salem. Here Peter healed Eneas, Acts
9 : 33, 34. It was destroyed not long
after Jerusalem ; but Avas soon rebuilt,
and became the seat of a famous Jewish
school. A Christian church was here
organized, and was in existence A. D.
518. Lydda is often mentioned in the
history of the crusades. It was situated !
in the midst of fine and extensive plains,
the soil of which is a rich black mould,
that might be rendered exceedingly fer
tile. It is at present only a miserable
village called Ludd. The ruins of a
stately church of the middle ages, called
the church of St. George, preserve the
name of a saint and martyr said to have
been buried here in the third century.
The English crusaders adopted him as
the "patron" of England, and many
fabulous legends are told of his exploits.
. LYD'IA, a woman of Thyatira, resid
ing at Philippi in Macedonia, and deal
ing in purple cloths. She was not a Jew
ess by birth, but had become a proselyte
to Judaism and "worshipped God."
She was led by the grace of God to re
ceive the gospel with joy ; and having
l>een baptized, with her household, con
strained Paul and his fellow-laborers to
make her house their home while at
Philippi, Acts 16:14, 40. See PUILIPFI.

LYSA'NIAS. See ABILENE.

LYS'IAS, or Claudius Lysias, com-
268

mander of the Roman guard at Jerusa
lem during Paul's last visit there. In
the honorable discharge of his duty, he
repeatedly saved Paul from the malice
of the Jews, Acts 21:27-40 ; 22 ; 23.

LYS'TRA, a city of Lycaonia, near
Derbe and Iconium, and the native place
of Timothy. Paul and Barnabas preach
ed the gospel here ; and having healed a
cripple, were almost worshipped. Soon
after, however, Paul was stoned there,
Acts 14: 6, 21; 16:1; 2 Tim. 3:11. It
is now a small place called Latik.

M.

MA'ACAH, or MAACHAH, I., a city and
region of Syria or Aram, 1 Chr. 19:6;
somewhere near the foot of mount Her-
mon, and Geshur. The portion of Ma-
nasseh beyond Jordan reached to this
country, like that of Og king of Bashan,
Deut. 3 : 13, 14 ; but it does not appear
to have become subject to Israel, Josh.
12:4-6; 13:13, except during the reign
of David, Solomon, and Jeroboam II.
The king of Maachah, with other Syri
ans, joined the Ammonites in a war with
David, and were defeated and made trib
utary, 2 Sam. 10:6-8, 19.

II. A wife of David, and the mother
of Absalom. She was a daughter of Tal-
mai, king of Geshur in Syria, 2 Sam.
3:3.

III. The wife of Rehoboam and moth
er of Abijah, kings of Judah. She is
called the "daughter" of Abishalom or
Absalom, 1 Kin. 15:2; 2 Chr. 11:20-22.
In 2 Chr. 13:2, she is called Michaiah,
and is said to be the daughter of Uriel.
She appears to have exerted a great in
fluence over the members of the royal
family ; but was degraded from her high
position, by Asa her grandson, for pro
moting idolatry, 2 Chr. 15:16.

Six others of the same name are men
tioned, in Gen. 22 : 24 ; 1 Kin. 2 : 39 ;
1 Chr. 2:48; 7:16; 11:43; 27:16.

MACEDO'NIA, a large country lying
north of Greece proper, bounded south
by Thessaly and Epirus, east by Thrace
and the ^Egean sea, west by the Adri
atic sea and Illyria, and north by Darda-
nia and Moesia. Its principal rivers
were the Strymon and Axius. Its most
celebrated mountains were Olympus and
Athos : the former renowned in heathen
mythology as the residence of the gods,

MAC

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAG

lying on the confines of Thessaly, and
principally within that state ; the latter
being at the extremity of a promontory
which juts out into the ^Egean sea, and
noted in modern times as the seat of sev
eral monasteries, in which are many
manuscripts supposed to be valuable.
This region is believed to have been peo
pled by Kittim, Gen. fO:4 ; but little is
known of its early history. The Mace
donian empire is traced back some four
hundred years before the famous Philip,
under whom, and especially under his
son Alexander the Great, it reached the
summit of its power. Alexander, B. c.
336-323, at the head of Macedonians and
Greeks united, conquered a large part of
western and southern Asia. This power
was foretold by Daniel, 8:3-8, under the
symbol of a goat with one horn ; and it
is worthy of note that ancient Macedo
nian coins still exist, bearing that na
tional symbol. After the death of Alex
ander, the power of the Macedonians
declined, and they were at length con
quered by the Romans under Paulus
jEmilius, B. c. 168, who divided their
country into four districts. The Ro
mans afterwards divided the whole of
Greece and Macedonia into two great
province?, which they called Macedonia
and Achaia, B. c. 142, Rom. 15 : 26 ;
2 Cor. 9 : 2. See GREECE. In the New
Testament the name is probably to be
taken in this latter sense. Of the cities
of Macedonia proper, there are mention
ed in the New Testament, Amphipolis,
Apollonia, Berea, Neapolis, Philippi, and
Thessalonica. This country early receiv
ed the gospel, A. D. 55, Paul having been
summoned to labor there by a supernat
ural vision, Acts 16 : 9 ; 20 : 1 . Its fertile
soil is now languishing under the Turk
ish sway.

MA'CHIR, I., a son of Manasseh, Gen.
50:23. His posterity were active in the
conquest of Gilead, Num. 32 : 39 ; Josh.
17 : 1 ; and in the war with Jabin and
Sisera, Judg. 5:14.

II. A friend of Mephibosheth, the son
of Jonathan, 2 Sam. 9:4, 5.

MACHPE'LAH, the field and cave pur
chased by Abraham for a family tomb.
Sarah was first buried there, Gen. 23 ;
and afterwards Abraham, Isaac, Jacob,
with Rebekah, Leah, etc., Gen. 49 : 30 ;
50:13. See HEBRON.

MA'DAI, the third son of Japheth, an
cestor of the Medes, etc., Gen. 10:2.

MADMAN'NAH, a city near Gaza, first
assigned to Judah, and afterwards to
Simeon, Josh. 15:31; 1 Chr. 2:49.

MAD'MEN, an unknown place in
Moab, Jer. 48:2.

MADME'NAH, a town not far from
Jerusalem, site not known, Isa. 10:31.

MAG'DALA, the ancient Migdal-el, in
the border of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 38 ;
now a small Turkish village called Med-
jel. It lay near the shore of the sea of
Galilee, at its most westerly point, three
miles north- west of Tiberias; in the
southern part of a small plain on which
stood also Capernaum at the other end,
and Dalmanutha in its immediate vicin
ity, Matt. 15 : 39 ; Mark 8 : 10. Mary
Magdalene was born, or resided, at Mag-
dala; and it was the seat of a Jewish
school after Jerusalem was destroyed.

MA'GI, or WISE MEN, an appellation
given among the Medes and Persians to
a class of priests, wise men, philosophers,
etc., who devoted themselves to the
study of the moral and physical sciences,
and particularly cultivated astrology and
medicine. They alone performed the re
ligious rites, and pretended to communi
cate to men secret things, future eVents,
and the will of the gods. See MEDIA.
As they thus acquired great honor and
influence, they were introduced into the
courts of kings and consulted on all oc
casions. They also accompanied the
army in warlike expeditions; and so
much importance was attached to their
advice and opinions, that nothing was
attempted without their approbation. A
similar class of men existed in Babylon,
Egypt, Arabia, etc. The book of Daniel
shows in what high estimation they
were held in Babylon. Daniel was ap
pointed master of the wise men ; but
their jealousy of his wisdom and their
hatred of his religion, as well as the
terms in which they are spoken of in
Isa. 47:13, 14, Dan. 2 : 9, 27, show that
as a class they were destitute of true
wisdom.

Not so those who came "from the
East" to salute and adore the infant
Jesus, Matt. 2 : 1-12. The captivity of
the Jews beyond the Euphrates had dis
persed through the East much know
ledge of the true God ; and these philos
ophers and astronomers, in their search
after wisdom, had found and believed the
prophecies respecting the Messiah, and
were divinely guided to his presence at
269

MAG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAM

Bethlehem. See STAR, In them, the
science and philosophy of the heathen
world laid their homage at the feet of
Christ. Compare Psa. 72 : 10, 11 ; Isa.
60:1-3.

MAG'IC means, in the Bible, all the
superstitious ceremonies of magicians,
sorcerers, enchanters, necromancers, spir
itualists, exorcists, astrologers, soothsay
ers, interpreters of dreams, fortune-tell
ers, casters of nativities, etc., which are
all forbidden by the law of God, whether
practised to hurt or to benefit mankind.
It was also forbidden to consult magi
cians on pain of death, Lev. 19 : 31 ;
20:6. See ENCHANTMENTS and SORCERERS.

MAGOG. See Goo.

MA'HALATH, in the title of Psalms
63 and 88, is conjectured to refer to the
tune or the instrument used in chanting
these Psalms ; or as Hengstenberg and
Alexander suggest, to the spiritual mal
ady which they lament.

M AH AN AIM, two hosts, a place so
named because a host of angels here met
the host of Jacob, on his return from
Padan-aram, Gen. 82 :1, 2. It lay north
of thp Jabbok and near Pcnuel, and
afterwards became a Levitical city in the
tribe of Gad, Josh. 21 :88. It was appar
ently a town of some strength ; for Ish-
bosheth lived there during his short
reign, and David took refuge there dur
ing Absalom's rebellion, 2 Sam. 2:8;
17:24, 27.

MA'HER-SHALAL-HASH-BAZ, haste,
spoil, speed to the prey, the name given by
Isaiah to one of his sons, for a prophetic
intimation of the speedy victory of the
Assyrians over Syria and Israel, Isa.
8:1-3.

MAH'LON, a son of Elimelech and
Naomi, and the first husband of Ruth
the Moabitess, Ruth 1.

MAKKE'DAH, a chief city of the Ca-
naanites, near which five confederate
kings were defeated, taken in the cave
to which they had fled, and executed.
It lay in the vicinity of Libnah, Azekah,
and Lachish, south-west of Jerusalem,
in the tribe of Judah, Josh. 10:10-28;
12:16; 15:41.

MAK'TESH, Zeph. 1 :11, apparently in
or near Jerusalem, and occupied by mer
chants ; but we have no clue to its loca
tion.

MALACHI, the last of the minor
prophets, and of all the Old Testament
writers ; so little known, that it is doubt-
270

ed by some, though without sufficient
reason, whether his name be a proper
name, or only a generical one, signifying
the angel of the Lord, that is, a messen
ger, a prophet, Hag. 1 : 13; Mai. 3:1.
Malachi most probably prophesied about
B. c. 416, in the latter part of the ad
ministration of .Nehemiah, and after
Haggai and Zechariah, at a time of great
disorder among the priests and peo
ple of Judah, whom he reproves. He
inveighs against the priests; reproves
the people for having taken strange
wives, for inhumanity to their brethren,
for divorcing their wives, and for neglect
of paying tithes and first-fruits. He
seems to allude to the covenant that
Nehemiah renewed with the Lord, to
gether with the priests and the chief of
the nation. In the latter part he fore
tells the coming of John the Baptist in
the spirit and power of Elijah, Mai. 3:1;
4:5, 6; Matt. 11:10, 14; 17:10-13;
Luke 1:17. He also foretells the two
fold coming of Christ, and tlie blessed
ness of those who fear and serve him.
Thus the Old Testament closes with pre
dictions of the Messiah, and the New
Testament opens with the record of their
fuliilmcnt.

MAL'CHUS, the servant whose right
ear was cut off by Peter and miraculous
ly restored by Christ, in Gethsemane,
Matt. 26 : 51. The seizure of the Sav
iour immediately after two manifesta
tions of his divinity, JLuke 22 : 51, John
18:6, evinces the blindness and obstina
cy of mankind in sin.

MALLOWS, Job 30 : 4, supposed by
Bochart to signify the plant called Orach,
the Atriplex Halimus of Linnaeus. It
somewhat resembles lettuce, and its
young leaves are used in the East, either
green or boiled, as food, by the poor.

MAM'MON, a Chaldee wqrd signifying
riches. Our Saviour says we cannot serve
God and mammon, Matt. 6:24. Wealth
is as truly an idol to those who set their
hearts on it, as Jupiter or Diana ; and
no idolater can enter heaven. He also
charges us, from the example of the un
just steward, so to use worldly goods,
which are generally sought and used sin
fully — "the unrighteous mammon — "
as to have God the Judge our friend,
and receive the true riches in heaven,
Luke 16:9, 11.

MAM'RE, I. , an Amorite prince, broth
er of Eshcol and Aner. All three united

MAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAN

their forces to aid Abraham in the rescue
of Lot, Gen. 14. He gave his name to

II. The town where he dwelt, after
wards Hebron, in the suburbs of which
was a large terebinth-tree, or grove, (see
OAK,) called in the English Bible "the
plain of Mamre." Here Abraham and
his descendants often pitched their tents,
Gen. 13 : 18 ; 18 : 1. The cave of Mach-
pelah was adjacent to Mamre on the east,
Gen. 23 : 17, 19 ; 49 : 80 ; and from the
heights near by, Abraham could see the
smoking plain of Sodom, Gen. 19:27, 28.

MAN OF SIN. See ANTICHRIST.

MAN'AEN, a foster-brother of Herod
Antipas, but unlike him in character
and end : Manaen was a minister of
Christ at Antioch ; Herod was guilty of
the blood of both Christ and his forerun
ner, Acts 13 : 1. " One shall be taken,
and another left."

MANAS'SEH, I., the eldest son of Jo
seph, born in Egypt. His descendants
constituted a full tribe. This was divid
ed in the promised land : one part hav
ing settled east of the Jordan, in the
country of Bashan, from the river Jab-
bok northwards; and the other west of
the Jordan, between Ephraim and Issa-
char. extending from the Jordan to the
Mediterranean. It was far inferior to
Zphraim in wealth and power, according
«o the prediction of Jacob, Gen. 41 : 50,
•31; 48; Josh. 16; 17.

II. The son and impious successor of
the good Hezekiah, king of Judah. He
began to reign at twelve years old, B. c.
698, and reigned fifty-live years. For
his shocking idolatries, tyranny, and cru
elties, God suffered him to be carried as
a prisoner to Babylon in the twenty-sec
ond year of his reign, probably by'Esar-
haddon king of Assyria. Here, how
ever, he so humbled himself that God
moved the Assyrians to restore him to
his throne, as a tributary ; and thence
forth he set himself to undo the evil he
had done. He abolished the idols he
had worshipped and the diviners he had
consulted ; accomplished many reforms
for the spiritual and material good of
his kingdom ; repaired the defences of
Jerusalem, enclosing with a wall new
space on the west and Ophel on the
south-east ; and strengthened the walled
cities of Judah. After a reign longer
than that of any other king of Judah, he
died in peace and was buried in Jerusa
lem, 2 Kin. 21; 2 Chr. 33.

MAN'DKAKES, Hebrew Dudaim, Gen.
30 : 14-16, Song 7 ' 13, a plant to which
was attributed, probably without reason,
the power of rendering barren women
fruitful. According to most of the an
cient versions, it was the Atropa Man-
dragora of Linnseus, a plant of the genus
belladonna, with a root like a beet, white
and reddish blossoms, and fragrant yel
low apples, which ripen from May to
July. But this opinion is uncertain.

MA'NEH, a Hebrew weight of sixty
shekels, Ezek. 45:12. See the TABLE at
the end of the volume.

MAN'NA, the miraculous food given
by God to the Israelites during their
wanderings in the desert. It was a small
grain, white like hoar-frost, round, and
of the size of coriander-seed, Exod. 16 ;
Num. 11. It fell every morning, with
the dew, about the camp of the Israel
ites, and in so great quantities during
the whole forty years of their journey in
the wilderness, that it was sufficient to
serve the entire multitude instead of
bread, Ex. 16:35; Deut. 29:5, 6; Josh.
5 : 12. It is nowhere said that the Is
raelites had no other food. That numer
ous flocks and herds accompanied the
camp of Israel is clear from many pas
sages. Certainly the daily sacrifices were
offered, and no doubt other offerings,
affording animal food on which the
priests and Levites subsisted, according
to their offices.

When manna was first sent, the Israel
ites " knew not what it was," and "said
one to another, MAN-HIT, which means,
What is it? Most interpreters think
that from the frequent repetition of this
inquiry the name MAN or manna arose-
271

MAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

MAR

Burckhardt says, that in the valleys
around Sinai a species of manna is still
found, dropping from the sprigs of sev
eral trees, but principally from the tama
risk, in the month of June. It is collect
ed by the Arabs, who make cakes of it, and
call it honey of beyrouk. See Ex. 16 : 31,
Since his time it has been ascertained by
Dr. Ehrenburg that the exudation of this
manna is occasioned by an insect, which
he has particularly described. Besides this
substance and the manna of commerce,
which is used as a laxative medicine, and
is produced by the ash-trees of southern
Europe, several other vegetable products
in Arabia, Persia, etc., of similar origin
and qualities, are known by the same
name. It is in vain, however, to seek
to identify with any of these the manna
of the Israelites, which was evidently a
special provision for them, beginning
and terminating with their need of it.
It was found, not on trees and shrubs,
but on ' ' the face of the wilderness ' '
wherever they went ; and was different
in its qualities from any now known
by that name, being dry enough to
grind ani bake like grain, but breed
ing worms on the second day. It was
miraculous in the amount that fell, for
the supply of millions ; in not falling on
the Sabbath ; in falling in double quan
tities the previous day; and in remain
ing fresh during the Sabbath, By these
last three peculiarities God miraculously
attested the sanctity of the Sabbath, as
dating from the creation and not from
mount Sinai. Moreover, a specimen of
manna was laid up in a golden vase in
the ark of the covenant, in memory of a
substance which would otherwise have
perished, Heb. 9:4.

In Psa. 78:24, 25, manna is called
"angels' food" and "corn of heaven,"
in token of its excellence, and that it
came directly from the hand of God.
The people gathered on an average about
three quarts for each man. They who
gathered more than they needed, shared
it freely with others ; it could not be
hoarded up : and thus, as Paul teaches
us, 2 Cor. 8 : 13-15, it furnishes for all
men a lesson against hoarding the earth
ly and perishable gifts of God, and in
favor of freely imparting to our brethren
in need.

This great boon of God to the Israel
ites also offers many striking analogies,
illustrative of "the true Bread" which
272

came down from heaven to rebellious
and perishing man, John 6:31-58 ; Rev.
2:17. Like the manna, Christ descends
from above around the camp of his
church in daily and abundant supplies,
to meet the wants ot every man.

MANOAH, a native of Zorah, in the
tribe of Dan, and the father of Samson,
Judg. 13:14; 16:31. In the prediction
of his son's birth and achievements, we
see the Angel of the covenant, who ap
peared to Abraham, Gideon, etc., and
who never slumbers nor sleeps, caring
for his oppressed people. So too ho
appeared to Jacob, and would not tell
his mysterious name, Gen. 32:29; Judg.
13:18; Isa. 9:6; Luke 13:34.
MAN'SLAYER. See REFUGE.
MANTLE. See GARMENTS.
MA'ON, a town in the edge of the
hill-country of Judah, Josh. 15:55, near
which Nabal lived and David took ref
uge from Saul, 1 Sam. 23:24, 25; 25:2.
Dr. Robinson finds it in the ruinous
place called. Main, seven miles south by
east from Hebron

MA'ONITES, called MEIIUNIM in 2Chr.
26:7, an Arabian tribe, named with the
Amalekites and other foes of Israel.
Their abode may have been near the
place now called Maan, nearly east of
Petra, on the Haj route from Damascus
to Mecca. Uzziah defeated them.

MA'RAH, bitterness, a well near the
Red sea, three days' journey from the
point where the Israelites crossed it.
The well was sweetened for the use of
the distressed Hebrews by the miracu
lous efficacy imparted to the branches of
a certain tree which Moses threw in, Ex.
15:23-25. No plant is now known pos
sessed of such a quality/ The name
Amarah now marks the dry bed of a
wintry torrent, a little south of which
is a well called Hawara, which answers
well to the description, Its water, after
remaining a few seconds in the mouth,
becomes exceedingly nauseous. The
Arabs do not drink it, though their cam
els will. See also Ruth 1 : 20.

MA'RAN-A'THA, composed of two
Syriac words, signifying "the Lord
cometh." See ANATHEMA.

MARE'SHAH, a town in Judah, Josh.
15 : 44, fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr.
11 : 8, and the birthplace of Micah. In
a valley near by, Asa defeated Zerab,
with an immense host of Ethiopians,
2 Chr. 14:9-13, It probably lay on th«

MAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAR

western border of Judah, just south of
Eleutheropolis.

MARK, or MARCUS, the writer of one
of the four gospels. See GOSPELS. There
can be little doubt of the correctness of
the general opinion of learned men, that
he is the same person who is mentioned
by the names of John and Mark in Acts
12 : 12, 25 ; 13 : 5, 13, and as the cousin
and disciple of Barnabas, Col. 4:10. He
was also the companion of Paul and Bar
nabas in their journey through Greece
to Antioch, Perga, and Pamphylia, at
which last place he left them and re
turned to Jerusalem, much to the dis
satisfaction of Paul, Acts 13 : 5, etc. ;
15 : 37-39. Yet he labored faithfully
with Barnabas at Cyprus, and Paul men
tions him, when in captivity at Rome,
as one of those who were associated with
him, Col. 4:10, 11; 2 Tim. 4:11 ; Phile.
24. He afterwards accompanied Peter
also to Babylon. As he was the son of
that Mary at whose house in Jerusalem
the apostles were wont to convene, so it
is probable that he was particularly in
structed in the doctrines of Christianity
by Peter, who on that account calls him
son, I Pet. 5 : 13. Compare 1 Tim. 1 : 2
and 2 Tim. 1:2.

MAR'KET. in Greek AG'ORA, in Latin
FO'RUM, a large open area in many an
cient cities, especially of Greece and
Rome, having the public market on one
side only, the other sides of the area
being occupied by temples, theatres, col-
onades, courts of justice, baths, and other
public structures, the whole square often
presenting a magnificent appearance.
Here was the city exchange, the focus to
which converged all the lines of public
life. Hither laborers resorted in search
of employment, Matt, 20 : 3-7, and chil
dren to pursue their sports, Luke 7: 32.
Here the ordinary assemblies of the peo
ple were held; here philosophers and
statesmen met and debated ; here laws
were promulgated and news announced ;
hither men resorted for pleasure as well
as for business. The most notable pub
lic men, and indeed all classes of citi
zens, here congregated ; and what was
done here was done before the whole
city. Hence the proud Pharisees desired
"greetings in the market-places," Matt.
12 : 38 ; and Paul resorted to the agora at
Athens to meet and convince the philos
ophers, Acts 17 : 17 ; and the masters of
the damsel at Philippi exorcised by Paul
12*

and Silas, ' ' drew them into the market'
place unto the rulers," Acts 10:19.

MAR'RIAGE, the union for life of one
man and one woman, is an ordinance of
the Creator for the perpetuity and hap
piness of the human race ; instituted in
Paradise, Gen. 1 : 27, 28 ; 2 : 18-24, and
the foundation of no small part of all
that is valuable to human society. By
promoting parental love and the sense
of responsibility, marriage most effectu
ally promotes the health and happiness
of children, and their careful education
to virtue, industry, and honor, to right
habits and ends, and to all that is in
cluded in the idea of home. God made
originally but one man and one woman.
The first polygamists were Lamech and
those degenerate "sons of God," or wor
shippers of Jehovah, who "took them
wives of all that they chose," Gen. 4: 17 ;
6:2. On the other hand, Noah and his
three sons had each but one wife ; and
the same appears to be true of all his
direct ancestors back to Adam. So also
was it with Job, Nahor, Lot, and at
first with Abraham. See CONCUBINE. In
after-times a plurality of wives became
more common among the Hebrews, and
the Scriptures afford numerous illustra
tions of its evil results, Gen. 16 : 30 ;
Judg. 8:30; 2 Sam. 3:3-5; 1 Kin. 11:1-
8 ; 2 Chr. 11 : 18-21 ; 13 : 21. In the time
of Christ there is no mention of polyga
my as prevalent among the Jews.

The Israelites were forbidden to marry
within certain specified degrees, Lev. 18 ;
20 ; Deut. 27. Marriage with Canaan-
ites and idolaters was strictly forbid
den, Exod. 34 : 16 ; and afterwards with
any of the heathen nations around them,
especially such as were un circumcised,
Neh. 13. By the Levirate law, as it is
termed, if a Jew died without children,
his nearest brother or kinsman was
bound to marry the widow, that her
first-born son after this marriage might
be reckoned the son and heir of the first
husband, Gen. 38 ; Deut. 25:5-10 ; Matt.
22 : 23-26. The Saviour set his seal to
marriage as a divine and permanent in
stitution, aside from all the civil laws
which guard and regulate, or seek to
alter or annul it ; forbidding divorce
except for one cause, Matt. 5:32; 19:3-
6, 9 ; and denouncing all breaches of
marriage vows, even in thought, Matt.
5 : 28. Compare Heb. 13:4: Rev. 21:8.

Jewish parents were wont to arrange
273

MAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAR

with other parents as to the marriage of
their children, sometimes according to
the previous choice of the son, and not
without some regard to the consent of
the daughter, Gen. 21:21; 24; 34:4-6;
Judg. 14 : 2, 3. The parties were often
betrothed to each other long before the
marriage took place. See BETROTHING.
A dowry was given by the suitor to the
parents and brethren of the bride, Ex.
22:16; Deut. 22:29; 2 Sam. 13:11, 11.
The nuptials were often celebrated with
great pomp and ceremony, and with pro
tracted feasting and rejoicings. It was
customary for the bridegroom to appoint
a Paranymphus, or groomsman, called
by our Saviour ' ' the friend of the bride
groom," John 3:29. A number of other
young men also kept him company dur
ing the days of the wedding, to do him
honor ; as also young women kept com
pany with the bride all this time. The
companions of the bridegroom are ex
pressly mentioned in the history of Sam
son, Judg. 14:11, 20; Song 5:1; 8:13;
Matt. 9:14; also the companions of the
bride, Psa. 45 : 9, 14 ; Song 1:5;2:7;3:5;
8 : 4. The office of the groomsman was to
direct in the ceremonies of the wedding.
The friends and companions of the bride
sang the epithalamium, or wedding song,
at the door of the bride the evening be
fore the wedding. The festivities of the
wedding were conducted with great de
corum, the 3roung people of each sex be
ing in distinct apartments and at differ
ent tables. The young men at Samson's
wedding diverted themselves in propos
ing riddles, and the bridegroom appoint
ed the prize to those who could explain
them, Judg. 14:14.

The Jews affirm, that before Jerusa
lem was laid in ruins, the bridegroom
and bride wore crowns at their marriage.
Compare Isa. 61 : 10 ; Song 3 : 11, "Go
forth, 0 ye daughters of Zion, and be
hold king Solomon with the crown
wherewith his mother crowned him in
the day of his espousals, and in the day
of the gladness of his heart." The mod
ern Jews, in some places, throw handfuls
of wheat on the newly married couple,
particularly on the bride, saying, "In
crease and multiply." In other places
they mingle pieces of money with the
wheat, which are gathered up by the
poor. The actual ceremony of marriage
was very simple, consisting of little more
than the reading of the marriage con-
274

tract, Prov. 2 : 17, Mai. 2 •. 14, and the
nuptial blessing invoked by the friends,
Gen. 24:60; Ruth 4:11, 12.

<The wedding festivities commonly
lasted seven days for a maid, and three
days for a widow. So Laban says to Ja
cob, respecting Leah, "Fulfil her week,"
Gen. 29:27. The ceremonies of Samson's
wedding continued seven whole days,
Judg. 14 : 17, 18. These seven days of
rejoicing were commonly spent in the
house of the woman's father, after which
they conducted the bride to her husband's
home.

The procession accompanying the bride
from the house of her father to that of the
bridegroom, was generally one of more
or less pomp, according to the circum
stances of the married couple , and for
this they often chose the night, as is still
the custom in Syria. Hence the para
ble of the ten virgins that went at mid
night to meet the bride and bridegroom,
Matt. 25. " At a Hindoo marriage", the
procession of which I saw some years
ago," says Mr. Ward, "the bridegroom
came from a distance, and the bride lived
at Serarnpore, to which place the bride
groom was to come by water. After
waiting two or three hours, at length,
near midnight, it was announced, as if
in the very words of Scripture, 'Behold,
the bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to
meet him.' All the persons employed
now lighted their lamps, and ran with
them in their hands to fill up their sta
tions in the procession ; some of them
had lost their lights, and were unpre
pared ; but it was then too late to seek
them, and the cavalcade moved forward
to the house of the bride, at which place
the company entered a large and splen
didly illuminated area, before the house,
covered with an awning, where a great
multitude of friends, dressed in their
best apparel, were seated upon mats.
The bridegroom was carried in the arms
of a friend, and placed in a superb seat
in the midst of the company, where he
sat a short time, and then went into the
house, the door of which was immedi
ately shut, and guarded by sepoys. I
and others expostulated with the door
keepers, but in vain. Never was I so
struck with our Lord's beautiful parable
as at this moment ; ' and the door was
shut.' "

Christianity invests the family institu
tion with peculiar sacredness ; makes

MAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAR

true love its basis, and mutual preference
of each others' happiness its rule ; ant
even likens it to the inelFable union be
tween Christ and his church, Eph 5:22-
33. Nowhere in the world is woman so
honored, happy, and useful as in a Chris
tia-n land and a Christian home. Be
lievers are directed to marry "in the
Lord," 1 Cor. 7 : 39. No doubt the re
strictions laid upon the ancient people
of God contain a lesson for all periods,
and the recorded ill results of forbidden
marriages among the Jews, if heeded-,
would prevent the serious evils which
often result from union between a Chris
tian and a worldling. As to the mutual
duties of husband and wife, see Eph.
5:22-23; 1 Tim. 2:11, 12; 1 Pet. 3:1-7.
The Romish church puts dishonor on
what the Holy Spirit describes as "hon
orable in all." It not only extols celi
bacy and virginity in the laity, but
strictly refuses marriage to all its priests,
bishops, etc., and in thus " forbidding to
marry," fixes upon itself the name of
anti-Christ, 1 Tim. 4 : 3. See BETROTH
ING, CONCUBINE, DIVORCE, GARMENTS, etc.
MARS'-HILL. See AREOPAGUS.
MARTHA, sister of Lazarus and Mary,
at Bethany. Though different from Mary
in temperament, she was no less truly a
devoted friend of Christ and beloved by
him, John 11 : 5 His gentle reproof,
Luke 10:38-42, does not imply that she
was a stranger to renewing grace. Her
affectionate care for the hospitable enter
tainment of Christ must not be forgot
ten, nor her promptness in hasting to
meet him, nor her faith in his power,
John 11:20-28; 12:1, 2. See MARY IV.
MAR'TYR, a witness, Matt. 18 : 16 ;
Luke 24:48; in ecclesiastical history, "a
witness, by the shedding of his blood, in
testifying to the truth." Thus martyrs
are distinguished from "confessors,"
properly so called, who underwent great
afflictions for their confession of the
truth, but without suffering death. The
term "martyr" occurs only thrice in
the New Testament, Acts 22 : 20 ; Rev.
2:13; 17:6. Since the time of Stephen,
Acts 7 : 59 ; 22 : 20, myriads of martyrs
have gealed the truth of Christianity by
a piinful death ; which they willingly
endured through faith, rather than to
deny Christ, and which they often eager
ly desired as a special privilege. It is
doubtless possible to be put to death as
a Christian, without real love for Christ,

1 Cor. 13 : 3 ; but in general "the noble
army of the martyrs ' ' have borne a true
and overwhelming testimony to the
power and preciousness of faith in Christ ;
and their blood witnesses before God
against their foes, especially against that
apostate church which is ' ' drunken with
the blood of the martyrs of Jesus," Rev.
17:6.

MARY, in Hebrew MIRIAM, I., "the
mother of Jesus, ' ' Acts 1 : 14. Her ami
able and lovely character, and her re
markable history in connection with the
wonders relating to the birth of Christ,
are recorded in the first two chapters of
Matthew and Luke. The genealogy of
the Saviour through her, in the line of
David and Abraham, is preserved in
Luke 3, to prove that he was born "as
concerning the flesh" according to an
cient prophecies. After the return from
Egypt to Nazareth, she is but live times
mentioned in the gospel history : three
times with some appearance of reproval
on the part of Christ, Matt. 12 : 46-50 ;
Luke 2 : 49, 50 ; John 2:4; once when
he commended her to the care of John,
John 19 . 26 ; and lastly as among the
disciples at Jerusalem after his ascension,
Acts 1 : 14. Thenceforth, throughout the
Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles, and
the Revelation, no allusion is made to
her. Manifestly the worship of Mary
had not then commenced. The inven
tions of the Romish church in after-
centuries are wholly destitute of foun
dation in Scripture, and subversive of
;he gospel. One of these unauthor-
zed inventions is the alleged immacu-
ate conception and spotless holiness of
Mary. See Rom. 3 : 10, 23 ; Gal. 3 : 22 ;
L John 1:8; and compare also the re-
jroofs above alluded to, and her own
confession of her need of a Saviour, Luke
L:47. Another unauthorized invention

her alleged virginity after the birth
of Jesus, Matt. 1 : 25 ; Luke 2 : 7. No
case can be found in Scripture where
' iirst-born son ' ' is used of an only child,
'n other passages the brethren, sisters,
and mother of Christ are mentioned to-
ether, apparently as one family. Matt,
L3 : 55, 56 ; and she was known as the
wife of Joseph probably for almost thirty
'ears, John 6 : 42. To adore her as the
'queen of heaven," and the "mother of
God," is, in the light of the Bible, bias-
>hemous idolatry ; and to pray to her as
divine, or even as a mediator with God,
275

MAS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAZ

implies that she possesses the attribute of
omnipresence, and degrades the only and
sufficient Mediator, 1 Tim, 2:5; Hcb.
4.16. She was "blessed" or signally
favored "among women," as Jael was
" blessed above women," Judg. 5:24;
Luke 1 : 28 ; but Christ himself declares
that a higher blessing belongs to those
"that hear the word of God and keep
it," Luke 11:27, 28.

II. The mother of Mark the Evange
list. She had a house in Jerusalem,
where the followers of Jesus were wont
to convene. Hither Peter, when deliv
ered from prison by the angel, came and
knocked at the gate, Acts 12: 12. Many
such hospitable Christian homes, and
places of social prayer, even in troublous
times, are for ever enshrined in the re
membrances of the people of God.

III. The wife of Cleophas, and mother
of James the Less and Joses, Matt.
27 : 56, 61 ; Luke 24 : 10; John 19 : 25.
This last passage, leaves it uncertain
whether this Mary was sister to Mary
our Lord's mother, or not. Some sup
pose that four persons are there named :
Christ's mother, his mother's sister,
Mary of Cleophas, and Salome. See
MARY I. and JAMES III. She believed
early on Jesus Christ, and accompanied
him in some of his journeys, to minister
to him, followed him to Calvary, and
was with his mother at the foot of his
cross. She was also present at his bur
ial, prepared perfumes to embalm him,
and was early at his sepulchre on the
morning of his resurrection. See CLEO
PHAS.

IV. The sister of Lazarus, whom our
Lord raised from the dead. Her charac
ter presents a beautiful companion-pic
ture to that of her more active and im
pulsive sister Martha. Contemplative,
confiding, and affectionate, it was like
heaven to her to sit at the feet of her
adored Teacher and Lord, Luke 10 : 39-
42. The character of the two sisters was
well contrasted at the supper in Bethany,
after the resurrection of Lazarus. No
service was too humble for Martha to
render, and no offering too costly for
Mary to pour out, in honor of their Sav
iour, John 11; 12:1-8. This occurrence
should not be confounded with that de
scribed in Luke 7:37-50.

V. The Magdalene, or native of Mag-
dala on the sea of Galilee. She was fore
most among the honorable women of

276

substance who ministered unto Christ
and his disciples, Matt. 28 : 1-10 ; Mark
15:47 ; 16:1-10 ; Luke 24 : 1-12 ; John
20 : 1, 2, 10-18. She was especially de
voted to Christ, for his mercy in casting
out from her seven evil spirits, Luke
8:2, 3. She was early at his tomb ; and
lingering there when the disciples had
retired, she was the first to throw her
self at the feet of the risen Saviour.
There is no evidence that she was ever
a profligate.

VI. A benevolent and useful Christian
at Rome, saluted in Paul's epistle, Rom.
16:6.

MAS'CHIL is a term found as a title
of thirteen Psalms, and imports one that
instructs or makes to understand. Some
interpreters think it means an instru
ment of music ; but it more probably
signifies an instructive song.

MATRIX, the womb. To "open the
matrix," Ex. 13:12, 15, means, to be
the first-born.

MAT'THEW, an apostle and evange
list, was son of Alpheus, a Galilean by
birth, a Jew by religion, and a publican
by profession, Matt. 9:9; 10 : 3 ; Luke
6 : 15. The other evangelists call him
only LEVI, which was his Hebrew name,
Mark 2 : 14 ; Luke 5 : 27 ; but he always
calls himself Matthew, which was prob
ably his name as a publican, or officer
for gathering taxes. He does not dis
semble his former profession ; thus ex>
alting the grace of Christ which raised
him to the apostleship. His ordinary
abode was at Capernaum, and his office
probably on the main road, near the sea
of Tiberias ; here, in the midst of his
business, he was called by Jesus to fol
low him, Matt. 9:9; Mark 2 : 14. It is
probable that he had a previous know
ledge of the miracles and doctrine of
Christ.

For the GOSPEL OF MATTHEW, see GOS
PEL.

MATTHIAS, one of the disciples who
continued with our Saviour from his
baptism to his ascension, Acts 1 : 21-26,
and was after the ascension associated
with the eleven apostles. We know
nothing further of him.

MAZ'ZAROTH, Job 38:32. Our trans
lators properly suppose this word to de
note the twelve signs of the zodiac, a
broad circle in the heayens, pomprehend-
ing all such stars as lie in the path of
the sun and moon. As these luminaries

MEA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MED

appear to proceed throughout this cir
cle annually, so different parts of it pro
gressively receive them every month ;
and this progression seems to be what is
meant by '•' bringing forth mazzaroth in
his season," that is, Canst thou by thy
power cause the revolutions of the heav
enly bodies in the zodiac, and the sea
sons of summer and winter, in their
regular succession ?

MEALS. See EATING.

MEAS'URE. See the general table of
"Weights, Measures, and Money of the
Hebrews, at the end of the Dictionary ;
also the particular names of each, as
SHEKEL, TALENT, BATH, EPIIAII, etc.

MEATS. "Meat" in the English
Bible usually signifies "food," and not
merely "flesh," Gen. 1:29, 30; Matt.
15 : 37. So in Luke 24 : 41 ; " Have ye
here any meat?" literally, any thing to
eat ? The ' ' meat-offerings ' ' of the Jews
were made of flour and oil, etc. , Lev. 2.
See OFFERINGS and SACRIFICES. As to the
animal food used by the Jews, see CLEAN,
and FOOD.

It does not appear that the ancient
Hebrews were very particular about the
seasoning and dressing of their food.
We find among them roast meat, boiled
meat, and ragouts. Moses forbade them
to seethe a kid in its mother's milk,
Ex. 23:19 ; 34:26— a precept designed to
inculcate principles of humanity, and
perhaps to prevent them from adopting
an idolatrous custom of their heathen
neighbors. The Jews were also forbid
den to kill a cow and its calf in the same
day; or a sheep, or goat, and its young
one, at the same time. They might not
cut off a part of a living animal to eat
it, either raw or dressed. If any lawful
beast or bird should die of itself or be
strangled, and the blood not drain away,
they were not allowed to taste of it.
They ate of nothing dressed by any other
than a Jew, nor did they ever dress their
victuals with the kitchen implements of
any but one of their own nation.

The prohibition of eating blood, or an
imals that are strangled, has been always
rigidly observed by the Jews. In the
Christian church, the custom of refrain
ing from things strangled, and from
blood, continued for a long time, being
approved by the council held at Jerusa
lem, and recommended to the Gentile
converts, Acts 15.

At the first settling of the church,

there were many disputes concerning
the use of meats offered to idols. Some
newly converted Christians, convinced
that an idol was nothing, and that the
distinction of clean and unclean crea
tures was abolished by our Saviour, ate
indifferently of whatever was served up
to them, even among pagans, without
inquiring whether the meats had been
offered to idols. They took the same
liberty in buying meat sold in the mar
ket, not regarding whether it were pure
or impure according to the Jews ; or
whether it had been offered to idols or
not. But other Christians, weaker, more
scrupulous, or less instructed, were of
fended at this liberty, and thought the
eating of meat which had been offered
to idols was a kind of partaking in that
wicked and sacrilegious offering. This
diversity of opinion among the disciples
called for the judgment of inspiration ;
and we find in several of Paul's epistles
directions both for those who held such
scruples, and for those who were free
from them. The former, while in obe
dience to their own conscience they care
fully abstained from the food in ques
tion, were charged to view with charity
the conduct of those who did not share
their scruples. The latter might freely
buy and eat without guilt, since meat is
in no wise injured as an article of food
by being offered to an idol ; yet when
ever others would be scandalized, pained,
or led into sin by this course, even they
were required by the laws of Christian
charity and prudence to abstain, Rom.
14:20-23; 1 Cor. 8 ; 10:19-33; Tit. 1:15.
This principle is of general application in
similar cases ; and many in our own day
might well adopt the generous determi
nation of the self-denying apostle to par
take of no questionable indulgence while
the world stands, if it may be the occa
sion of sin to others.

ME'DAD. See ELD AD.

ME'DAN, a son of Abraham and Ketu-
rah, Gen. 25:2. He is supposed to have
settled in Arabia, near Midian his brother.

MED'EBA, a town east of the Jordan,
in the tribe of Reuben, Josh. 13 : 9, 16.
Near it the army of David gained a great
victory, 1 Chr. 19:7. Long afterwards,
it fell again into the hands of the Moab-
ites its ancient masters, Num. 21 : 30 ;
Isa. 15 : 2. Its ruins, on rising ground
a few miles south-east of Heshbon, still
retain the old name.

277

MED

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

MED

ME'DIA, called by the Hebrews MA-
DAI, and supposed to have been peopled
by the descendants of Madai the son of
Japheth, Gen. 10 : 2, extended itself on
the west and south of the Caspian sea,
from Armenia and Assyria on the north
and west, to Farsistan or Persia proper
on the south ; and included the districts
now called Shirvan, Adserbijan, Ghilan,
Masanderan, and Irak Adjemi. It cov
ered a territory larger than that of Spain,
lying between 32° and 40° of north lati
tude, and was one of the most fertile and
earliest cultivated among the kingdoms
of Asia. It had two grand divisions, of
which the north-western was called Atro-
patene, or Lesser Media, and the south
ern Greater Media. The former corre
sponds to the modern Adserbijan, now,
as formerly, a province of the Persian
empire, on the west of the Caspian, sur
rounded by high mountains of the Tau-
ritic range, except towards the east,
where the river Kur, or Cyrus, dis
charges its waters into the Caspian. The
Greater Media corresponds principally to
the modern Irak Adjemi, or Persian Irak.
Ecbatana was the ancient capital.

Media is one of the most ancient in-
dependent kingdoms of which history
makes mention. After several centuries
of subjugation under Assyria, the Medes
rebelled under Arbaces in the time of
Sardanapalus, and again in the time of
Sennacherib, about 700 B. c. They be
came powerful, cultivated, and wealthy,
Isa. 13 : 17, 18 ; 21 : 2, 3, and continued
an independent kingdom until, under
Cyrus, Media became united with Persia.
In this way arose the Medo-Persian king
dom ; and the "laws of the Medes and
Persians ' ' are always mentioned by the
sacred writers together, Esth. 1:19, etc. ;
Dan. 6:8, 12, etc. So also the "Chron
icles" of the Medes and Persians are
mentioned together, Esth. 10 : 2. In
deed, from this time onward, the man
ners, customs, religion, and civilization
of the Medes and Persians seem ever to
have become more and more amalga
mated. And in general it would seem,
as we may gather from the ancient Zend
writings, that the Medes, Persians, and
Bactrians were originally the same peo
ple, having in common one language,
the Zend, and one religion, the worship
of Ormuzd, the highest being, under the
symbol of fire. They also worshipped
the stars, particularly the planets ; and
278

I still more, the sun and moon. The
I priests of this religion, the Magi, were
a Median race, to whom were intrusted
the cultivation of the sciences, and the
performance of the sacred rites. Among
these, and as is supposed before the time
of Cyrus, appeared Zerdusht, or Zoroas
ter, as a reformer, or rather as the re
storer of the ancient but degenerated
religion of light, whose disciples have
maintained themselves even to the pres
ent day in Persia and India, under the
name of Guebres.

Media is first mentioned in the Bible
as the part of Assyria to which the ten
tribes were transported : at first, those
beyond the Jordan, by Tiglath-pileser,
1 Chr. 5 ; 26 ; and afterwards, about 721
B. c., the remainder of Israel, by Shal-
maneser, 2 Kin. 17 : 6. The subsequent
history of Media is involved in that of
Persia. Both countries were subdued by
Alexander of Macedon, 330 B. c. ; and in
the next century became tributary to the
Parthians on their east, in connection
with whom they are mentioned in Acts
2:9. See PKRSIA.

ME'DIATOB, one who stands between
two parties or persons as the organ of
communication or the agent of reconcil
iation. So far as man is sensible of his
own guilt and of the holiness and justice
of God. he shrinks from any direct com
munication with a being he has so much
reason to fear. Hence the disposition
more or less prevalent in all ages and in
all parts of the world, to interpose be
tween the soul and its judge some person
or thing most adapted to propitiate his
favor — as a priestly order, an upright and
devout man, or the smoke of sacrifices
and the sweet savor of incense, Job 9: 33.
The Israelites evinced this feeling at
mount Sinai, Deut. 5 : 23-31 ; and God
was pleased to constitute Moses a medi
ator between himself and them, to re
ceive and transmit the law on the one
hand, and their vows of obedience on the
othe-r. In this capacity he acted on va
rious other occasions, Exod. 32 : 30-32 ;
Num. 14 ; Psa. 105:23 ; and was thus an
agent and a type of Christ, Gal. 3 : 19.
The Messiah has been in all ages the
only true Mediator between God and
man ; and without Him, God is inacces
sible and a consuming fire, John 14 : 6 ;
Acts 4 : 12. As the Angel of the cove
nant, Christ was the channel of all com
munications between heaven and earth

MEG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MEL

in Old Testament days ; and as the Me
diator of the new covenant, he does all
that is needful to provide for a perfect
reconciliation between God and man.
He consults the honor of God by appear
ing as our Advocate with the blood of
atonement ; and through his sympathiz
ing love and the agency of the Holy
Spirit, he disposes and enables us to re
turn to God.' The believing penitent is
"accepted in the Beloved" — his person,
his praises, and his prayers ; and through
the same Mediator alone he receives par
don, grace, and eternal life. In this high
office Christ stands alone, because he
alone is both God and man, 1 Tim. 2:5.
To join Mary and the saints to him in
his mediatorship, as the antichristian
church of Rome does, implies that he is
unable to accomplish his own peculiar
work, Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24.

MEGID'DO, a town of Manasseh,
though within the bounds of Issachar.
It had been a royal city of the Canaan-
ites, and they long retained a foothold
in it, Josh. 12 : 21 ; 17 : 11 ; Judg. 1:27.
It lay in the south-west border of the
plain of Esdraelon, near the Kishon,
which is probably intended by ' ' the wa
ters of Megiddo," mentioned in the song
of Deborah and Barak as the scene of
their victory, Judg: 5 : 19, 21. In the
reign of Solomon, Megiddo was fortified,
1 Kin. 9 : 15. Here king Ahaziah died,
and king Josiah was defeated, slain, and
sorely lamented, 2 Kin. 9 : 27 ; 23 : 29 ;
Zech. 12:11. Robinson identifies it with
a village now called Leijun, the Legio of
the Romans.

MELCHIZ'EDEK, king of righteousness,
king of Salem, and also priest of the
most high God, -in which capacity he
blessed Abraham, and received tithes at
his hand, Gen. 14:18-20. Scripture tells
us nothing of his father or mother, of
his genealogy, his birth, or his death ;
he stands alone, without predecessor or
successor, a royal priest by the appoint
ment of God ; and thus he was a type of
Jesus Christ, who is " a priest for ever
after the order of Melchizedek," and not
after the order of Aaron, whose origin,
consecration, life, and death, are known,
Psa. 110:4; Heb. 7. See GENEALOGY.

It has been matter of great inquiry
among commentators, who Melchizedek
really was. He has been variously sup
posed to be the Holy Spirit, the Son of
God, an angel, Enoch, and Shem. But

the safest and most probable opinion is
that which considers Melchizedek as a
righteous and peaceful king, a worship
per and priest of the most high God, in
the land of Canaan ; a friend of Abra
ham, and of a rank elevated above him.
This opinion, indeed, lies upon the very
face of the sacred record in Gen. 14 and
Heb. 77 and it is the only one which can
be defended on any tolerable grounds of
interpretation. See SALEM.

MEL'ITA. The name Melita was an
ciently applied to two islands; one in
the Adriatic sea, on the coast of Illyri-
cum, now called Meleda ; the other in
the Mediterranean, between Sicily and
Africa, now called Malta. That the lat
ter is the one on which Paul suffered
shipwreck is evident both from the di
rection of the wind which blew him
thither, (see EUROCLYDON,) and from the
fact that he left the island in a ship of
Alexandria, which had wintered there
on her voyage to Italy, and after touch
ing at Syracuse and R'hegium, landed at
Puteoli, thus sailing on a direct course.
The other Melita would be far out of the
usual track from Alexandria to Italy ;
and in sailing from it to Rhegium, Syra
cuse also would be out of the direct
course. The fact that the vessel was
tossed all night before the shipwreck in
the Adriatic sea, does not militate against
this view, because the name Adria was
applied to the whole Ionian sea, which
lay between Sicily and Greece. See
ADRIA. Acts 27: 27; 28:1.

Malta is a rocky island, sixty-two miles
south of Sicily, seventeen miles long
and nine broad, and containing nearly
one hundred square miles, and 100,000
inhabitants. At an early period it was
seized by the Phoenicians ; these were
dispossessed by the Greeks of Sicily ;
they by the Carthaginians ; and they in
turn, 242 B. c., by the Romans, who held
it in the time of Paul. After numerous
changes, it fell at length into the hands
of the English, who since 1814 have held
undisputed possession of it. The name
of " St. Paul's bay " is now borne by a
small inlet on the north side of the isl
and, opening towards the east, which
answers well to the description in Acts
27. Here Paul was protected by the
hand of God, amid perils on shore as
well as in the sea. He remained here
three months, and wrought many mir*
acles.

279

MEL

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

HER

MEL'ONS are common in the East,
but do not differ particularly, from ours.
Watermelons grow luxuriantly in Pales
tine, even in dry and sandy soil. They
are a delicious fruit in a hot climate,
and were among the articles of food for
which the Hebrews pined in the desert,
Num. 11:5.

MEL'ZAR, the name or the official title
of a butler or steward at the court of
Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1:11-16.

MEM'PHIS, Hos. 9:6. See NOPH.

MEN'AHEM, the sixteenth king of
Israel, previously general of the army of
Zachariah. He was at Tirzah when he
heard of his master's murder ; and im
mediately marching against Shallum,
who had shut himself up in Samaria, he
captured and slew him, and then ascend
ed the throne. He reigned in Samaria
ten years, 771-760 B. c., and was a ty
rannical and cruel idolater. Pul, king
of Assyria, having invaded Israel during
the reign of Menahem, obliged him to
pay a tribute of a thousand talents,
which Menahem raised by a tax on all
his rich subjects of fifty shekels a head.
He seems to have died a natural death ;
but his son and successor Pekahiah
reigned only two years, and was the last
of that dynasty, 2 Kin. 15 : 13-22. The
name of Menahem is found on the Assyr
ian tablets recently discovered.

ME'NE, he is numbered; TE'KEL, he is
weighed; UPHAR'SIN, and they are dividing ;
Chaldee words supernaturally traced on
the wall at Belshazzar's impious feast,
and significant of his impending doom,
Dan. 5. The astrologers could not read
them, perhaps because they were written
in antique Hebrew characters ; still less
could they explain, even if they had
dared to do it, what was so portentous.
Daniel, however, received skill to under
stand and courage to declare their awful
280

meaning ; and the same night witnessed
their fulfilment. Over how many proud
heads, often found in scenes of ungodli
ness and revelling, the hand that has
recorded their past history is even now
preparing to record their doom.

MEPHIB'OSHETH, a son of Jonathan,
also called Merib-baal, 1 Chr. 8:34. See
ESIIBAAL. Mephibosheth was very young
when his father was killed in the battle
of Gilboa, 2 Sam. 4:4, and his nurse was
in such consternation at the news, that
she let the child fall ; and from this ac
cident he was lame all his life. When
David found himself in peaceable posses
sion of the kingdom, he sought for all
that remained of the house of Saul, that
he might show them kindness, in con
sideration of the friendship between him
and Jonathan. He gave Mephibosheth
the estate of his grandfather Saul. Of a
part of this, however, he was afterwards
deprived by the treachery of his steward
Ziba, and the hasty injustice, as it ap
pears, of David towards an unfortunate
but noble and loyal prince, 2 Sam. 9 ;
16 : 1-4 ; 19 : 24-30. David subsequently
took care to exempt him from the num
ber of the descendants of Saul given up
to the vengeance of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam.
21:1-14, though another Mephibosheth,
a son of Saul, was slain, ver. 8.

ME'EAB, the eldest daughter of king
Saul, was promised to David in marriage,
in reward for his victory over Goliath ;
but was given to Adriel, son of Barzillai
the Meholathite, 1 Sam. 14 : 49 ; 18 : 17,
19. Merab had five sons by him, who
were delivered to the Gibeonites, and
hanged before the Lord, 2 Sam. 21:8, 9.
The text intimates that the five men
delivered to the Gibeonites were sons of
Michal ; but see ADRIEL.

MER/ARI, the youngest of Levi's three
sons, born in Canaan, and head of a fam
ily of the Levites, Gen. 46:11 ; Ex. 6:16 ;
Num. 3:17 ; 1 Chr. 6:1. In the journey
through the wilderness they were charg
ed with the framework of the tabernacle,
to carry from one place of encampment
to another, and there set it up, Num.
4 : 29-33 ; 7 : 8. Twelve cities were as
signed to them beyond Jordan, Josh-
21:7, 34-40.

MERCHANT, Gen. 23 : 16. The com*
modities of different countries were usu
ally exchanged by traders of various
kinds, in caravans or "travelling com
panies," Isa. 21:13, which had their reg*

MER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MER

ular seasons and routes for passing from
one great mart to another, Gen. 37:25,
28. These merchants prospered by wan
dering, as ours do by remaining station
ary. The apostle James reminds them
to lay their plans in view of the uncer
tainty of life, and their need of divine
guidance, James 4: 13. Some of the mar
itime nations, as Egypt, and still more
the Phoenicians, carried on a large traffic
by sea, Isa. 23:2; Ezek. 27:28.

MER'CURY, a fabulous god of the
ancient heathen, the messenger of the
celestials, and the deity that presided
over learning, eloquence, and traffic.
The Greeks named him Hermes, inter
preter, because they considered him as
the interpreter of the will of the gods.
Probably it was for this reason that the
people of Lystra, having heard Paul
preach, and having seen him heal a
lame man, would have offered sacrifice
to him as to their god Mercury ; and to
Barnabas as Jupiter, because of his ven
erable aspect, Acts 14:11, 12.

MER'CY, the divine goodness exer
cised towards the wretched and the
guilty, in harmony with truth and jus
tice, Psa. 85 : 10. The plan by which
God is enabled to show saving mercy to
men, for Christ's sake, is the most con
summate work of infinite wisdom and
love. The soul that has truly experi
enced thfi mercy of God will be merciful
like him, Luke 6 : 36, compassionate to
the wretched, Psa. 41 : 1, 2, and forgiv
ing towards all, Matt. 5:7 ; 18:33.

MER'CY-SEAT, 1 Chr. 28 : 11, the
cover of the Ark of the Covenant, which
see. The Hebrew word means a cover,
but contains an allusion to the covering
or forgiving of sins, Psa. 32 : 1. In the
New Testament it is designated by a
Greek word meaning ' ' the propitia
tory," or "expiatory," Heb. 9:4, 5. It
was approached only by the high-priest,
and not without the blood of atonement,
to show that the divine mercy can be
granted only through the blood of Christ,
Rom. 3:25.

LAKE MEROM, WITH MOUNT HERMON IN THE DISTANCE.

ME'ROM. The "waters of Merom,"
Josh. 11 : 5, or lake of Semechon, is the
most northern of the three lakes sup
plied by the river Jordan. It is situated
in the southern part of a valley formed
by the two branches of mount Hermon.
The lake is now called after the valley,

the lake of Huleh. The lake proper is
four or five miles long, and perhaps four
broad, tapering towards the south. It
is very shallow, and a large part of it is
covered with aquatic plants. Thousands
of water-fowl sport on its surface, and
its waters abound in fish. On the north
281

MEIl

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MES

lies the plain of the Pluleh, which is a
dead level for a distance of six miles or
more. Near the upper end of this, the
three streams which form the Jordan
unite. On the west side of the Jordan
above the lake, a marsh extends up north
as far as the junction of these streams, or
even farther ; while on the eastern side
the land is tilled almost dowji to the
lake. It is a splendid plain, and ex
tremely fertile. All kinds of grain grow
on it, with very little labor ; and it still
merits the praise accorded to it by the
Danite spies : ' ' We have seen the land ;
and behold, it is very good, .... a place
where there is no want of any thing that
is in the earth," Judg. 18 : 9, 10. Its
rich soil is formed by deposit, and it
seems to be partially submerged in the
spring. Thus the lake and valley El-
Hulch form an immense reservoir, and
unite with the snows of Hermon to main
tain the summer supplies of the Jordan.
Near this lake Joshua defeated the kings
of Northern Canaan, Josh. 11:1-8.

MER'IBAH, strife, I., a station of the
Israelites between the lied sea and mount
Sinai, where they murmured against the
Lord, and a fountain gushed from the
rock for their use, Ex. 17:1-7. It was
also named Massah, temptation, when they
tempted God there, Deut. 33:8 ; Heb. 3:8.

II. A similar miraculous fountain in
the desert of Zin, near Kadesh, which
see, Num. 20:13, 14. This was the scene
of the transgression of Moses and Aaron,
for which they were precluded from cross
ing the Jordan. It is called "the wa
ters of Meribah, ' ' Deut. 33 : 8 ; Psa. 81 : 7 ;
106:32, and also Meribah-kadesh, Num.
27:14; Deut. 32:51; Ezek. 47:19.

MERO'DACH, an idol of the Babylo
nians, representing probably the planet
Mars, Jer. 50 : 2. The names of Baby
lonish kings were also sometimes com
pounded with this name, as Evil-Mero-
dach and Merodach-Baladan, Isa. 39 : 1,
who is also called Berodach-Baladan in
2 Kin. 20:12.

ME'ROZ, an unknown place in Gali
lee, cursed in the song of Deborah and
Barak for not joining with them against
the foes of Israel, Judg. 5:23. Probably
their vicinity to the scene of conflict, or
the opportunity they had of rendering
some special assistance, rendered their
refusal peculiarly guilty.

ME'SHA, I., a place on the eastern
frontier of the territory of Joktan, Gen.
282

10:30, supposed to have been in the re
gion of Bassora, at the north-west end of
the Persian gulf.

II. A king of Moab, who paid an enor
mous tribute to Ahab king of Israel, but
revolted at his death, 2 Kin. 1:1 ; 3:4-
27. Joram the son of Ahab, with the
aid of Judah and Edom, made war upon
him, and oesiegcd him in his capital.
Unable to force his way through the be
sieging host, king Mesha sought the aid
of his gods by sacrificing his own son on
the city wall ; and the besiegers, horror-
struck at this atrocious act, withdrew
in terror, lest some curse should fall ou
them.

ME'SHACH. See ABED-NEGO.

ME'SHECH, or MESECII, Psa. 120:5,
the sixth son of Japheth, Gen. 10 : 2, lo
cated near Tubal at the north-east cor
ner of Asia Minor, in Iberia, and sup
posed by many to have been the father
of the Muscovites. Meshech traded with
Tyre in "the persons of men, and in
vessels of brass," Ezek. 27 : 13 ; 32 : 26 ;
38:2.

MESOPOTA'MIA, between the rivers, the
Greek name of the country between the
Euphrates and the Tigris, called in Ara
bic, Al Jezira, the island. See ARAM II.,
and PADAN-ARAM. In its fullest sense,
Mesopotamia extended from the Persian
gulf to mount Taurus ; but the name
usually denotes only the tract above Bab
ylonia, now called Diarbekr and cele
brated for its exuberant fertility ; while
the part below, now Irak-Arabi, is sterile
and without water. Mesopotamia was
included in the territories of the Assyr
ian, Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian,
and Roman empires successively, and
belongs now to that of the Turks.

This region is associated with the ear
liest history of the human race both be
fore and after the flood. Eden was not far
off'; Ararat was near to it on the north,
and the land of Shinar on the south,
The traveller here reaches what is truly
"the old world," and is surrounded by
objects compared with which the antiq
uities of Greece and Rome are modern
novelties. This was the home of the
patriarchs who preceded Abraham — Te-
rah, Heber, Peleg, etc. Here Abraham
and Sarah were born, and the wives of
Isaac and Jacob, and most of the sons of
Jacob, the heads of the twelve tribes.
Mesopotamia is also mentioned in Scrip
ture as the abode of the first oppressor

MES

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MIC

of Israel ill the time of the judges, Judg.
3 : 8-10 ; in the history of the wars of
David, 2 Sam. 10:16 ; and as furnishing
a delegation of Jews, and perhaps prose
lytes, to attend the Passover at Jerusa
lem, Acts 2: 9.

MESSI'AH, or MESSI'AS, anointed, a title
given principally, or by way of eminence,
to that sovereign Deliverer promised to
the Jews. They were accustomed to
anoint their kings, high-priests, and some
times prophets, when they were set apart
to tiheir office ; and hence the phrase,
"to anoint" for an employment, some
times signifies merely a particular desig
nation or choice for such an employment.
Cyrus, who founded the empire of the
Persians, and who set the Jews at liber
ty, is called, Isa. 45:1, "the anointed of
the Lord ;" and in Ezek. 28:14, the epi
thet "anointed" is given to the king of
Tyre.

But, as we have already observed,
MESSIAH is the designation given by the
Hebrews, eminently, to that Saviour and
Deliverer whom they expected, and who
was promised to them by all the proph
ets. As the holy unction was given to
kings, priests, and prophets, by describ
ing the promised Saviour of the world
under the name of Christ, Anointed, or
Messiah, it was sufficiently evidenced
that the qualities of king, prophet, and
high-priest would eminently centre in
him, and that he should exercise them
not only over the Jews, but over all
mankind, and particularly over those
who should receive him as their Saviour.
See CHRIST.

That Jesus Christ was the true MES
SIAH of the Old Testament, the "Shi-
loh" of Jacob, the "Redeemer" of Job,
the "Angel of the Covenant," is abun
dantly clear. The time of his appear
ance was predicted in Gen. 49:10 ; Dan.
9 : 20, 25 ; Hag. 2:7 ; Mai. 3:1. At the
time when the Saviour actually came,
and then only, could these predictions
meet : then the seventy weeks of years
were ended ; and soon after, the sceptre
was torn for ever from the hands of Ju-
da.h, the only tribe that could then claim
the headship of the Jews ; and the tem
ple in whidh the Messiah was to appear
was annihilated. Then also the genea
logical lists were extant, which proved
the descent of Christ from the line pre
dicted. Numerous and clear detached
predictions respecting the birth, charac

ter, life, sufferings, and death of Christ,
his resurrection, ascension, and king
dom, were all in him perfectly fulfilled,
John 1:41; 4:25.

ME'THEG-AM'MAH, 2 Sam. 8:1;
1 Chr. 18:1. See GATH.

METHU'SELAH, son of Enoch, and
father of Lamech. He lived 969 years,
a longer life than any other on record,
and died within the year before the del
uge, Gen. 5:21, 22.

MI'CAH, I., the Morasthite, or of
Maresheth, a village near Eleutheropolis,
in the west of Judah ; the seventh in
order of the lesser prophets. He proph
esied under Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze-
kiah, kings of Judah, for about fifty
years, if with some we reckon from
near the beginning of the reign of
Jotham, to the last year of Hezekiah
B. c. 750-698. He was nearly con
temporary with Isaiah, and has some
expressions in common with him. Com
pare Isa. 2 : 2 with Micah 4:1, and Isa.
41 : 15 with Micah 4 : 13.. His bold fidel
ity served as a shield to the prophet Jer
emiah a century afterwards, Jer. 26 : 18,
19 ; Mic. 3:12. He wrote in an elevated
and vehement style, with frequent tran
sitions. His prophecy relates to the sins
and judgments of Israel and Judah, the
destruction of Samaria and Jerusalem,
the return of the Jews from captivity,
and the punishment of their enemies.
He proclaims the coming of the Messiah,
1 ' whose goings forth have been from of
old, from everlasting," as the founda
tion of all hope for the glorious and
blessed future he describes ; and specifies
Bethlehem in Judah as the place where
He should be born of woman, Mic. 5 : 2,
3. The prediction was thus understood
by the Jews, Matt. 2:6; John 7:41, 42.

II. An Ephraimite in the time of the
judges, soon after Joshua, who stole
eleven hundred shekels of silver from
his mother, but restored them, and with
her consent employed them in establish
ing a private sanctuary, with an image
to be used in the worship of Jehovah,
and with a Levite for his priest. Provi
dence frowned on his idolatrous service,
and a troop of Danites robbed him of his
priest and of all his implements of wor
ship, Judg. 17 ; 18.

MICAI'AH, I., a faithful and fearless

prophet, consulted by king Ahab at the

demand of Jehoshaphat as to the issue

of their proposed campaign against the

283

MIC

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MIG

Syrians. He was imprisoned to abide
the event, which coincided with his pre
dictions and probably secured his re
lease, 1 Kin. 22:8-38. Ahab's conduct
in this matter displays the amazing folly
of sins against light.

II. A prince of Judah, who seconded the
efforts of Jehoshaphat to instruct and re
form the people of Judah, 2 Kin. 17 : 7-9.

MI'CHAEL. See ARCHANGEL.

MICHAI'AH, a young prince at the
court of Jehoiakim, who communicated
to the king's counsellors the solemn
warnings of Jeremiah, Jer. 36:11-13.

ME'CHAL, the younger of Saul's two
daughters, in love with David, and whom
Saul reluctantly gave to him in marriage,
1 Sam. 14:49; 18:20-29. She saved her
husband's life from assassins sent by her
father, by a stratagem which gave him
time to escape, 1 Sam. 19 : 14, 15. Her
father then gave her ' in marriage to
Phalti, 1 Sam. 25:44, from whom David
some years after recovered her, 2 Sam.
3:12-21. When David brought the ark
of God to Jerusalem, she conceived and
expressed great disgust at his pious joy,
and the affections of the king remained
alienated from her till her death, 2 Sam.
6 : 16-23. Her hatred of unfashionable
zeal in religion was stronger than her
love of her husband and her God. She
left no children.

MICH'MASH, a town of Benjamin,
nine miles north by east of Jerusalem,
Neh. 7:31; 11:31. It was a strong po
sition, and lay on the north side of a
deep valley ; for which reasons perhaps
Sennacherib, on his way to Jerusalem,
left his heavy equipage there, Isa. 10:28,
29. In this deep valley, a little west of
the town, are two steep hills or rocks,
supposed to be the ones referred to in
the account of Jonathan's achievement
at "the passage of Michmash," 1 Sam.
13:23 ; 14:4. Dr. Robinson found here a
village called Mukhmas, which appeared
to be the remnant of a town of some size
and importance.

MICH'TAM, prefixed to Psalms 16, 56-
60, and meaning golden, profound, or as
some think, a writing or song, as in Isa.
38:9.

MID'IAN, the fourth son of Abraham
and Keturah, Gen. 25:2.

MID'IANITES, descendants of Midian,

a nomade race in Arabia, numerous, and

rich in flocks, herds, and camels, Isa.

60:6. The original and appropriate dis-

284

trict of the Midianites seems to have been
on the east side of the Elanitic branch of
the Red sea, where the Arabian geogra
phers place the city Madian, Acts 7:29.
But they appear to have spread them
selves northward, probably along the
desert east of mount Seir, to the vicinity
of the Moabites ; and on the other side,
also, they covered a territory extending
to the neighborhood of mount Sinai.
See Ex. 3 : 1 ; 18 : 1 ; Num. 22; 25 ; 31 ;
Judg. 6-8. In Gen. 25 : 2, 4, compared
with ver. 12-18, they are distinguished
from the descendants of Ishmael, though
elsewhere we find the two people intk
mately associated, so that they are call
ed now by one name and now by the
other. See Gen. 37 : 25, compared with
verse 36. Their capital city was call
ed Midian, and its remains were to be
seen in the time of Jerome and Euse-
bius. It was situated on the Arnon,
south of the city Ar, or Areopolis.

The Midianites were idolaters, and
often led Israel astray to worship their
gods. They also not unfrequently ren
dered the Hebrews tributary, and op
pressed them. See Num. 22; 25; 31.
Often when the Israelites had sown, and
their harvest was nearly ready to be
gathered in, the Midianites and Ama-
lekites, children of the eastern desert,
came down like locusts in countless
swarms, with their cattle and tents and
camels, to devour and carry off the fruits
of the ground, and not only rob but de
stroy their owners. And often did the
Jews, lacking the strength or the faith
or the leadership necessary for effectual
resistance, seek refuge in mountain-dens
and caverns till the invaders retired.
Gideon was their deliverer in one such
period of oppression, Judg. 6 ; 7. The
modem Ishmaelites still follow the an
cient practice, and their violent incur
sions, robberies, and murders might be
described in the same terms that were
used with reference to their fathers by
the historians of old.
MID'NIGHT. See HOUR,
MIG'DOL, a tower, a frontier town in
Northern Egypt, towards the Red sea,
Jer. 44 : 1 ; 46 : 14 ; Ezek. 29 : 10 ; 30:6.
The Hebrews, on leaving Egypt, en»
camped between it and the sea, Exod.
14:2; Num. 33:7.

MIG'RON, a town in the vicinity of
Ai and Gibeah, north of Michmash, now
lost, 1 Sam. 14:2; Isa. 10:28.

MIL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MIN

See MOLOCH.

MILE. The word mile, in Matt. 5:41,
is spoken of the Koman milliare, or mile,
which contained eight stadia, 1,000 paces,
that is, about 1,614 yards, while the Eng
lish mile contains 1,760 yards.

MILE'TUS, an ancient city, formerly
the metropolis of all Ionia, situated on
the western coast of Asia Minor, on the
confines of Caria, just south of the mouth
of the river Meander. It was the parent
of many colonies, and was celebrated for
a temple and oracle of Apollo Didy-
macuti, and as the birthplace of Thales,
Anaximander, Democritus, and other
famous men. The apostle Paul, on his
voyage from Macedonia towards Jerusa
lem, spent a day or two here, and held
an affecting interview with the Christian
elders of Ephesus, who at his summons
came nearly thirty miles from the north
to meet him, Acts 20 : 15-38. He also
revisited Miletus after his first imprison
ment at Rome, 2 Tim. 4:20. There were
Christians and bishops there from the
fifth to the eighth century ; but the city
has long been in ruins, and its exact site
can hardly be determined, so much is
the coast altered around the mouth of
the Meander.

MILK is often alluded to in the Bible,
as a symbol of pure, simple, and whole
some truth, Heb. 5 : 12, 13 ; 1 Pet. 2:2;
and in connection with honey, to denote
fertility and plenty, Gen. 49 : 12 ; Num.
16 : 13 ; Josh. 5:6. The Jews- and their
neighbors used not only the milk of
cows, but that of camels, sheep, and
goats, Gen. 32:15; Deut. 32:14; Prov.
27 : 37. See BUTTER and CHEESE.

MILL. See CORN.

MIL'LO, I., probably a bastion of the
citadel of Zion, at Jerusalem, mentioned
in the history of David and Solomon,
2 Sam. 5-9; 2 Kin. 12:20; 1 Chr. 11:8;
2Chr. 32:5.

II. The name of a family or of a for
tress at Shechem ; in the latter case, the
' ' house of Millo ' ' would mean the gar
rison of that fortress, Judg. 9:6.

MIL'LET, a kind of grain, of which
there are several species cultivated in
Italy, Syria, Egypt, and India. It is
used partly green as fodder, and partly
in the ripe grain for bread, etc. Ezekiel,
4:9, received an order from the Lord to
make himself bread with a mixture of
wheat, barley, beans, lentiles, and mil
let. " Durra," says Niebuhr, " is a kind

of millet, made into bread with camel's
milk, oil, butter, etc., and is almost the
only food eaten by the common people
of Arabia Felix. I found it so disagree
able, that I would willingly have pre
ferred plain barley bread." This illus
trates the appointment of it to the proph
et Ezekiel, as a part of his hard fare.

MIN'ISTER, one who attends or waits
on another, Matt. 20 : 28 ; so Elisha was
the minister of Elijah, 1 Kings 19 : 21 ;
2 Kings 3 : 11, and Joshua the minister of
Moses, Ex. 24:13 ; 33:11. These persons
did not feel themselves degraded by their
stations, and in due time they succeeded
to the office of their masters. In like
manner, John Mark was minister to Paul
and Barnabas, Acts 13 : 5. Angels are
ministers of God and of his people, Psa.
103:21 ; Heb. 1:14. The term is applied
to one who performs any function, or
administers any office or agency : as to
magistrates, Rom. 13 : 4, 6 ; to gospel
teachers, Rom. 15:16; 1 Cor. 5:5; 4:1;
and to teachers of error, 2 Cor. 11 : 15.
Christ came to minister, not to be min
istered unto ; and is called in another
sense a minister "of the circumcision,"
Rom. 15 : 8, and of the heavenly sanc
tuary, Heb. 8:2.

MIN'NI, a kingdom summoned to a
war against Babylon, with Ararat and
Ashchenaz, Jer. 51 : 27 ; supposed to de
note Armenia, or a portion of it.

MIN'NITH, a town of the Ammonites
285

MIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MIR

in the time of Jephthah, Judg. 11 : 33
four miles north-east of Heshbon. I
furnished fine wheat for the market o
Tyre, Ezek. 27:] 7.

MINT, a garden herb, sufficiently
known. The Pharisees, desiring to dis
tinguish themselves by a most scrupu
lous and literal observation of the law,
gave tithes of mint, anise, and cummin,
Matt. 23:23. Our Saviour does not cen
sure this exactness, but complains, that
while they were so precise in these lesser
matters, they neglected the essential
commandments of the law — making
their punctiliousness about easy and ex
ternal duties an excuse for disregarding
their obligations to love God supremely,
to be regenerated in heart, and just and
beneficent in life.

MIR'ACLE, also called a sign, wonder,
or mighty work, Acts 2 : 32 ; a work so su
perseding in its higher forms the estab
lished laws of nature as to evince the spe
cial interposition of God. A miracle is to
be distinguished from wonders wrought
by designing men through artful decep
tions, occult sciences, or laws of nature
unknown except to adepts. The mira
cles wrought by Christ, for example,
were such as God only could perform ;
were wrought in public, before numer
ous witnesses, both friends and foes ;
were open to the most perfect scrutiny ;
had an end in view worthy of divine
sanction ; were attested by witnesses
whose character and conduct establish
their claim to our belief; and are further
confirmed by institutions still existing,
intended to commemorate them, and
dating from the period of the miracles.

Christ appealed to his mighty works as
undeniable proofs of his divinity and
Messiahship, Matt. 9:6 ; 11:4, 5, 23, 24;
John 10:24-27 ; 20:29, 31. The decep
tions of the magicians in Egypt, and of
false prophets in ancient and in modern
times, Deut. 13:1 ; Matt. 24:24 ; 2 Thess.
2:9 ; Kev. 13:13, 14, would not bear the
above tests. By granting to any man
the power to work a miracle, God gave
the highest attestation to the truth he
should teach and the message he should
bring, 1 Kin. 18 : 38, 39; this is God's
own seal, not to be affixed to false
hoods ; and though the lying wonders
of Satan and his agents were so plau
sible as to " deceive if possible the very
elect," no one who truly sought to know
and do the will of God could be deluded
by them.

The chief object of miracles having
been to authenticate the revelation God
has made of his will, these mighty works
ceased when the Scripture canon was
completed and settled, and Christianity
was fairly established. Since the close
of the first century from the ascension
of Christ, few or no undoubted miracles
have been wrought ; and whether a suf
ficient occasion for new miracles will ever
arise is known only to God.

The following list comprises most of
the miracles on record in the Bible, not
including the supernatural visions and
revelations of himself which God vouch
safed to his ancient servants, nor those
numerous wonders of his providence
which manifest his hand almost as in
disputably as miracles themselves. See
also PROPHECY.

OLD TESTAMENT MIRACLES.

The creation of all things, Gen. 1.

The deluge, comprising many miracles,
Gen. 6-8.

The destruction of Sodom, etc., Gen. 19.

The healing of Abimelech, Gen. 20 :17, 18.

The burning bush, Ex. 3 : 2-4.

Moses' rod made a serpent, and restored,
Ex. 4:3, 4; 7:10.

Moses' hand made leprous, and healed. Ex.
4:6,7.

Water turned into blood, Ex. 4:9, 30.

The Nile turned into blood, Ex. 7 .20.

Frogs brought, and removed, Ex. 8 :6, 13.

Lice brought, Ex. 8 :17.

Flies brought, and removed, Ex. 8 : 21-31.

Murrain of beasts, Ex. 9:3-6.

Boils and blains brought, Ex. 9 :10, 11.

Hail brought, and removed, Ex. 9 .-23, 33.

Locusts brought, and removed, Ex. 10 :13,

Darkness brought, Ex. 10 :22.
First-born destroyed, Ex. 10:29.
286

MIR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MIS

The Red sea divided, Ex. 14 :21, 22.

Egyptians overwhelmed, Ex. 14 : 26-28.

Waters of Marah sweetened, Ex. 15 :28.

Quails and manna sent, Ex. 16.

Water from the rock, in Horeb, Ex. 17 :6.

Amalek vanquished, Ex. 17 : 11-13.

Pillar of cloud and fire, Num. 9 : 15-23.

Leprosy of Miriam, Num. \'Z :10.

Destruction of Korah, etc., Num. 16 : 28-35,
46-50.

Aaron's rod budding, Num. 17 :8.

Water from the rock, in Kadesh, Num.
20-11.

Healing by the brazen serpent, Num.
21:8,9.

Balaam's ass speaks, Num. 22 :28.

Plague in the desert, Num. 25 :1, 9.

Waters of Jordan divided, Josh. 3 : 10-17.

Jordan restored to its course, Josh. 4 : 18.

Jericho taken, Josh. 6:6-20.

Achan discovered, Josh. 7 : 14-21.

Sun and moon stand still, Josh. 10 : 12-14.

Gideon's fleece wet, Judg. 6 :36-40.

Midianites destroyed. Judg. 7 : 16-22.

Exploits of Samson, Jadg. 14-16.

House of Dagon destroyed, Judg. 16 :30.
Dagon falls before the ark, etc., 1 Sam. 5.
Return of the ark, 1 Sam. 6 :12.
Thunder and rain in harvest, 1 Sam. 12 :18.
Jeroboam's hand withered, etc., 1 Kin.
13 : 4, 6.

The altar rent, 1 Kin. 13 : 5.
Drought caused, 1 Kin. 17 :6.
Elijah fed by ravens, 1 Kin. 17 :6.
Meal and oil supplied, 1 Kin. 17 : 14-16.
Child restored to life, 1 Km. 17 : 22, 23.
Sacrifice consumed by fire, 1 Kin. 18 : 36, 38.
Rain brought, 1 Kin. 18 : 41-45.
Men destroyed by fire, 2 Kin. 1 : 10-12.
Waters of Jordan divided, 2 Kin. 2 : 14.
Noxious waters healed, 2 Kin. 2 :21, 22.
Children torn by bears, 2 Kin. 2 :24.
Waters brought, 2 Kin. 3 :l!>-20.
Oil supplied, 2 Kin. 4 : 1-7.
Child restored to life, 2 Kin. 4 : 32-35.
Naaman healed, 2 Kin. 5 :10, 14.
Gehazi's leprosy, 2 Kin. 5 :27.
Iron caused to swim, 2 Kin. 6:6.
Syrians smitten blind, etc. 2 Kin. 6 :18, 20.
A man restored to life, 2 Kin. 13 : 21.
Syrians destroyed, 2 Kin. 19 .-35.
Hezekiah healed *2 Kin. 20 :7.
Shadow put back, 2 Kin. 20 :11.
Pestilence in Israel, 1 Chr. 21 :14.
Jonah preserved by a fish, Jonah 1:17;
2 -.10.

NEW TESTAMENT MIRACLES.

The star in the east, Matt. 2 :3.

The Spirit like a dove. Matt. 3 :16.

Christ's fast and temptations, Matt. 4 -.1-11.

Many miracles of Christ, Matt. 4 : 23, 24 ;
8:16; 14:14, 36; 15:30; Mark 1:34; Luke
6:17-19.

Lepers cleansed, Matt. 8 :3, 4 ; Luke 17 :14.

Centurion's servant healed, Matt. 8 -5-13.

Peter's wife's mother healed, Matt. 8 :14.

Tempests stilled, Matt. 8 : 23-26 ; 14 :32.

Devils cast out, Matt. 8:28-32; 9:32, 33-
15:22-28; 17:14-18.

Paralytics healed, Matt. 9:2-6; Mark 2 :3-
12.

Issue of blood healed, Matt. 9 r 20-22. .

Jairus' daughter raised to life, Matt. 9 -.18,

Sight given to the blind, Matt. 9 : 27-30 ;
20 :b4 ; Mark 8 : 22-25 ; John 9:1-7.

The dumb restored, Matt. 9 :32, 33 ; 12 :22 ;
Mark 7 : o3-35.

Miracles by the disciples, Matt. 10 :1, 8.

Multitudes fed, Matt. 14:15-^1 ; 15:35-38.

Christ walking on the sea, Matt. 14 : 25-27.

Peter walking on the sea, Matt. 14:29.

Christ's transfiguration, etc., Matt. 17 :l-8.

Tribute from a fish's mouth, Matt. 17 :27.

The fig-tree withered, Matt. 21 :19.

Miracles at the crucifixion, Matt. 27 : 51-53,

Miracles at the resurrection, Matt. 28 :l-7 :
Luke 24 : 6.

Draught of fishes, Luke 5:4-6; John 21 :6.

Widow's son raised to life, Luke 7 :14, 15.

Miracles before Johns messengers, Luke
7:21,22.

Miracles by the seventy, Luke 10 :9, 17.

Woman healed of infirmity, Luke 13 : 11-13.

Dropsy cured, Luke 14 :2-4.

Malchus' ear restored, Luke 22 :50, 51.

Wrater turned into wine, John 2 :C-10.

Nobleman's son healed, John 4 : 46-53.

Impotent man healed, John 5 :5-9.

Sudden crossing of the sea, John 6 :21.

Lazarus raised from the dead, John 11 :43,
44.

Christ's coming to his disciples, John 20: 19,

Wonders at the Pentecost, Acts 2 : 1-11.
Miracles by the apostles, Acts 2 :43 ; 5 :12.
Lame man cured, Acts o : 7.
Death of Ananias and Sapphira, Acts 5:5,
10.

Many sick healed, Acts 5 :15, 16.
Apostles delivered from prison, Acts 5 :19.
Miracles by Stephen, Acts 6 :8.
3Iiracles by Philip, Acts 8 :6, 7, 13.
./Eneas made whole, Acts 9 :34.
Dorcas restored to life, Acts 9 :40.
Peter delivered from prison, Acts 12 :T6-10.
Elymas struck blind, Acts 13 :11.
Miracles by Paul and Barnabas, Acts 14 :&
Lame man cured, Acts 14 :10.
Unclean spirit cast out, Acts 16 : 18.
Paul and Silas delivered, Acts 16 :25, 26.
Special miracles, Acts 19 :11, 12.
Eutychus restored to life, Acts 20 : 10-12.
Viper's bite made hafinless, Acts 28 :5.
Father of Publius, etc. , healed, Acts 28 : 8, 9.

MIR'IAM, the sister of Moses and Aa
ron, probably the one who watched over
Moses in the ark of bulrushes, Ex. 2 : 4,
5; Num. 26:59; Mic. 6:4. As a proph
etess, she led the women of Israel in
their song of worship and thanksgiving
to God on the drowning of the Egyp
tians, Ex. 15 : 20, 21. Her jealous mur
murs against Moses and hi3 Cushite wife
were punished by a temporary leprosy,
Num. 12 ; Deut. 24:9 ; but she was for
given and restored, and near the close of
the wanderings of Israel, died at Kadesh-
barnea, Num. 20:1.

MIR'ROB. See LOOKING-GLASS.

MISH'AEL, or ME'SHACH, a fellow-cap
tive with Daniel in Babylon. See ABED-

287

MIT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MOA

THE ROMAN AS.

MfTE, a small piece of money, two of
which made a kodr antes, or the fourth
part of the Roman as. The as was equal
to three and one-tenth farthings ster
ling, or about one and one-half cents.
The mite, therefore, would be equal to
about two mills, Luke 12:59; 21:2.

MI'TRE, the sacred turban or bonnet
of the Jewish high-priest, made of a piece
of fine linen many yards long, wound
about the head, and having in front, se
cured with blue lace, a plate of pure gold
on which was inscribed, ' ' HOLINESS UNTO
THE LORD," Ex. 28 : 4, 36-38; 39:28-31.

MIT'YLENE, the ancient capital of
the island of Lesbos ; a seaport on the
east side of the island, towards Asia Mi
nor. Paul touched there on his way from
Greece to Jerusalem, Acts 20 : 14. The
island is now called Mitelino ; and the
ruins of the city still exist near Castro.

MIZ'PAH, or MIZ'PEH, a watch-tower, I.,
a town in Gilead, Hos. 5:1; so named
from the stone-heap cast up by Jacob
and Laban, Gen. 31 : 49 ; supposed by
many to be the place mentioned in the
history of Jephthah, Judg. 10:17 ; 11:11,
29, 34.

II. A city of Benjamin, a central gath
ering-place of the tribes in the period of
the judges, Josh. 18:26; Judg. 20:1, 3;
21:1. Here Samuel sacrificed and judg
ed, and here Saul was designated as king,
288

1 Sam. 7:5-16 ; 10:17. It was fortified
by Asa as a defence against Israel, 1 Kin.
15 : 22, was the residence of the governor,
under Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 40 : 6, and
was reoccupied after the captivity, Neh.
3:19. Its name indicates that it occu
pied an elevated site, and it was near
Ramah ; hence Dr. Robinson identifies
it with the modern place called Neby
Samwil,. four or five miles north-north
west of Jerusalem.

III. A town in the plain of Judah,
Josh. 15:38.

IV. A valley near mount Hermon,
towards Zidon, Josh. 11:3, 8.

MIZ'RAIM, a son of Ham, and father
of various African races, Gen. 10:6, but
particularly of the Egyptians, to whom
his name was given. Mizraim is also the
Hebrew word for Egypt in the Bible, and
this country is still called Misr in Arabic.

MNA'SON of Cyprus, "an old disci
ple" with whom Paul lodged at Jerusa
lem, Acts 21:16.

MOABITES, descendants of Moab the
son of Lot, Gen. 19:30-38. The land of
Moab lay east and south-east of the Dead
sea, and chiefly south of the river Arnon.
At one period, however, it extended
north as far as the Jabbok, and for a
long time the region beyond the Jordan
opposite Jericho retained the name of
"the plains of Moab," Num. 22:1 ; Deut.
1:5 ; 29:1 ; Josh. 13:32. The Moabites
had dispossessed a race of giants called
Emim, Deut. 2 : 11, and had themselves
been expelled by the Amorites from the
territory north of the Arnon, Nam.
21 : 13, 26 ; Judg. 11 : 13-18, which was
again conquered by Moses, and assigned
to the tribe of Reuben. »,0n the approach
of Israel from Egypt, the Moabites acted
with great inhumanity, Num. 22-24 ;
Deut. 2:8, 9 ; and though God spared
them from conquest, he excluded them
and their seed even to the tenth genera
tion from the peculiar privileges of his
people, Deut. 23:3-6. They were gross
idolaters, worshipping Chemosh and
Baal-peor with obscene rites, Num. 25,
and sometimes with human sacrifices,
2 Kin. 3 : 27. See MOLOCH. At times,
as in the days of Ruth, there was peace
between them and Israel ; but a state of
hostility was far more common, as in the
time of Eglon, Judg. 3:12-30; of Saul,
1 Sam. 14:47 ; of David, 2 Sam. 8:2, 12 ;
of Joram and Jeroboam, 2 Kin. 3 ; 13:20 ;
14 : 25. They aided Nebuchadnezzar

MOL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MON

against the Jews, 2 Kin. 24 : 2 ; Ezek.
25 : 6-11 ; and after these began to be
carried captive, appear to have regained
their old possessions north of the Arnon,
Isa. 15 ; 16. The Jewish prophets re
corded many threatenings against these
hereditary enemies of God and his peo
ple, Num. 24:17; Psa. 60:8; 83:6; Jer.
25:9-21 ; 48; Amos 2:1-3 ; and all trav
ellers concur in attesting the fulfilment
of these predictions. Desolation and
gloom brood over the mountains of
Moab, and its fruitful valleys are for the
most part untilled. It is under Turkish

government, but is inhabited chiefly by
migratory Arabs, Zeph. 2:8, 9. Few
travellers have ventured to traverse it
in modern times. They describe it as
abounding in ruins, such as shattered
tombs, cisterns, walls, temples, etc.,
proving that it was once densely popu
lated. See ' ' Keith on Prophecy. ' '

MOLE, a small animal, which burrows
obscurely in the ground, Isa. 2:20. It is
common in some parts of Palestine, and
is mentioned as unclean in Lev. 11: CO ;
or, according to Bochart, in ver. 29, in
the word translated "weasel."

MO'LECH, MO'LOCH, or MIL'COM, a king,
I Kin. 11:5, 7 ; Acts 7:43 ; supposed also
to be intended by Malcham, or "their
king," in Jer. 49:1; Amos 1:15; Zeph.
1:5, the name of a heathen deity, wor
shipped by the Ammonites. The Israel
ites also introduced the worship of this
idol, both during their wanderings in
the desert, and after their settlement in
Palestine, 2 Kin. 23:10; Ezek. 20:26, 31.
The principal sacrifices to Moloch were
human victims, namely, children who
were cast alive into the red-hot arms of
his statue. See HINNOM. Compare Lev
18:21; 20:2; Deut. 12:31; Psa. 106:37,
38 ; Jer. 7:31 ; 19:2-6 ; 32:35. Accord
ing to some of these passages, Moloch
would seem to be another name for
13

Baal ; and we find that the Phoenicians,
whose chief god was Baal, and the Car
thaginians their colonists, worshipped
his image with similar horrid sacrifices,
as the Romans did their god Saturn.

MON'EY. See next page.

MONTH. The Hebrew months were
lunar months, that is, from one new
moon to another. These lunar months
were each reckoned at twenty-nine days
and a half; or rather, one was of thirty
days, the following of twenty-nine, and
so on alternately : that which had thirty
days was called a full or complete month ;
that which had but twenty-nine days
was called incomplete. The new moon
was always the beginning of the month,
and this day they called new-moon day,
289

MON

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MON

or new month. The Hebrews usually
designated the months only as first, sec
ond, etc. ; and the names by which they
are now known are believed to be of
Persian origin, and to have been adopted
by the Jews during the captivity. At
the exodus from Egypt, which occurred
in April, God ordained that that month —
the seventh of the civil year — should be
the first of the sacred year, according to
which the religious festivals were to be
reckoned ; and from that time both these
modes of numbering the months contin
ued to be employed.

As the Jewish months were governed
by the moon, while ours entirely disre
gard it, the two systems cannot wholly
coincide. It is generally agreed, how
ever, that their month Nisan answers
most nearly to our April, lyar to our
May, etc., as in the following table.

HebrewMonths.

Nearly corre
sponding with
our

Months
of the
Sacred
Year.

Months
of the
Civil
Year.

Sea
sons.

Abib, or Nisan,
Ex. 12:2,18.
" 13:4.
Esth. 3 : 7,

April.

1st

7th.

LATTER R. DRY SEASON. KARLY R. RAINY SEASON.

lyar, or Zif.
1 Kin. 6 : 1.

May.

2d.

8th.

Sivan,
Esth. 8 : 9.

June.

3d.

9th.

Tammuz,
Ezek. 8 : 14.

July.

4th.

10th.

Ab.

August.

5th.

llth.

Elul,
Neh. 6:15.

September.

6th.

12th.

Ethanim, or
Tishri,
1 Kin. 8 : 2.

October.

7th.

1st.

Marcheshvan,
or Bui,
1 Kin. 6:38.

November.

8th.

2d.

Chisleu,
Zech, 7:1.

December.

9th.

3d.

Tebeth,
Esth. 2 : 16.

January.

10th.

4th.

Shebat,
Zech. 1 : 7.

February.

llth.

5th.

Adar,
Esth. 3 : 7.

March.

12th.

6th.

Twelve lunar months making but three
hundred and fifty-four days and six
290

hours, the Jewish year was short of the
Roman by twelve days. To recover the
equinoctial points, from which this dif
ference of the solar and lunar year would
separate the new moon of the first month,
the Jews every three years intercalated a
thirteenth month, which they called Ve-
adar, the second Adar. By this means
their lunar year nearly equalled the
solar. See YEAR.

MON'EY was anciently weighed, and
did not at first exist in the form of coins.
The most ancient commerce was con
ducted by barter, or exchanging one sort
of merchandise for another. One man
gave what he could spare to another,
who gave him in return part of his su
perabundance. Afterwards, the more
precious metals were used in traffic, as a
value more generally known and stated,
and the amount agreed upon was paid
over by weight, Gen. 23:16 ; 43:21 ; Ex.
30:24. Lastly they gave this metal, by
public authority, a certain mark, a cer
tain weight, and a certain degree of alloy,
to fix its value, and to save buyers and
sellers the trouble of weighing and exam
ining the coins. The first regular coin
age among the Jews is supposed to have
been in the time of Simon Maccabaeus,
less than a century and a half before
Christ. The coins were the shekel, and
a half, a third, and a quarter of a shekel.
The Jewish coins bore an almond rod
and a vase of manna, but no image of
any man was allowed. Compare Matt.
22 : 16-22. Many Greek and Roman
coins circulated in Judea in New Testa
ment times. See Tables at the end of
the volume ; also MITE, PENNY, SHEKEL.

Volney says, "The practice of weigh
ing money is general in Syria, Egypt,
and all Turkey. No piece, however ef
faced, is refused there : the merchant
draws out his scales and weighs it, as in
the days of Abraham, when he purchased
his sepulchre. In considerable payments,
an agent of exchange is sent for, who
counts paras by thousands, rejects pieces
of false money, and weighs all the se
quins, either separately or together."
This may serve to illustrate the phrase,
"current money with the merchant,"
Gen. 23 : 16 ; and the references to "di
vers weights " — a large one to weigh the
money received, and a small one for that
paid out ; and to ' ' wicked balances, ' '
Deut. 25:13; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6:11.
Our Saviour alludes to a class of " ex-

MOO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MOS

changers," who appear to have taken
money on deposit, and so used it that
the owner might afterwards receive his
own with interest, Matt. 25 : 27. There
were also money brokers who had stands
in the outer court of the temple, proba
bly to exchange foreign for Jewish coins ;
and to accommodate those who wished
to pay the yearly half-shekel tax, Ex.
30 : 15, or to present an offering. They
were expelled by the Lord of the temple,
not only for obtruding a secular business
within the house of prayer, but also for
pursuing it dishonestly, Mark 11:15-17.

In 1 Tim. 6 : 10, Paul speaks of the
" love of money" as a root of all evils ;
censuring not money itself, but the love
of it — a prevailing form of human selfish
ness and covetousness. This passion, to
which so many crimes are chargeable,
may infest the heart of a poor man as
well as that of the rich ; for the one may
have as much of "the love of money"
as the other.

MOON. This beautiful and stately
ruler of the night, Gen. 1 : 16, is one of
the chief witnesses to mankind of the
goodness, wisdom, and power of the
Creator, Psa. 8:3; and as receiving all
its light from the sun, and reflecting it
on all around, it is a striking image of
the church of Christ. In the clear sky
of the East, the moon shines with pecul
iar brilliancy; and it was worshipped
by most nations of antiquity, either
directly, or as an idol-goddess under the
name of Ashtoreth, Artemis, Diana, Hec
ate, Meni, Mylitta, Maja, etc. The He
brews were specially cautioned against
this form of idolatry, Dent. 4:19 ; 17:3 ;
and yet fell into it, 2 Kin. 21 : 3 ; Isa.
65:11; Jer. 7:18; 8:2; 19:13; 44:17-
25. See LUNATIC and NEAV MOON.

MOR'DECAI, the uncle of Esther, who
rose to dignity and honor in the court of
Ahasuerus. See the book of Esther.

MORI' AH, the hill on which the tem
ple of Jerusalem was built, 2 Chr. 3 : 1.
See JERUSALEM. It seems to have been
the same place where Abraham was
about to offer up Isaac, Gen. 22 : 1, 2 ;
and where David interceded for his peo
ple at the threshing-floor of Araunah,
2 Sam. 24:16-25.

MOR'TAR. This well-known utensil
was employed by the Hebrews in prepar
ing manna for use, Num. 11 : 8. Large
iron mortars, for pounding grain, have
been used by the Turks in the execution

of criminals ; but it is not known that
the Jews ever practised this mode of
punishment. To this day a favorite
article of food in Syria is prepared by
pounding meat for hours in an iron mor
tar, and adding grain and spice while the
process of "braying" goes on, Prov.
27:22.

MO'SES, the name of the illustrious
prophet and legislator of the Hebrews,
who led them from Egypt to the prom
ised land. Having been originally im
posed by a native Egyptian princess, the
word is no doubt Egyptian in its ori
gin, and Josephus gives its true deriva
tion — from the two Egyptian words, MO,
water, and USE, saved. With this accords
the Septuagint form, Mouses. The He
brews by a slight change accommodat
ed it to their own language, as they did
also in the case of some other foreign
words ; calling it MOSIIE, from the verb
MASIIA, to draw. See Ex. 2 : 10. Moses
was born about 1571 B. c., the son of
Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of
Levi, and the younger brother of Miriam
and Aaron. His history is too extensive
to permit insertion here, and in general
too well known to need it. It is enough
simply to remark, that it is divided into
three periods, each of forty years. The
first extends from his infancy, when he
was exposed in the Nile, and found and
adopted by the daughter of Pharaoh, to
his flight to Midian. During this time
he lived at the Egyptian court, and " was
learned in all the wisdom of the Egyp
tians, and was mighty in words and in
deeds," Acts 7:22. This is no unmean
ing praise; the "wisdom" of the Egyp
tians, and especially of their priests, was
then the profoundcst in the world. The
second period was from his flight till
his return to Egypt, Acts 7 : 30, during
the whole of which interval he appears
to have lived in Midian, it may be much
after the manner of the Bedaween sheikhs
of the present day. Here he married
Zipporah, daughter of the wise and pious
Jethro, and became familiar with life in
the desert. What a contrast between
the former period, spent amid the splen
dors and learning of a court, and this
lonely nomadic life. Still it was in this
way that God prepared him to be the
instrument of deliverance to His people
during the third period of his life, which
extends from the exodus out of Egypt to
his death on mount Nebo. In this in-
291

MOS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MOT

terval how much did he accomplish, as
the immediate agent of the Most High.

The life and institutions of Moses pre
sent one of the finest subjects for the pen
of a Christian historian, who is at the
same time a competent biblical antiqua
ry. His institutions breathe a spirit of
freedom, purity, intelligence, justice,
and humanity, elsewhere unknown ; and
above all, of supreme love, honor, and
obedience to God. They moulded the
character of the Hebrews, and transform
ed them from a nation of shepherds into
a people of fixed residence and agricul
tural habits. Through that people, and
through the Bible, the influence of these
institutions has been extended over the
world ; and often where the letter has not
been observed, the spirit of them has been
adopted. Thus it was in the laws estab
lished by the pilgrim fathers of New
England ; and no small part of what is of
most value in the institutions which they
founded, is to be ascribed to the influence
of the Hebrew legislator.

The name of this servant of God oc
curs repeatedly in Greek and Latin writ
ings, and still more frequently in those
of the Arabs and the rabbinical Jews.
Many of their statements, however, are
mere legends without foundation, or else
distortions of the Scripture narrative.
By the Jews he has always been espe
cially honored, as the most illustrious
personage in all their annals, and as the
founder of their whole system of laws
and institutions. Numerous passages
both in the Old and New Testament
show how exalted a position they gave
him, Psa. 103:7; 105:26; 106:16: Isa.
63:12 ; Jer. 15 : 1 ; Dan. 9 : 11 ; Matt.
8:4; John 5:45 ; 9 : 28 : Acts 7:20, 37 ;
Rom. 10:5, 19; Heb. 3; 11:23.

In all that he wrought and taught, he
was but the agent of the Most High ; and
yet in all his own character stands hon
orably revealed. Though naturally lia
ble to anger and impatience, he so far
subdued himself as to be termed the
meekest of men, Num. 12 : 3 ; and his
piety, humility, and forbearance, the
wisdom and vigor of his administration,
his unfailing zeal and faith in God, and
his disinterested patriotism are worthy
of all imitation. Many features of his
character and life furnish admirable
illustrations of the work of Christ — as
the deliverer, ruler, and guide of his peo
ple, bearing them on his heart, interced-
292

ing for them, rescuing, teaching, and
nourishing them even to the promised
land. All the religious institutions of
Moses pointed to Christ; and he him
self, on the mount, two thousand years
after his death, paid his homage to the
Prophet he had foretold, Deut. 18 : 15-
19, beheld "that goodly mountain and
Lebanon," Deut. 3:25, and was admit
ted to commune with the Saviour on the
most glorious of themes, the death He
should accomplish at Jerusalem, Luke
9:31.

Moses was the author of the Penta
teuch, as it is called, or the first five
books of the Bible. In the composition
of them he was probably assisted by
Aaron, who kept a register of public
transactions, Ex. 17:14; 24:4, 7 ; 34:27 ;
Num. 33:1, 2; Deut, 31:24, etc. Some
things were added by a later inspired
hand ; as for example, the last chapter
of Deuteronomy. The ninetieth Psalm
also is ascribed to him; and its noble
and devout sentiments acquire a new
significance, if received as from his pen
near the close of his pilgrimage.

MOTH. The common moth is an in
sect destructive to woollen cloths. The
egg is laid by a small white miller, and
produces a small shining worm ; which
by another transformation becomes a
miller. Allusions to the moth, as de
vouring clothes, and as a frail and fee
ble insect, are frequent in Scripture, Job
4:19; 13 : 28 ; 27 : 18 ; Isa. 50 : 9 ; Hos.
5:12; Matt. 6:19, 20. See GARMENTS.

The insects called in general moths,
of which the above is only one species,
are exceedingly numerous. The main
genus is called by naturalists Phalcena,
and contains more than fifteen hundred
species. Moths fly abroad only in the
evening and night ; differing in this
respect from the tribe of butterflies,
which fly only by day. Their larva:, or
the worms from which they spring, are
active and quick in motion, mostly
smooth, and prey voraciously on the
food adapted to them ; the common
moth on cloths, others on furs, the
leaves of plants, etc.

MOTH'ER. The Hebrew words AM and
AB, mother and father, are simple and
easy sounds for infant lips, like mamma
and papa in English. See ABBA. '; Be
fore the child shall have knowledge to
cry, My father, and My mother," Isa.
8:4. In addition to the usual meaning

MOU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MOU

of " mother," AM sometimes signifies" in
the Bible grandmother, 1 Kin. 15:10, or
some remote female ancestor, Gen. 3:20.
It is put for a chief city, 2 Sam. 20 : 19 ;
for a benefactress, Judg. 5:7; for a na
tion, as in the expressive English phrase,
" the mother country, ' ' Isa. 3 : 12 ; 49 : 23.
The fond affection of a mother is often
referred to in Scripture ; and God has
employed it to illustrate his tender love
for his people, Isa. 49 : 15. Mothers are
endowed with an all-powerful control
over their offspring ; and most men of
eminence in the world have acknowledg
ed their great indebtedness to maternal
influence. When Buonaparte asked Ma
dame Campan what the French nation
most needed, she replied in one word,
"Mothers." The Christian church al
ready owes much, and* will owe infinitely
more, to the love, patience, zeal, and
self-devotion of mothers in training their
children for Christ.

MOUN'TAINS are among the most
sublime and impressive of the Creator's
works on earth, and form the noblest
and most enduring monuments of great
events. Most of the mountains of Scrip
ture thus stand as witnesses for God —
every view of their lofty summits, and
every recurrence to them in thought re
minding us of the sacred facts and truths
connected with them. Thus mount Ar
arat is a standing memorial of the del
uge — of man's sin, God's justice, and
God's mercy. Mount Sinai asserts the
terrors of the divine law. Mount Car-
mel summons us, like the prophet Eli
jah of old, not to "halt between two
opinions;" but if Jehovah is God, to
love and serve him. The mount of the
Transfiguration still shines with the
glory of the truths there taught, and
mounts Ebal and Gerizim still echo the
curses and the blessings once so solemn
ly pronounced from them. So mount
Hor, Nebo, Lebanon, and Gilboa have
been signalized by striking events ; mount
Zion, Moriah, and Olivet are covered
with precious memories ; and the moun
tains about Jerusalem and all other
"everlasting hills" are sacred witnesses
of the eternal power and faithfulness of
God.

Judea was eminently a hilly country ;
and the sacred poets and prophets drew
from the mountains around them many
beautiful and sublime illustrations of di
vine truth. Thus a kingdom is termed

a mountain, Psa. 30 : 7, especially tie
kingdom of Christ, Isa. 2:2; 11:9;
Dan. 2 : 35. Thus also difficulty is a
"great mountain," Zech. 4:7. A revo
lution is the "carrying of mountains
into the midst of the sea," Psa. 46 : 3.
God easily and speedily removes every
obstacle — "hills melt like wax at the
presence of the Lord," Psa. 97 : 5. The
integrity of the divine nature is sure and
lasting — "Thy righteousness is like the
great mountains," Psa. 36:6. The eter
nity of God's love is pictured out by this
comparison: "For the mountains shall
depart, and the hills be removed ; but
my kindness shall not depart from thee,
neither shall the covenant of my peace
be removed, saith the Lord that hath
mercy on thee," Isa. 54:10. When Da
vid wishes to express the stability of his
kingdom, he says, "Lord, by thy favor
thou hast made my mountain to stand
strong," Psa. 30 : 7. The security and
protection afforded by God to his people
are thus beautifully delineated : " As the
mountains are round about Jerusalem,
so the Lord is round about his people
from henceforth, even for ever," Psa.
125 : 2. When the prophet would ex
press his faith in God, how pure it was,
and what confidence it inspired, far above
any assurance which could arise from
earthly blessing or defence, he sings,
"Truly in vain is salvation hoped for
from the hills, and from the multitude
of mountains: truly in the Lord our God
is the salvation of Israel," Jer. 3:23.

The hills of Judea were anciently cul
tivated to the top, with scores of terra
ces, and covered with vines, olives, figs,
etc. Hence the expression, alluding to
the vine of God's planting, "The hills
were covered with the shadow of it,"
Psa. 80:10; and others of the same
kind. Travellers say it is a rare thing to
pass a mountain, even in the wild parts
of Judea, which does not show that it was
formerly terraced and made^o flow with
oil and wine, though it may now be des
olate and bare. Says Paxton, "There
are many districts that are sadly encum
bered with rock, yet the soil among these
rocks is of a very superior kind: and
were the rock somewhat broken up, the
large pieces piled, and the small mixed
with the soil, it might be made very
productive. There is very striking proof
of this in some districts, as that about
Hebron, which abounds with rock, and
293

MOD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MOU

yet is covered with the most productive
vineyards. As to such a rocky country
being so spoken of in the days of the
patriarchs, I suppose that it was in truth,
at that time, the finest of lands ; that
the rock which now lies bare in so many
places, was then all covered with earth
of the richest kind."

"Even in those parts where all is now
desolate," remarks Dr. Robinson, "there
are everywhere traces of the hand of the
men of other days. . . . Most of the
hills indeed exhibit the remains of terra
ces built up around them, the undoubted
signs of former cultivation." Again,
when travelling towards Hebron, he ob
serves, "Many of the former terraces
along the hill sides are still in use ; and
the land looks somewhat as it may have
done in ancient times."

"We often counted forty, fifty, sixty,

and even seventy terraces from the bot
tom of the valley up to the summit of
the mountain. . . . What a garden of
delights this must have been, when, in
stead of grass making green the surface,
verdant and luxuriant vines were their
clothing. . . . We could understand how
the words of Joel shall yet be literally
true, 'The mountains shall drop down
new wine,' when every vine on these
hills shall be hanging its ripe clusters
over the terraces. In observing too the
singular manner in which the most
rocky mountains have at one time been
made, through vast labor and industry,
to yield an abundant return to the hus
bandman, we saw clearly the meaning of
the promise in Ezekiel, ' But ye, 0 moun
tains of Israel, ye shall shoot forth your
branches, and yield your fruit.' " Nar
rative of a Mission.

MOURN'ING. The Hebrews, at the
death of their friends and relations, made
striking demonstrations of grief and
mourning. They wept, tore their clothes,
smote their breasts, threw dust upon
their heads, Josh. 7:6, and lay upon the
ground, went barefooted, pulled their
hair and beards, or cut them, Ezra 9:3,
Isa. 15 : 2. and made incisions on their
breasts, or tore them with their nails,
Lev. 19 : 28 ; 21 : 5 ; Jer. 16 : 6 ; 48 : 37.
The time of mourning was commonly
seven days, 1 Sam. 31:11-13 ; but it was
lengthened or shortened according to cir
cumstances, Zech. 12:10. That for Mo-
294

ses and Aaron was prolonged to thirty
days, Num. 20:29 ; Deut. 34:8 ; and that
for Jacob to seventy days, Gen. 50:3.

During the time of their mourning,
the near relations of the deceased con
tinued sitting in their houses, and fasted,
2 Sam. 12 : 16, or ate on the ground.
The food they took was thought unclean,
and even themselves were judged im
pure. "Their sacrifices shall be unto
them as the bread of mourners ; all that
.eat thereof shall be polluted," Hos. 9:4.
Their faces were covered, and in all that
time they could not apply themselves to
any occupation, nor read the book of the

MOU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MOU

law, nor offer their usual prayers. They
did not dress themselves, nor make their
beds, nor uncover their heads, nor shave
themselves, nor cut their nails, nor go
into the bath, nor salute any body. No
body spoke to them unless they spoke
first, Job 2 : 11-13. Their friends com
monly went to visit and comfort them,
John 11 : 19, 39, bringing them food,
2 Sam. 3 : 35 ; Jer. 16:7. They also went
up to the roof, or upon the platform of
their houses, to bewail their misfortune :
"They shall gird themselves with sack
cloth ; on the tops of their houses, and
in their streets, every one shall howl,
weeping abundantly, ' ' Isa. 15:3; Jer.
48:38. The mourning dress among the
Hebrews was not fixed either by law or
custom. We only find in Scripture that
they used to tear their garments, a cus
tom still observed ; but now they tear a
small part merely, and for form's sake,
2 Sam. 13:19; 2 Chr. 34:27; Ezra 9:3;
Job 2 : 12 ; Joel 2 : 13. Anciently, in
times of mourning, they clothed them
selves in sackcloth, or hair-cloth, that is,
in clothes of coarse brown or black stuff,
2 Sam. 3:31; 1 Kin. 21:27; Esth. 4:1;
Psa. 35:13; 69:11.

They hired women to weep and wail,
and also persons to play on instruments,
at the funerals of the rich or distinguish
ed, Jer. 9 : 17. In Matt. 9 : 23, we ob
serve a company of minstrels or players
on the flute, at the funeral of a girl of
twelve years of age. All that met a
funeral procession were accustomed to
join them for a time, to accompany them
on their way, sometimes relieving the
bearers of the bier, and mingling their
tears with those of the mourners, Horn.
12:15.

The custom of hiring women to weep
and wail has come down to modern
times. The following account of such a
scene at Nablous, the ancient Shechem,
is from Dr. Jowett. The governor of
the city had died the very morning of
Dr. Jowett's arrival. "On coming with
in sight of the gate, we perceived a nu
merous company of females, who were
singing in a kind of recitative, far from
melancholy, and beating time with their
hands. If this be mourning, I thought,
it is of a strange kind. It had indeed
sometimes more the air of angry defi
ance. But on our reaching the gate, it
was suddenly exchanged for most hide
ous plaints and shrieks, which, with the

feeling that we were entering a city at
no time celebrated for its hospitality,
struck a very dismal impression upon
my mind. They accompanied us a few
paces; but it soon appeared that the
gate was their station, to which, having
received nothing from us, they returned.
We learned, in the course of the even
ing, that these were only a small detach
ment of a very numerous body of ' cun
ning women,' who were filling the
whole city with their cries, ' taking up a
wailing,' with the design, as of old, to
make the eyes of all the inhabitants
' run down with tears, and their eye
lids gush out with waters, ' Jer. 9:17, 18.
For this good service, they would, the
next morning, wait upon the govern
ment and principal persons, to receive
some trifling fee."

Some of the Jewish forms of mourn
ing are the appropriate and universal
language of grief; others, to our modern
and occidental taste, savor of extrava
gance. None of these were enjoined by
their religion, which rather restricted
than encouraged them, Lev. 10: 6; 19 : 27;
21:1-11; Num. 6:7 ; Deut. 14:1. They
were the established customs of the times.
Sorrow finds some relief in reversing all
the usages of ordinary life. Christianity,
however, moderates and assuages our
grief; shows us a Father's hand holding
the rod, and the dark valley itself pene
trated by the heavenly light into which
it emerges, 1 Cor. 15 : 53-55 ; 1 Thess.
4:14-18: Rev. 7:13-17; 14:13.

THE FIELD-MOUSE.

MOUSE, in the Scriptures, is used
chiefly of the field-mouse, but probably
includes various species of these animals,
some of which were eaten. Moses, Lev.
11 : 29, declared it to be unclean, yet it
was sometimes eaten ; and Isaiah, 66:17,
reproaches the Jews with this practice.
295

MOD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MUR

The hamster and the dormouse, as well
as the jerboa, are sometimes used for
food by the modern Arabs. Mice made
great havoc in the fields of the Philis
tines, after that people had taken the
ark of the Lord ; which induced them
to send it back with mice and emerods
of gold, 1 Sam. 5:6, 9, 11; 6:4, 5. The
field-mice are equally prevalent in those
regions at the present day. See HAMATII.

MOUTH is sometimes used in Scripture
for speaker, Ex. 4:16; Jer. 15:19. God
spoke with Moses "mouth to mouth,"
Num. 12:8, that is, condescendingly and
clearly. The law was to be "in the
mouth of the Hebrews, Ex. 13:9, often
rehearsed and talked of. •' ' The rod of his
mouth," Isa. 11:4, and the sharp sword,
Rev. 1:16, denote the power of Christ's
word to convict, control, and judge ;
compare Isa. 49 : 2 ; Heb. 4 : 12. The
Hebrew word for mouth is often trans
lated "command," Gen. 45:21; Job
39:27; Eccl. 8:2; and the unclean spir
its out of the mouth of the dragon, Eev.
16:14, are the ready executers of his
commands.

MULBERRY-TREE. The word trans
lated mulberry-tree signifies literally
tveeping, and indicates some tree which
distils balsam or gum. The particular
species is not known ; though some think
the poplar, or aspen, may be intended,
2 Sam. 5:23, 24; 1 Chr. 14:14, 15.

MULE, a mixed animal, the offspring
of a horse and an ass. A mule is small
er than a horse, and has long cars, though
not so long as those of an ass. It is a
remarkably hardy, patient, obstinate,
sure footed animal, lives twice as long as
a horse, and is much more easily and
cheaply fed. Mules are much used in
Spain and South America, for transport
ing goods across the mountains. So also
in the Alps, they are used by travellers
among the mountains, where a horse
would hardly be able to pass with safety.
There is no probability that the Jews
bred mules, because it was forbidden to
couple creatures of different species, Lev.
19 : 19. But they were not forbidden to
obtain them from abroad and u$e them,

1 Kin. 10 : 25 ; Ezek. 27 : 14. Thus we
may observe, especially after David's
time, that mules, male and female, were
common among the Hebrews; formerly
they used only male and female asses,

2 Sam. 13:29; 18:9; 1 Kin. 1:33; 10:25;
18:5; Esth. 8:10, 14.

296

In Gen. 36 : 24, Anah is said to have
found "mules" in the desert; but the
Hebrew word here probably means hot
springs. See ANAH.

MUNITIONS, implements of war.
" Munitions of rocks ' ' seems to mean, a
rocky fortress or strong-hold. The strong
tower of the righteous is impregnable
and inaccessible to their foes, Isa. 33:16.

MUR'DER, the designed and malevo
lent taking of human life, was by the
original appointment of God a crime to
be punished by death. Cain, the first
murderer, recognized it as such, Gen,
4 : 14. The ground for the death-penalty
for murder is the eminent dignity and
sacredness of man as a child of God, Gen.
9:5, 6. Like the Sabbath and marriage,
it is a primeval and universal institution
for mankind, and all nations have so
recognized it, Acts 28 : 4. The Mosaic
code reenacted it, Lev. 24:17 ; and while
providing for the unintentional homicide
a safe retreat, declares that deliberate
murder must be punished by death, from
which neither the city of refuge nor
the altar of God could shield the crim
inal, Ex. 21 : 12-14 ; Num. 35 : 9-34 ;
Deut. 19 : 1-13 ; 1 Kin. 2 : 5, 6, 28-34.
Death was usually inflicted by stoning,
upon the testimony of at least two wit
nesses, Num. 35 : 30. If a corpse were
found in the open fields, and the murder
er could not be discovered, the town
nearest to the spot was obliged to purge
itself by a solemn ceremony, lest it
should become liable to the judgments of
God, Deut. 21 : 1-9. In various ways
God is represented as specially abhorring
this crime, and securing its punishment,
Deut. 32 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 1 ; Psa. 9 : 12 ;
55 : 23 ; Hos. 1:4; Rev. 22 : 15. Our
Saviour instructs us that one may be
guilty, in the sight of God, of murder in
the heart, without any overt act, Matt.
5:21,22; 1 John 3 : 15. Nothing is said
specially in the law respecting self-mur
der, and only the cases of Saul, Ahitho-
phel, and Judas are described in the Bi
ble, 1 Sam. 31 : 4 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 23 ; Acts
1 : 18. Of all murders, that of the soul
is incomparably the most awful, John
8:44, and many plunge not only them
selves but others into the second death.

MUR'RAIN, a special mortality,
wrought by miraculous agency, among
the cattle of the Egyptians, while those
of the Hebrews in the same region were
unharmed, Ex. 9:3.

MUS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MUS

MU'SIC. The ancient Hebrews had a
great taste for music, which they used in
their religious services, in their public
and private rejoicings, at their weddings
and feasts, and even in their mournings.
We have in Scripture canticles of joy, of
thanksgiving, of praise, of mourning ;
also mournful elegies or songs, as those
of David on the death of Saul and Ab-
ner, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah
on the destruction of Jerusalem ; so, too,
songs of victory, triumph, and gratula-
tion, as that which Moses sung after pass
ing the Red sea, that of Deborah and
Barak, and others. The people of God
went up to Jerusalem thrice a year,
cheered on their way with songs of joy,
Psalms 84; 122; Isa. 30:29. The book
of Psalms comprises a wonderful variety
of inspired pieces for music, and is an
inexhaustible treasure for the devout in
all ages.

Music is perhaps the most ancient of
the fine arts. Jubal, who lived before the
deluge, was the "father" of those who
played on the harp and the organ, Gen.
4:21; 31:26,27. Laban complains that
his son-in-law Jacob had left him, with
out giving him an opportunity of send
ing his family away ' ' with mirth and
with songs, with tabret and with harp."
Moses, having passed through the Red
sea, composed a song, and sung it with
the Israelitish men, while Miriam, his
bister, sung it with dancing, and playing
on instruments, at the head of the wom
en, Ex. 15:20, 21. He caused silver
trumpets to be made, to be sounded at
solemn sacrifices, and on religious festi- I
vals. David, who had great skill in
music, soothed the perturbed spirit of
Saul by playing on the harp, 1 Sam.
16 : 16, 23 ; and when he was himself I
established on the throne — seeing that
the Levites were not employed, as for
merly, in carrying the boards, veils, and
vessels of the tabernacle, its abode being
fixed at Jerusalem — appointed a great
part of them to sing and to play on in
struments in the temple, 1 Chr. 25. Da
vid brought the ark to Jerusalem with
triumphant and joyful music, 1 Chr.
13:8 ; 15 : 16-28 ; and in the same man
ner Solomon was proclaimed king, 1 Kin.
1 : 39, 40. The Old Testament prophets
also sought the aid of music in their ser
vices, 1 Sam. 10:5; 2 Kin. 3:15.

Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun were
chiefs of the music of the tabernacle un

der David, and of the temple under Sol*
omon. Asaph had four sons, Jeduthun
six, and Heman fourteen. These twen
ty-four Levites, sons of the three great
masters of the temple-music, were at the
head of twenty-four bands of musicians,
which served in the temple by turns.
Their number thsre was always great,
but especially at the chief solemnities.
They were ranged in order about the
altar of burnt-sacrifices. As the whole
business of their lives was to learn and
to practise music, it must be supposed
that they understood it well, whether it
were vocal or instrumental, 2 Chr. 29:25.

The kings also had their music. Asaph
was chief master of music to David. In
the temple, and in the ceremonies of re
ligion, female musicians were admitted
as well as male ; they generally were
daughters of the Levites. Ezra, in his
enumeration of those whom he brought
back with him from the captivity, reck
ons two hundred singing men and sing
ing women, 2 Sam. 19 : 35 ; Ezra 2 : 65 ;
Neh. 7:67.

As to the nature of their music, we
can judge of it only by conjecture, be
cause it has been long lost. Probably it
was a unison of several voices, of which
all sung together the same melody, each
according to his strength and skill ;
without musical counterpoint, or those
different parts and combinations which
constitute harmony in our music. Prob
ably, also, the voices were generally ac
companied by instrumental music. If
we may draw any conclusions in favor
of their music from its effects, its mag
nificence, its majesty, and the lofty sen
timents contained in their songs, we
must allow it great excellence. It is
supposed that the temple musicians were,
sometimes divided into two or more sep-?
arate choirs, which, with a general cho
rus, sung in turn responsive to each other,
each a small portion of the Psalm. The
structure of the Hebrew Psalms is emi
nently adapted to this mode of singing,
and very delightful and solemn effects
might thus be produced. Compare
Psalms 24, 136, 148, 150.

Numerous musical instruments are
mentioned in Scripture, but it has been
found impossible to affix • their names
with certainty to specific instruments
now in use. By a comparison, however,
of the instruments probably held in com
mon by the Jews with the Greeks, Ro-
297

HUB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MUS

mans, and Egyptians, a degree of proba
bility as to most of them has been secur
ed. They were of three kinds:

I. Stringed instruments:

1. KINNOK, "the harp," Gen. 4:21.
Frequently mentioned in Scripture, and
probably a kind of lyre.

2. NEBEL, ' 'the psaltery, " 1 Sam. 10:5.
It appears to have been the name of vari
ous large instruments of the harp kind.

3. ASOR, signifying ten-stringed. In
Psa. 92 : 4, it apparently denotes an in
strument distinct from the NEBEL; but
elsewhere it seems to be simply a de
scription of the NEBEL as ten-stringed.
See Psa. 33:2; 144:9.

4. GITTITH. It occurs in the titles of
Psalms 8, 81, 84, etc. From the name,
it is supposed that David brought it from
Gath. Others conclude that it is a gen
eral name for a stringed instrument.

5. MINNIM, strings, Psa. 150:4. Prob
ably another kind of stringed instru
ment.

6. SABECA, "sackbut," Dan. 3:5, 7,
10, 15. A kind of lyre.

7. PESANTERIN, "psaltery," occurs
Dan. 3:7, and is supposed to represent
the NEBEL.

8. MACHALATH. Found in the titles
of Psalms 53 and 88 ; supposed to be a
lute or guitar.

See illustrations in HARP.
II . Wind instruments :

9. KEREN, ."horn," Josh. 6:5. Cornet.

10. SHOPHAR, "trumpet, "Num. 10:10.
Used synonymously with KEREN.

11. CHATZOZERAH, the straight trum
pet, Psa. 98:6.

298

12. JOBEL, or KEREN JOBEL, horn of
jubilee, or signal trumpet, Josh. 6 : 4.
Probably the same with 9 and 10.

13. CHALIL, "pipe" or "flute." The
word means bored through, 1 Sam. 10:5.

14. MISHROKITHA, Dan. 3 : 5, etc.
Probably the Chaldean name for the
flute with two reeds.

15. UGAB, "organ" in our version,
Gen. 4:21. It means a double or mani
fold pipe, and hence the shepherd's pipe ;
probably the same as the syrinx or Pan's
pipe ; or perhaps resembling the bag
pipe, numbered 16 in the cut.

III. Instruments which gave out sound on
being struck :

MUS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MYR

17. TOPH, Gen. 31:27, the tambourine
and all instruments of the drum kind.

18. PHAAMON, "bells," Ex. 28:33.
Attached to the hem of the high-priest's
garment.

19. TZELTZKLIM, "cymbals," Psalm
150 . 5. A word frequently occurring.
There were probably two kinds, hand-
cymbals and ringer -cymbals.

20. SHALISHIM, 1 Sam. 18 : 6. In our
version, "instruments of music." Mar
gin, "three-stringed instruments." Most
writers identify it with the triangle.

21. MENAANEIM, "cymbals," 2 Sam.
6:5. Probably the sistrum. The He
brew word means to shake. The sistrum
was generally about sixteen or eighteen
inches long, occasionally inlaid with sil
ver, and being held upright, was shaken,
the rings moving to and fro on the bars.

Further particulars concerning some of
these may be found under the names
they severally bear in our English Bible.

MUS'TARD. A species of this annual
shrub is found in Palestine, growing to
the height of seven to nine feet, and with
a stem one inch thick. Prof. Hackat,
while examining a field of these plants,
saw a bird of the air come and lodge in
the branches before him, Matt. 13 : 31,
32 ; Mark 4 : 31, 32. Others suppose a
tree is meant, called Salvadora Persica.
It is found in Palestine, and bears ber
ries containing small, mustard-like seeds.
' ' A grain of mustard ' ' was used prover
bially to denote any thing extremely
small, Matt. 17:20.

MUZ'ZLE. See THRESHING.

MY'RA, a town of Lycia, where Paul
embarked for Rome, on board a ship of
Alexandria, Acts 27:5.

MYRRH, a precious gum yielded by a
tree common in Africa and Arabia, which
is about eight or nine feet high; its
wood ha'rd, and its trunk thorny. It

was of several kinds, and various de
grees of excellence. The best was an
ingredient in the holy ointment, Ex.
30 : 23. It was also employed in per
fumes, Esth. 2 : 12 ; Psa. 45 : 8 ; Song 4:6;
5:5, 13; and in embalming, to preserve
the body from corruption, John 19 : 39.
The magi, who came from the East to
worship Christ, offered him myrrh, Matt.
2:11.

In Mark 15 : 23, is mentioned "wine
mingled with myrrh," which was offered
to Jesus previous to his crucifixion,
and intended to deaden the anguish of
his sufferings. It was a custom among
the Hebrews to give such stupefying
liquors to persons who were about to be
capitally punished, Prov. 31 : 6. Some
have thought that the myrrhed wine of
Mark is not the same as" the "vinegar
mingled with gall" of Matt. 27:34.
They suppose the myrrhed wine was
given to our Lord from a sentiment of
sympathy, to prevent him from feeling
too sensibly the pain of his sufferings ;
while the potation mingled with gall, of
which he would not drink, was given
from cruelty. But the other explanation
is the more probable. See GALL.

MYR'TLE, a beautiful and fragrant
evergreen tree, growing wild throughout
the southern parts of Europe, the north
of Africa, and the temperate parts of
Asia ; principally on the sea-coast. The
leaves are of a rich and polished ever
green; the flowers white, with some
times a tinge of red externally ; and the
berries are of the size of a small pea, vio
let or whitish, sweetish, and with the
299

MYS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NAB

aromatic flavor which distinguishes the
whole plant. These are used for spices
in the Levant. It furnishes a useful
tonic medicine, Neh. 8 : 15 ; Isa. 41 : 19 ;
65:13; Zech. 1:8, 10, 11.

MYS'IA, a province in the north-west
corner of Asia Minor, bounded north by
the Propontis, west by the JEgean sea,
south by Lydia, and east by Bithynia.
Paul preached in this country on his
first journey to Europe, Acts 16:7, 8.

MYS'TERY means strictly a secret, and
is so used when spoken of the heathen
" mysteries" or secret rites, which were
full of all manner of abominations. In
the Scriptures the word ' ' mystery ' ' de
notes those truths of religion which,
without a revelation from God, would
have remained unknown to man. Our
Saviour says to his disciples, that they
are peculiarly happy, because God has
revealed to them ' ' the mysteries of the
kingdom of heaven," Matt. 16 : 17 ;
11 : 25 ; Luke 10 : 21-24. Paul explains
the word in Eph. 3 : 1-9 ; and often
speaks of the mystery of the gospel, of
the mystery of the cross of Christ, of the
mystery of Christ which was unknown
to former ages, of the mystery of the
incarnation, the resurrection, etc., Rom.
11:25; 1 Cor. 2:7-10 ; 4:1; 13:2; 15:51;
1 Tim. 3:9, 16. These, then, were call
ed mysteries, not only' because they
included some things which stretch
beyond all human thought, and others
which would never have been known if
the Son of God and his Holy Spirit had
not revealed them, but also because they
were not opened indifferently to every
one ; according to the advice of Christ to
his apostles, "Give not that which is
holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye your
300

pearls before swine, ' ' 1 Cor. 2 : 14. In one
place ' ' mystery ' ' seems to denote the
whole cycle of God's secret plan in the
administration of the gospel, gradually
unfolded even to the end, Rev. 10 : 7 ;
11:15.

Mystery signifies also an allegory, that
is, a mode of information under which
partial instruction is given, a partial dis
covery is made, but there is still a cover
of some kind, which the person who de
sires to know the whole must endeavor
to remove. So the mystery of the seven
stars, Rev. 1 : 20, is an allegory repre
senting the seven Asiatic churches under
the symbol of seven burning lamps. So
the mystery, "Babylon the Great," is
an allegorical representation of the spir
itual Babylon, idolatry, spiritual fornica
tion, etc., "I will tell thee the mystery
of the woman ;' ' that is, I will explain to
thee the allegory of this figure, Rev.
17:5, 7.

NA'AMAN, the highly esteemed gen
eral of Ben-hadad, king of Damascene
Syria in the time of Joram king of Israel.
He was afflicted with the leprosy ; but
was miraculously cured, on washing sev
en times in the Jordan, Lev. 14 : 7, ac
cording to the direction of Elisha, 2 Kin.
5; Luke 4 : 27. He had found all his
honor and power valueless, and all phy
sicians of no avail for his cure ; was led to
renounce his pride, and avail himself of
the simple remedy prescribed ; and being
cured, was grateful not only to the proph
et, but to the prophet's God. He frank
ly yielded to the evidence which proved
that Jehovah was the living and true
God ; and took h6me with him two
mule-loads of earth, for an altar to the
Lord, Ex. 20 : 24. With respect to his
attending Ben-hadad while in the temple
of Rimmon, the prophet gave him no
precise rule ; discerning, we may sup
pose, a growing fear and love of God
which would preserve him from all even
outward homage to the idol.

NA'BAL, foolish, a descendant of Ca
leb, owner of a large property in lands
and flocks, at Maon and Carmel in the
south of Judah. He was under great
obligations to David, for protecting him
from the robbers of the desert ; and yet,
in the very hour most suggestive of a

NAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

MAI

grateful generosity, he churlishly refused
David's modest request of provisions for
his needy troop. Indignant at this in
gratitude and inhospitality, David was
soon on his way to put him and his men
to the sword. Happily, the discreet in
tervention of Abigail averted this catas
trophe. Ten days after, the Lord smote
him, and he died, 1 Sam. 25. See ABI
GAIL

NA'BOTH, an Israelite at Jezreel, who
declined selling his ancestral vineyard to
Ahab, Lev. 25 : 23, 24 ; and was in con
sequence murdered, on a false charge of
blasphemy contrived by Jezebel the
queen. Ahab took immediate posses
sion of the coveted vineyard — perhaps as
being legally forfeited to the govern
ment, construing blasphemy as treason ;
or it may be, that the heirs were deter
red from asserting their claim by a dread
of the unscrupulous arts of Jezebel.- Eli
jah, however, did not fear to denounce
against the king and queen the ven
geance of One "higher than they,"

1 Kin. 21 ; 2 Kin. 9 : 24-20, 86 ; Eccl.
5:8.

NA'DAB, I., the oldest son of Aaron,
slain by the Lord for presumptuously
offering strange lire on the altar of burnt-
offering, Lev. 10. See ABIIIU.

II. Son of Jeroboam I. king of Israel.
He succeeded his father, B. c. 954, and
reigned but two years, being assassinat
ed, while besieging Gibbethon, by Baa-
sha, of the tribe of Issachar, who usurp
ed his kingdom. Nadab did evil in the
sight of the Lord ; and with him perish
ed his children, and the race of Jerobo
am, as God had foretold, 1 Kin. 15:25-30.

NA'HASH, I., a king of the Ammon
ites, defeated by Saul while besieging
Ramoth-gilead, 1 Sam. 11. He, or as
some think, his son of the same name,
was on friendly terms with David, 2 Sam.
10:2.

II. The father of Zeruiah and Abigail,
David's half-sisters, 2 Sam. 17:25 ; 1 Chr.

2 : 13-16. Nahash, however, may have
been another name for Jesse ; or possibly
the name of his wife.

NA'HOR, I. , son of Serug, and father
of Terah, Gen. 11:22-25; Luke 3:34.

II. Son of Terah, and brother of Abra
ham and Haran. He married Milcah
his niece in Ur of the Chaldees, Gen.
11:26, 29, but seems to have transferred
his residence to Haran, Gen. 24 : 10 ;
27:43. He had twelve sons, and among

them Bethuel the father ox Reb-jkah,
Gen. 22:20-24.

NAH'SHON, or NAAS'SON, one of our
Lord's ancestors, Matt. 1:4 ; Luke 3:82;
chief of the tribe of Judah in the desert,
Num. 1:7; 2:3 ; 7: 12; and brother-in-
law of Aaron, Ex. 6 : 23 ; Ruth 4 : 20 ;
IChr. 2:10.

NA'HUM, consolation, the seventh of
the twelve minor prophets. The cir
cumstances of Nahum's life are un
known, except that he tvas a native of
Elkosh, which probably was a village in
Galilee. His prophecy consists of three
chapters, which form one discourse, in
which he foretells the destruction of Nin-
eveh in so powerful and vivid a manner,
that he might seem to have been on the
very spot. The native elegance, fire,
and sublimity of his style are universally
admired.

Opinions are divided as to the time in
which Nahum prophesied. The best
interpreters adopt Jerome's opinion, that
he foretold the destruction of Nineveh
in the time of Hezekiah, after the war
of Sennacherib in Egypt, mentioned by
Berosus. Compare Isa. 20 : 6, and Nah.
3 : 8. Nahum speaks of the taking of
No-ammon, of the haughtiness of Rab-
shakeh, and of the defeat of Sennache
rib, as things that were past. He implies
that the tribe of Judah were still in their
own country, and that they there cele
brated their festivals. He notices also
the captivity and dispersion of the ten
tribes.

NAIL. The "nail" with which Jael
killed Sisera was rather a tent-pin, such
as is driven into the ground in order to
fasten the cords of the tent, Ex. 27:19;
Judg. 4:21, 22. Sometimes the Hebrew
word is used for the wooden pins or iron
spikes firmly inwrought into the walls
of a building, Ezra 9:8; Ezek. 15 : 3.
The word implies fixedness, Isa. 22 : 23 ;
and a firm support, Zech. 10:4. Anoth
er Hebrew word describes the golden and
ornamental nails of the temple, etc.,
2 Chr. 3:9 ; Eccl. 12:11 ; Isa. 41:7 ; Jer.
10:4.

NA'IN, where Christ performed one of
bis chief miracles, in raising to life a
widow's only son, Luke 7:11-17, was a
small village in Galilee, three miles south
by west of mount Tabor. It is now a
petty hamlet, called Nein.

NAI'OTH, the abode of Samuel, and
lis pupils in a "school of the prophets,"
301

NAK

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NAT

1 Sam. 19 : 18-24; 20 : 1. It appears to
have been a suburb of Ramah ; and Da
vid, having sought refuge there with
Samuel, was pursued by Saul.

NA'KED, in the Bible, often means
no more than ' ' not fully dressed. ' ' So
in John 21:7, Peter is said to have been
"naked," that is, he had laid off his
outer garment, and had on only his in
ner garment or tunic. See GARMENTS.
So probably in Isa. 20:2; Mic. 1:8; Acts
19: 16. Sometimes poorness and insuffi
ciency of clothing are meant, as in James
2:15. So in Isa. 58:7 ; 2 Cor. 11:27. A
nation is said to be "naked," when strip
ped of its defences, wealth, etc., Gen.
42:9; Ex. 32:25; 2 Chr. 28:19.

"Nakedness" is also put for shame.
To "uncover the nakedness" denotes
an unlawful or incestuous union, Lev.
20:19.

NAMES among the Hebrews were fre
quently significant ; sometimes of a fam
ily trait, and sometimes of circumstan
ces attending the birth of a child ; often
too they were assumed afterwards to
commemorate some striking occurrence
in one's history. Compare the cases
of Ishmael, Esau, and Jacob, Moses, Ich-
abod, etc., Gen. 16 : 21 ; 25 : 25, 26 ; Ex.

2 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 4 : 21. Compound names
were frequent ; and often a part of the
name of God, JAH, EL, JEHO, etc., was
employed, as in Eliezer, Ex. 18 : 4, Sam
uel, Josiah, Adonijah. Sometimes a
whole phrase was formed into a name ;
as Elioenai, to Jehovah are mine eyes, 1 Chr.
4 : 36. The New Testament names are
chiefly ancient and family names perpet
uated, Luke 1:61. The men of the East
change their names for slight causes ;
and hence many persons occur in the
Bible bearing two or more names, Ruth
1:20; 2 Sam. 23:8; John 1:42. Kings
often changed the names of those to
whom they gave offices, Dan. 1:6, 7 ;
hence the honor and privilege implied in
a "new name," Rev. 2:17. Many slight
inflections of the same Hebrew name give
it a very different appearance to an Eng
lish eye, as Geshem and Gashmu, Neh.
6:1, 6. A Hebrew name was sometimes
transferred to the Greek, with but little
change : Elijah became Elias, or Elie.
But sometimes it was exchanged for the
Greek word of the same meaning, though
very different in form ; Thomas became
Didyrnus, and Tabitha, Dorcas. The
' ' name ' ' of God is put for God himself,

302

or for his perfections. To "raise up the
name of the dead," is explained in Ruth
4; while to "put out" one's name,
means to extinguish his family, Psa. 9:5.

NAO'MI, wife of Elimelech, and moth
er-in-law of Ruth. See RUTH.

NAPH'TALI, the sixth son of Jacob,
by Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid, Gen.
30 : 8. We know but few particulars of
the life of Naphtali. His sons were four,
Gen. 46 : 24. The patriarch Jacob, when
he gave his blessing, said, as it is in the
English Bible, "Naphtali is a hind let
loose; he giveth goodly words," Gen.
49 : 21. For an illustration of this pas
sage, see HIND.

The tribe of Naphtali, called Nephtalim
in Matt. 4:15, were located in a rich and
fertile portion of northern Palestine;
having Asher on the west, the upper Jor
dan and part of the sea of Tiberias on the
east ; • and running north into the Leba
non range, some lower offshoots of which
prolonged to the south formed the
"mountains of Naphtali," Josh. 19:32-
39 ; 20 : 7. They attended in force at the
coronation of David, 1 Chr. 12 : 34 ; and
are mentioned with honor in the wars
of the Judges, Judg. 1:33; 5:18; 6:35;
7 : 23 ; as much reduced by the Syrians,
1 Kin. 15 : 20 ; and as among the first
captives to Assyria, 2 Kin. 15 : 29 ; Isa.
9:1. Our Saviour spent much time in
the southern part of this region. Matt.
4:13-15.

NARCIS'SUS, a Roman, many of whose
household Paul salutes as Christians,
Rom. 16 : 11. Two men of this name
are mentioned in Roman histories of that
time; one, executed three or four years
before Paul wrote, was a favorite of the
emperor Claudius ; the other, of Nero
his successor.

NA'THAN, I., a Hebrew prophet,
Zech. 12 : 12, a friend and counsellor of
David. He approved the king's purpose
of building a temple to the Lord, but by
divine direction transferred its accom
plishment to Solomon, 2 Sam. 7 : 1-17.
By a fine parable, pointedly applied, he
convicted David of his guilt in respect to
Uriah and Bathsheba, 2 Sam. 12 ; Psa.
51 ; and his bold fidelity here seems to
have been appreciated by David, see
NATHAN II. , and is worthy of everlasting
remembrance. Solomon was probably
educated under his care, 2 Sam. 12 : 25;
and was effectually aided by him in his
peaceful succession to the throne, 1 Kin.

NAT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NAZ

1. He wrote some memorials, long since
lost, of both- David and Solomon, 1 Chr.
29:29 ; 2 Chr. 9:29. How long he lived
under the reign of Solomon is unknown ;
but two of his sons were high officers at
court, 1 Kin. 4:5.

II. A son of David, by Bathsheba,
1 Chr. 3:5 ; 14:4 ; an ancestor of Christ,
Luke 3 : 21. See GENEALOGY.

NATHAN' AEL, a disciple of Christ,
probably the same as BARTHOLOMEW,
which see. He was a native of Cana in
Galilee, John 21 : 2, and was one of the
first to recognize the Messiah, who at
their first interview manifested his per
fect acquaintance with Nathanael's secret
heart and life, John 1 : 45-51. He was
introduced by Philip to Jesus, who on
seeing him pronounced that remarkable
eulogy which has rendered his name

almost another word for sincerity: " Be
hold an Israelite indeed, in whom is no
guile." He was one of the disciples to
whom Christ appeared at the sea of Tibe
rias after his resurrection, John 21 : 2 ;
and after witnessing the ascension, re-
"turned with the other apostles to Jeru
salem, Acts 1:4, 12, 13.

NAZARENE', an epithet applied to
Christ, and usually translated "of Naza
reth," as in Matt. 21 : 11 ; Acts 2 : .22 ;
4:10. It was foretold in prophecy, Psa.
22 : 7, 8, Isa. 53 : 2, that the Messiah
should be despised and rejected of men ;
and this epithet, which came to be used
as a term of reproach, showed the truth
of these predictions, Matt. 2 : 23 ; Acts
24 : 5. Nazareth was a small town, in a
despised part of Palestine. See GALILEE,
and NAZARETH.

MODERN NAZARETH,

NAZ'ARETH, a city of lower Galilee,
about seventy miles north of Jerusalem,
in the territory of the tribe of Zebulun.
It was situated on the side of a hill over
looking a rich and beautiful valley, sur
rounded by hills, with a narrow outlet
towards the south. At the mouth of
this ravine the monks profess to show
the place where the men of the city were
about to cast Jesus from the precipice,
Luke 4:29. Nazareth is about six miles

SEEN FROM THE EAST.

west-north-west of mount Tabor, and
nearly half way from the Jordan to the
Mediterranean. It is said in the New
Testament to be " the city of Jesus," be
cause it was the place of his usual resi
dence during the first thirty years of his
life, Matt. 2:23 ; Luke 1:26 ; 2:51 ; 4:16.
He visited it during his public ministry,
but did not perform many miracles there
because of the unbelief of the people,
Matt. 13 : 54-58. It is not even named
303

NAZ

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NAZ

in the Old Testament, nor by Josephus ;
and appears to have been a small place,
of no very good repute, John 1:46. The
modern town, en-Nasirah, is a secluded
village of about three thousand inhab
itants, most of whom are Latin and Greek
Christians. It lies about eight hundred
feet above the level of the sea ; and is
one of the pleasantest towns in Syria.
Its houses are of stone, two stories high,
with flat roofs. It contains a mosque, a
large Latin convent, and two or three
chapels. The traditionary "mount of
the Precipitation ' ' is nearly two miles
from the town, too remote to have an
swered the purpose of the enraged Naza-
renes ; while there were several precipi
tous spots close at hand, where the fall
is still from thirty to fifty feet.

From the summit of the hill on the
eastern slope of which Nazareth lies, is
a truly magnificent prospect. Towards
the north, the eye glances over the
countless hills of Galilee, and reposes on
the majestic and snow-crowned Hermon.
On the east, the Jordan valley may be
traced, and beyond it the dim heights
of ancient Bashan. Towards the south,
spreads the broad and beautiful plain
of Esdraelon, with the bold outline of
mount Tabor, and parts of Little Her
mon and Gilboa visible on its eastern
border, and the hills of Samaria on the
south, while Carmel rises on the west of
the plain, and dips his feet in the blue
waters of the Mediterranean. Says Dr.
Robinson in his "Biblical Researches in
Palestine," " I remained for some hours
upon this spot, lost in the contemplation
of the wide prospect and of the events
connected with the scenes around. In
the village below, the Saviour of the
world had passed his childhood ; and
although we have few particulars of his
life during those early years, yet there
are certain features of nature which meet
our eyes now, just as they once met his.
He must often have visited the fountain
near which we had pitched our tent ; his
feet must frequently have wandered over
the adjacent hills, and his eyes have
doubtless gazed upon the splendid pros
pect from this very spot. Here the
Prince of peace looked down upon the
great plain, where the din of battles so
oft had rolled, and the garments of the
warrior been dyed in blood ; and he look
ed out, too, upon that sea over which
the swift ships were to bear the tidings
304

of his salvation to nations and to conti
nents then unknown. How has the
moral aspect of things been changed!
Battles and bloodshed have indeed not
ceased to desolate this unhappy country,
and gross darkness now covers the peo
ple ; but from this region a light went
forth, which has enlightened the world
and unveiled new climes ; and now the
rays of that light begin to be reflected
back from distant isles and continents,
to illuminate anew the darkened land
where it first sprung up."

NAZ'ARITE, under the ancient He
brew law, a man or woman engaged by a
vow to abstain from wine and all intoxi
cating liquors, and from the fruit of the
vine in any form ; to let the hair grow ;
not to enter any house polluted by having
a dead body in it, nor to be present at
any funeral. If by accident any one died
in their presence, they recommenced the
whole of their consecration and Naza-
riteship. This vow generally lasted
eight days, sometimes only a month,
and sometimes during their whole lives.
When the time of Nazariteship expired,
the person brought a number of sacri
fices and offerings to the temple ; the
priest then cut off his hair and burnt
it ; after which he was free from his
vow, Num: 6; Amos 2:11, 12. Perpet
ual Nazarites wrere consecrated as such
by their parents from their birth, as was
proposed by the mother of Samuel, 1 Sam.
1:11, and continued all their lives in this
state, neither drinking wine, nqr cutting
their hair. Such were Samson and John
the Baptist, Judg. 13:4, 5 ; Luke 1 : 15 ;
7:33.

As the cost of the offerings required at
the expiration of the term of Nazarite
ship was very considerable for the poor,
they were often relieved by persons not
Nazarites, who assumed these charges
for them for the sake of performing an
act of piety and charity. Paul availed
himself of this custom to disarm the jeal
ousy of those who represented him as
hostile to the faith of their fathers. He
took four Christian Jews whose vow of
Nazariteship was accomplished, assumed
the expense of their offerings, and with
them went through the customary ser
vices and purifications at the temple,
Acts 21 : 20-26. There is also in Acts
18 : 18 an unexplained allusion to some
similar vow made by Paul himself, or
perhaps by Aquila, probably in view of

NEA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NEB

some danger escaped or some blessing
received.

NEAP'OLIS, now called Napoli, Acts
16 : 11, a maritime city of Macedonia,
near the borders of Thrace, whither Paul
came from the isle of Samothracia. From
Neapolis he went to Philippi.

NEBAI'OTH, a son of Ishmael, Gen.
25:13, whose posterity occupied the pas
ture grounds of Arabia Deserta, Isa. 60:7,
and ultimately possessed themselves of
Edom. They are thought to have been
the Nabathaaans of profane history. See
IDUJLEA.

NE'BO, I., a town in the vicinity of
Bethel and Ai, Ezra 2:29 ; Neh. 7:33.

II. A city of Reuben, Num. 32 : 38,
taken by the Moabites, who held it in
the time of Jeremiah, Isa. 15 : 2 ; Jer.
48:1.

III. A mountain of Moab, whence
Moses had a view of the promised land,
and where he died. It is a summit of
the range Abarim, "over against Jeri
cho." Seetzen, Burckhardt, etc., iden
tify it with mount Attarus, about ten
miles north of the Arnon. Travellers
do not observe any very prominent sum
mit in the range immediately opposite
Jericho ; but it has not yet been fully
explored, Deut. 32:49; 34.

IV. An idol of the Babylonians, Isa.
46:1. In the astrological mythology of
the Babylonians, this idol probably rep
resented the planet Mercury. It was
also worshipped by the ancient Arabians.
The extensive prevalence of this worship
among the Chaldeans and Assyrians, is
evident from the many compound proper
names occurring in the Scriptures, of
which this word forms part ; as Nebu
chadnezzar, Nebuzaradan, Nebushasban,
Jer. 39 : 9, 13 ; and also in the classics,
as Naboned, Nabonassar, Nabopolassar,
etc.

NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR, called in Jere
miah Nebuchadrezzar, the son and suc
cessor of Nabopolassar, succeeded to the
kingdom of Chaldea about 600 B. c. He
had been some time before associated in
the kingdom, and sent to recover Car-
chemish, which had been wrested from
the empire by Necho king of Egypt.
Having been successful, he marched
against the governor of Phoenicia, and
Jehoiakim king of Judah, tributary to
Necho king of Egypt. He took Jehoia
kim, and put him in chains to carry him
captive to Babylon : but afterwards he

left him in Judea, on condition of hi«
paying a large annual tribute. He took
away several persons from Jerusalem;
among others, Daniel, Hananiah, Mi-
shael, and Azariah, all of the royal fam
ily, whom the king of Babylon caused
to be carefully educated in the language
•and learning of the Chaldeans, that they
might be employed at court, 2 Kin. 24: 1 ;
2Chr. 36:6; Dan. 1:1.

Nabopolassar dying, Nebuchadnezzar,
who was then either in Egypt or in Ju
dea, hastened to Babylon, leaving to his
generals the care of bringing to Chaldea
the captives taken in Syria, Judea, Phoe
nicia, and Egypt ; for according to Bero-
sus, he had subdued all these countries.
He distributed these captives into seve
ral colonies, and in the temple of Belus
he deposited the sacred vessels of the
temple of Jerusalem, and other rich
spoils. Jehoiakim king of Judah con
tinued three years in fealty to Nebuchad
nezzar, and then revolted ; but after
three or four years, he was besieged and
taken in Jerusalem, put to death, and
his body thrown to the birds of the air,
according to the predictions of Jeremiah,
chap. 22.

His successor, Jehoiachin, or Jeconiah,
king of Judah, having revolted against
Nebuchadnezzar, was besieged in Jeru
salem, forced to surrender, and taken,
with his chief officers, captive to Baby
lon ; also his mother, his wives, and the
best workmen of Jerusalem, to the num
ber of ten thousand men. Among the
captives were Mordecai, the uncle of Es
ther, and Ezekiel the prophet, Esth. 2:6.
Nebuchadnezzar also took ail the vessels
of gold which Solomon made for the
temple and the king's treasury, and set
up Mattaniah, Jeconiah' s uncle by the
father's side, whom he named Zedekiah.
Zedekiah continued faithful to Nebu
chadnezzar nine years, at the end of
which time he rebelled, and confeder
ated with the neighboring princes. The
king of Babylon came into Judea, re
duced the chief places of the country,
and besieged Jerusalem; but Pharaoh
Hophra coming out of Egypt to assist
Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar went to meet
him, and forced him to retire to his own
country. This done, he resumed the
siege of Jerusalem, and was three hun
dred and ninety days before the place.
In the eleventh year of Zedekiah, B. c
588, the city was taken, and Zedekiah,
303

NEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

NEB

being seized, was brought to Nebuchad
nezzar, who was then at Kiblah in Syria.
The king of Babylon condemned him to
die, caused his children to be put to
death in his presence, and then bored
out his eyes, loaded him with chains,
and sent him to Babylon, 2 Kin. 24 ; 25 ;
2 Chr. 36.

During the reign of Nebuchadnezzar,
the city of Babylon and the kingdom of
Babylonia attained their highest pitch
of splendor. He took great pains in
adorning Babylon ; and this was one
great object of his pride. ' ' Is not this, ' '
said he, "great Babylon, that I have
built for the house of my kingdom, by
the might of my power, and for the
honor of my majesty?" But God van
quished his pride, and he was reduced
for a time to the condition of a brute,
according to the predictions of Daniel.
See Dan. 1-4. An inscription found
among the ruins on the Tigris, and now
in the East India House at London,
gives an account of the various works of
Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon and Borsip-
pa. Abruptly breaking off, the record
says the king's heart was hardened
against the Chaldee astrologers. "He
would grant no benefactions for religious
purposes. He intermitted the worship
of Merodach, and put an end to the sac
rifice of victims. He labored under the effects
of enchantment." Nebuchadnezzar is sup
posed to have died B. c. 562, after a reign
of about forty years.

One of the famous structures ascribed
to Nebuchadnezzar, and in which no
doubt he took much pride, was the fa
mous ' ' hanging gardens, ' ' which he is
said to have erected to gratify the wish
of his queen Amytis for elevated groves
such as she was accustomed to in her
native Media. This could only be done,
in a country so level as Babylonia, by
constructing an artificial mountain ; and
accordingly the king caused one to be
made, four hundred feet square and over
three hundred feet high. The successive
terraces were supported on ranges of reg
ular piers, covered by large stones, on
which were placed thick layers of mat
ting and of bitumen and two courses of
stones, which were again covered with a
solid coating of lead. On such a plat
form another similar, but smaller, was
built, etc. The various terraces were
then covered with earth, and furnished
with trees, shrubbery, and flowers. The
306

whole was watered, from the Euphrates
which flowed at its base, by machinery
within the mound. These gardens occu
pied but a small portion of the prodig
ious area of the palace, the wall inclos
ing the whole being six miles in circum
ference. Within this were two other
walls and a great tower, besides the pal
ace buildings, courts, gardens, etc. All
the gates were of brass, which agrees
with the language used by Isaiah in pre
dicting the capture of Babylon by Cyrus,
Isa. 45 : 12. The ruins of the hanging
gardens are believed to be found in the
vast irregular mound called Kasr, on the
east side of the Euphrates, eight hun
dred yards by six hundred at its base
The bricks taken from this mound are
of fine quality, and are all stamped with
the name of Nebuchadnezzar.

Another labor of this monarch was
that the ruins of which are now called
Birs Nimroud, about eight miles south
west of the above structure. See BABEL.
The researches of Sir Henry Rawlinson
have shown that this was built by Neb
uchadnezzar, on the platform of a ruin
ous edifice of more ancient days. It con
sisted of six distinct terraces, each twen
ty feet high, and forty-two feet less hor
izontally than the one below it. On the
top was the sanctum and observatory of
the temple, now a vitrified mass. Each
story was dedicated to a different planet,
and stained with the color appropriated
to that planet in their astrological sys
tem. The lowest, in honor of Saturn,
was black ; that of Jupiter was orange,
that of Mars red, that of the sun yellow,
that of Venus green, and that of Mer
cury blue. The temple was white, prob
ably for the moon. In the corners of
this long -ruined edifice, recently ex
plored, were found cylinders with arrow-
headed inscriptions, in the name of Neb
uchadnezzar, which inform us that the
building was named "The Stages of the
Seven Spheres of Borsippa ;" that it had
been in a dilapidated condition ; and
that, moved by Merodach his god, he
had reconstructed it with bricks enrich
ed with lapis lazuli, "without changing
its site or destroying its foundation plat
form." This restoration is also stated to
have taken place five hundred and four
years after its first erection in that form
by Tiglath Pileser I., 1100 B. c. If not
actually on the site of the tower of Babel
mentioned in the Bible, and the temple of

NEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NEC

Belus described by Herodotus, this build
ing would seem to have been erected on
the same general plan. Every brick yet
taken from it bears the impress of Neb
uchadnezzar. Borsippa would seem to
have been a suburb of ancient Babylon.

NEB'UZAR-ADAN, a general of king
Nebuchadnezzar, and his agent in the
sacking and destruction of Jerusalem,
IKin. 25:8-20; Jer. 39:9; 40:1; 52:12-
30.

NE'CHO, or PHARAOH-NECHO, an Egyp
tian king, mentioned not only in Scrip
ture, but by Herodotus, who says that
he was son of Psammetichus, king of
Egypt ; and that, having succeeded him
in the kingdom, he raised great armies,
and sent out great fleets, as well on the
Mediterranean as the Red sea ; that he
expended a vast sum and many thou
sands of lives in a fruitless effort to unite
the Nile and the Red sea by a canal ; and
that he was the first to send a ship whol
ly around Africa. Josiah king of Judah

being tributary to the king of Babylonv
opposed Necho on his first expedition
against Nebuchadnezzar, and gave him
battle at Megiddo, where he received the
wound of which he died ; and Necho
pressed forward, without making any
long stay in Judea. On his return from
the Euphrates, where he had taken and
garrisoned the city of Carchemish, B. c.
610, he halted at Riblah in Syria ; and
sending for Jehoahaz, king of the Jews,
he deposed him, loaded him with chains,
and sent him into Egypt. Then coming
to Jerusalem, he set up Eliakim, or Je-
hoiakim, in his place, and exacted the
payment of one hundred talents of sil
ver and one talent of gold. The accom
panying cut, from the great "Tomb of
the Kings ' ' in Egypt, explored by Bel-
zoni, is believed to represent four Jewish
hostages or captives of distinction pre
sented before Pharaoh-Necho. One of
them may be meant for Jehoahaz. They
were colored white ; and with them were

four red, four black, and four others
white, supposed to represent Babyloni
ans, Ethiopians, etc. They were led be
fore the king, seated on his throne, by one
of the hawk-headed figures so frequent
on Egyptian monuments. Jeremiah,
46 : 2, acquaints us that Carchemish was
retaken by Nabopolassar king of Baby
lon, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim king
of Judah ; so that Necho did not retain

his conquests in Syria more than four
years, 2 Kin. 23:29 to 24:7 ; 2Chr. 35:20
to 36: 6.

NECK. The phrases to "harden the
neck," Prov. 29:1, and to be "stiff-
necked," like a headstrong brute, illus
trate the wilful obstinacy of sinners
against the instructions and commands
of God. The tyrants of ancient days
sometimes put their feet on the pros-
307

NEC

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

NE1

trate necks of princes, in token of their
subjugation, trampling them in the dust.
Their mischief sometimes returned upon
their own heads, Josh. 10:24 ; Psa. 18:40.

NEC'ROMANCER, one who pretended
to discover unknown and future events
by summoning and interrogating the
dead, Deut. 18 : 10, 11, a crime punish
able by stoning to death, Lev. 20 : 27.
See SORCERER. No good reason can be
given for believing that such pretended
communications with departed spirits
are less offensive to God now than in the
time of Moses.

NEES'ING, translated sneezing in
2 Kin. 4 : 35 ; used in Job 41 : 18 to de
scribe the violent breathing of the en
raged leviathan, or crocodile.

NEG'INOTH, Hab. 3:19, a general
name for Hebrew stringed instruments.
Psalms 4, 6, 54, 55, and 76, are addressed
to the leader of the music on that class
of instruments.

NEHEMI'AH, the son of Hachaliah,
was born at Babylon during the captiv
ity. He was, according to some, of the
race of the priests ; according to others,
of the royal family of Judah. He sus
tained the office of cup-bearer to the
Persian king Artaxerxes Longimanus.
Touched with the calamitous state of
the colony of Jews which had formerly
returned to Jerusalem, he besought the
king of Persia to permit him to go to
Jerusalem and aid in rebuilding it. He
was accordingly sent thither as govern
or, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes,
about 444 B. c. He directed his atten
tion chiefly to rebuilding the walls of
the city. The enmity of the Samaritans,
under which the colony had formerly
suffered, was now increased ; and under
Sanballat, the governor of the country,
they cast all possible hinderances in the
way of the Jews. They even went so
far as to attack the laborers at their
work ; so that Nehemiah had to cause
them to labor with arms in their hands ;
yet in one year their task was completed.
In this great work, and in his whole ad
ministration, his pious zeal and disinter
estedness, his love for the people and
city of God, and his prayerful reliance
on divine aid were crowned with suc
cess. Pie had the cooperation of faithful
friends, especially of Ezra, Neh. 8 : 1, 9,
13 ; 12 : 36, and instituted many excel
lent civil improvements. About 432
a. c., though perhaps not for the first
308

time, he returned to his post at the
court of Babylon, Neh. 2:6 ; 5: 14 ; 13:6 ;
but after a few years, was recalled to
Jerusalem to reform certain growing
irregularities — neglect of the temple ser
vice, breaches of the Sabbath, marriages
with the heathen, etc. He required of
those Jews who had married heathen
wives, that they should either abandon
them, or else themselves quit the coun
try. This voluntary exile of a number
of discontented priests, may have given
occasion to the building of the temple
on mount Gerizim, and the establish
ment of the Samaritan worship. See
SANBALLAT.

The BOOK OF NEHEMIAH contains the
history of all these transactions, written
by himself near the close of his long
life, B. c. 434. It is a sort of a continu
ation of the book of Ezra, and was called
by some of the fathers the Second book
of Ezra. Some portions of it, as chap
ters 8 and 9, and 12 : 1-26, appear to be
compilations from public registers, etc.
With it the historical books of the Old
Testament close.

NE'HILOTH, supposed to mean flutes
or wind instruments ; found only in the
title of the fifth Psalm, which is addressed
to the leader of this class of instruments,
as though intended to be sung with this
accompaniment only.

NEHUSH'TA, wife of Jehoiakim, and
mother of the young king Jechoniah,
with whom she was probably associated
in the government, as she is in the re
proaches of Jeremiah, 2 Kin. 24:8 ; Jer.
13:18; 29:2.

NEHUSH'TAN, brazen, a name given
by Hezekiah king of Judah to the brazen
serpent that Moses had set up in the wil
derness, Num. 21:8, and which had been
preserved by the Israelites to that time.
The superstitious people having made
an idol of this serpent, Hezekiah caused
it to be burned, arid in derision gave it
the name of Nehushtan, a mere piece of
brass, 2 Kin. 18 : 4. Memorials, relics,
and other outward aids to devotion which
men rely upon, have the opposite effect ;
the visible emblem hides the Saviour it
ought to reveal, John 3:14-16.

NEIGHBOR. At the time of our Sav
iour, the Pharisees had restrained the
meaning of the word ' ' neighbor ' ' to
those of their own nation, or to their
own friends ; holding, that to hate their
enemy was not forbidden by the law,

NER

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

NEW

Matt. 5 : 43. But our Saviour informed
them that the whole world were neigh
bors ; that they ought not to do to an
other what they would not have done to
themselves ; and that this charity ex
tended even to enemies. See the beau
tiful parable of the good Samaritan, the
real neighbor to the distressed, Luke
10 29.

NER'GAL, one of the gods of the Cuth-
ite heathen who were transplanted into
Palestine, 2 Kin 17:30. This idol prob
ably represented the planet Mars, which
was ever the emblem of bloodshed Mars
is named, by the Zabians and Arabians,
ill-luck, misfortune, He was represented
as holding in one hand a drawn sword,
and in the other, by the hair, a human
head just cut off; his garments were
blood red, as the light of the planet is
also reddish. His temple among the
Arabs was painted red ; and they offered
to him garments sprinkled with blood,
and also a warrior, (probably a prisoner,)
who was cast into a pool. The name
Nergal appears in the proper names Ner-
galsharezer, Neriglassar, Jer. 39:3, 13.

NETS are often referred to in Scrip
ture, Prov. 1:17; Eccl. 7:26; Isa. 19:8,
9; Hab. 1:15, 16, particularly in connec
tion with the first disciples of Christ,
Matt. 4 : 18 ; 13 : 47-50 ; Luke 5 : 1-10.
Before the invention of tire-arms, nets
were much used in hunting and fowling,
and possibly in catching men, as rob
bers, etc., Job 19 : 6 ; Psa. 140 : 5 ; Mic.
7:2. Among the ancient Romans there
was a gladiatorial game, in which one
man wras armed with sword and shield,
and his antagonist with a net, by casting
which he strove to entangle the other so
that he might easily dispatch him with
his dagger.

NETH'ER, lower ; as the lower stone
of a handmill, Deut. 24 : 6 ; the foot of
Sinai, Exod. 19 : 17 ; the regions of the
dead, Ezek. 32:18.

NETH'INIM, given, or consecrated, a
term first applied to the Levites, Num.
8 : 19 ; but after the settlement in Ca
naan, to servants dedicated to the ser
vice of tbe tabernacle and temple, to
perform the most laborious offices, as
carrying of wood and water. At first
the Gibeonites were destined to this sta
tion, Judg. 9 : 27 ; afterwards, other Ca-
naanites who surrendered themselves,
and whose lives were spared. Many of
them appear to have been first assigned

to David, Solomon, and other princes,
and by them transferred to the temple
service, 1 Kin. 9:20, 21 ; Ezra 2:58, 70 ;
8 : 20 ; Neh. 11 : 3. It is probable that
they became proselytes, Neh. 10:28, and
that many of them could cordially unite
with David in saying, ' ' I had rather be
a doorkeeper in the house of my God,
than to dwell in the tents of wicked
ness," Psa. 84:10, The Nethinim were
carried into captivity with the tribe of
Judah, and great numbers were placed
not far from the Caspian sea, whence
Ezra brought two hundred and twenty
of them into Judea, Ezra 8:17.

NETO'PHAH, a town near Bethlehem,
of which little more than the name is
known, 2 Sam. 23:28, 29 ; 2 Kin. 25:23 ;
Ezra 2: 22; Neh. 7:26.

NET'TLE, a well-known stinging
plant, growing in neglected grounds,
Isa. 34 : 13 ; Hos. 9:6. A different He
brew word, in Job 30: 7, Prov. 24 : 31,
Zeph. 2 : 9, seems to indicate a larger
species.

NEW MOON. The new moon was the
commencement of each of the Hebrew
months. See MONTH, The Hebrews had
a particular veneration for the first day
of every month, for which Moses ap
pointed peculiar sacrifices, Num. 28:11-
15 ; but he gave no orders that it should
be kept as a holy day, nor can it be
proved that the ancients observed it as
such : it was a festival of merely volun
tary devotion. It appears that even
from the time of Saul, they made on
this day a sort of family entertainment ;
since David ought then to have been at
the king's table, and Saul took his ab
sence amiss, 1 Sam. 20 : 5, 18. Moses
implies that, besides the national sacri
fices then regularly offered, every pri
vate person had his particular sacrifices
of devotion, Num. 10 : 10. The begin
ning of the month was proclaimed by
sound of trumpet, Psa. 81 : 3, and the
offering of solemn sacrifices. But the
most celebrated ' ' new moon ' ' was that
at the beginning of the civil year, or
first day of the month Tishri, Lev. 23 : 24.
This was a sacred festival, on which no
servile labor was performed, Amos 8 : 5.
In the kingdom of the ten tribes, it
seems to have been a custom of the peo
ple to visit the prophets at the new
moons, for the purpose of carrying them
presents, and hearing their instructions,
2 Kin. 4 : 23. Ezekiel says, 45 : 17, (see
309

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NIL

also 1 Chr. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chr, 8 :13,) that
the burnt-offerings offered on the day of
the new moon were to be provided at the
king's expense. The observance of this
festival was discontinued soon after the
establishment of Christianity, Gal. 4:9,
10, CoL 2 : 16, though the Jews take
some notice of the day even now.

NIB'HAZ, a god of the Avites, 2 Kin.
17: 31. Jewish interpreters say the name
means barker, and affirm that this idol
had the shape of a dog. Historical traces
have also been found of the ancient wor
ship of idols in the form of dogs among
the Syrians. In the Zabian books, Nib-
haz occurs as the "lord of darkness;"
which, according to the character of the
Assyrian - Chaldean mythology, would
point to an evil planetary demon.

NICA'NOR, one of the first seven dea
cons, who were chosen and appointed at
Jerusalem soon after the pentecostal de
scent of the Holy Ghost, Acts 6:1-6.

NICODE'MUS, a member of the Jew
ish Sanhedrim, at first a Pharisee, and
afterwards a disciple of Jesus. He was
early convinced that Christ came from
God, but was not ready at once to rank
himself among His followers. In John
3 : 1-20, he first appears as a timid in
quirer after the truth, learning the great
doctrines of regeneration and atonement.
In John 7 : 45-52, we see him cautiously
defending the Saviour before the Sanhe
drim. At last, in the trying scene of
the crucifixion, he avowed himself a be
liever, and came with Joseph of Arima-
thea to pay the last duties to the body
of Christ, which they took down from
the cross, embalmed, and laid in the sep
ulchre, John 19:39.

NICOLA'ITANS, heretical persons or
teachers, mentioned in Rev. 2 : 6, 15.
Whether they were the same as the Nic-
olaitans of the second century and later
is very doubtful. Some suppose them to
be followers of Nicolas the deacon, but
there is no good evidence that he ever
became a heretic.

NIC'OLAS, a proselyte of Antioch,
that is, one converted from paganism to
the religion of the Jews. He afterwards
embraced Christianity, and was among
the most zealous of the first Christians ;
so that he was chosen one of the first
seven deacons of the church at Jerusa
lem, Acts 6: 5.

NICOP'OLIS, a city where Paul spent
probably the last winter of his life, hav-
310

ing previously written to Titus, at Crete,
to meet him there, Tit. 3 : 12. He is sup-
posed to refer to the Nicopolis of Thrace,
situated on the river Nestus, near the
borders of Macedonia, and hence called,
in the subscription to the epistle, Nicop
olis of Macedonia. Others, however,
suppose him to have meant Nicopolis in
Epirus, which stood near the mouth of
the Ambracian gulf, opposite to Acti-
um, and which was built by Augustus
in honor of his decisive victory over
Antony.

NIGHT. The ancient Hebrews began
their artificial day at evening, and ended
it the next evening, so that the night
preceded the day. This usage may prob
ably be traced to the terms employed in
describing the creation, Gen. 1:5, 8, 13,
etc., "The evening and the morning
were the first day " The Hebrews al
lowed twelve hours to the night, and
twelve to the day ; but these hours were
not equal, except at the equinox. At
other times, when the hours of the night
were long, those of the day were short,
as in winter ; and wrhen the hours of
night were short, as at midsummer, the
hours of the day were long in proportion.
See HOURS.

The nights are sometimes extremely
cold in Syria, when the days are very
hot ; and travellers in the deserts and
among the mountains near Palestine re
fer to their own sufferings from these
opposite extremes, in illustration of Ja
cob's words in Gen. 31 : 40, "In the day
the drought consumed me, and the frost
by night ; and my sleep departed from
mine eyes."

NIGHT-HAWK, an unclean bird, Lev.
11:16; Deut. 14:15. Its name seems to
indicate voracity, and is therefore thought
by many to point out the Syrian owl, a
more powerful bird than the night-hawk,
and exceedingly voracious ; it sometimes
attacks sleeping children.

NILE, the celebrated river of Egypt.
It takes this name only after the junc
tion of the two great streams of which
it is composed, namely, the Bahr el Abi-
ad, or White river, which rises in the
mountains of the Moon, in the interior
of Africa, and runs north-east till it is
joined by the other branch, the Bahr el
Azrek, or Blue river, which rises in Abys
sinia, and after a large circuit to the
south-east and south-west, in which it
passes through the lake of Dembea, flows

NIL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NIL

northwards to join the White river. This
Abyssinian branch has in modern times
been regarded as the real Nile, although
the White river is much the largest and
longest, and was in ancient times con
sidered as the true Nile. The junction
takes place about latitude sixteen degrees
north. From this point the Nile flows
always in a northerly direction, with the
exception of one large bend to the west.
About thirteen hundred miles from the
sea it receives its last branch, the Tacaz-
ze, a large stream from Abyssinia, and
having passed through Nubia, it enters
Egypt at the cataracts near Syene, or
Essuan, which are formed by a chain of
rocks stretching east and west. There
are here three falls ; after which the
river pursues its course in still and silent
majesty through the whole length of the
land of Egypt. Its average breadth is
about seven hundred yards. In Lower
Egypt it divides into several branches
and forms the celebrated Delta; for
which see under EGYPT. See also a view
of the river in AMMON.

As rain very seldom falls, even in win
ter, in Southern Egypt, and usually only
slight and infrequent showers in Lower
Egypt, the whole physical and political
existence of Egypt may be said to de
pend on the Nile; since without this
river, and even without its regular an
nual inundations, the whole land would
be but a desert. These inundations, so
mysterious in the view of ancient igno
rance and superstition, are caused by the
regular periodical rains in the countries
farther south, around the sources of the
Nile, in March and later. The river be
gins to rise in Egypt about the middle of
June, and continues to increase through
the month of July. In August it over
flows its banks, and reaches its highest
point early in September ; and the coun
try is then mostly covered with its wa
ters, Amos 8:8 ; 9:5 ; Nah. 3:8. In the
beginning of October, the inundation
still continues; and it is only towards
the end of this month that the stream
returns within its banks. From the
middle of August till towards the end of
October, the whole land of Egypt resem
bles a great lake or sea, in which the
towns and cities appear as islands.

The cause of the fertility which the
Nile imparts lies not only in its thus
watering the land, but also in the thick
slimy mud which its waters bring down

along with them and deposit on the soil
of Egypt. It is like a coat of rich ma
nure ; and the seed being immediately
sown upon it, without digging or plough
ing, springs up rapidly, grows with lux
uriance, and ripens into abundance. See
EGYPT.

It must not, however, be supposed that
the Nile spreads itself over every spot of
land, and waters it sufficiently without
artificial aid. Niebuhr justly remarks,
' ' Some descriptions of Egypt would lead
us to think that the Nile, when it swells,
lays the whole province under water.
The lands immediately adjoining to the
banks of the river are indeed laid under
water, but the natural inequality of the
ground hinders it from overflowing the
interior country. A great part of the
lands would therefore remain barren,
were not canals and reservoirs formed to
receive water from the river, when at its
greatest height, which is thus conveyed
everywhere through the fields, and re
served for watering them when occasion
requires." In order to raise the water
to grounds which lie higher, machines
have been used in Egypt from time im
memorial. These are chiefly wheels to
which buckets are attached. One kind
is turned by oxen ; another smaller kind,
by men seated, and pushing the lower
spokes from them with their feet, while
they pulled the upper spokes towards
them with their hands, Deut. 11:10.

As the inundations of the Nile are of
so much importance to the whole land,
structures have been erected on which
the beginning and progress of its rise
might be observed. These are called
Nilometers, that is, "Nile measures."
At present there is one, one thousand
years old and half in ruins, on the little
island opposite Cairo ; it is under the
care of the government, and according to
it the beginning and subsequent progress
of the rise of the Nile were carefully ob
served and proclaimed by authority. If
the inundation reached the height of
twenty-two Paris feet, a rich harvest was
expected ; because then all the fields had
received the requisite irrigation. If it
fell short of this height, and in propor
tion as it thus fell short, the land was
threatened with want and famine, of
which many horrible examples occur in
Egyptian history. Should the rise of
the water exceed twenty-eight Paris feet,
a famine was in like manner feared.
311

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NIN

The annual rise of the river also varies
exceedingly in different parts of its
course, being twenty feet greater where
the river is narrow than in Lower Egypt.
The channel is thought to be gradually
filling up ; and many of the ancient out
lets at the Delta are dry in summer and
almost obliterated. The drying up of
the waters of Egypt would involve its
destruction as a habitable land to the
same extent ; and this fact is recognized
in the prophetic denunciations of this
remarkable country, Isa. 11 : 15; 19 : 1-
10; Ezek. 29:10; 30:12.

The water of the Nile, although dur
ing a great part of the year turbid, from
the effects of the rains above, yet fur
nishes, when purified by settling, the
softest and sweetest water for drinking.
Its excellence is acknowledged by all
travellers. The Egyptians are full of its
praises, and even worshipped the river
as a god.

The Hebrews sometimes gave both to
the Euphrates and the Nile the name of
"sea," Isa. 19 : 5 ; Nah. 3 : 8. In this
they are borne out by Arabic writers,
and also by the common people of Egypt,

who to this day commonly speak of the
Nile as ' ' the sea. " It is also still cele
brated for its fish. Compare Num. 11:5;
Isa. 19 : 8. In its waters are likewise
found the crocodile or leviathan, and
the hippopotamus or behemoth. See
EGYPT, and SIHOR.

NIM'RIM. See BETH-NIMRAH.

NIM'ROD, rebellion, impiety, a son of
Gush and grandson of Ham, proverbial
from the earliest times as a mighty hun
ter, Gen. 10 : 8-10 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 10. He
seems to have feared neither God nor
man ; to have gathered around him a
host of adventurers, and extended his
conquests into the land of Shinar, where
he founded or fortified Babel, Erech,
Accad, and Calneh. According to one
interpretation of Gen. 10 : 11, he also
founded Nineveh and the Assyrian em
pire ; though this is usually understood
to have been done by Asshur, when ex
pelled by Nimrod from the land of Shi
nar, Mic. 5 : 6. Nimrod is supposed to
have begun the tower of Babel ; and his
name is still preserved by a vast ruinous
mound, on the site of ancient Babylon.
See BABEL.

ASD HUMAN-HEAD LION, VBOM THE B.UI3VQ OF NINTEVKK.

NIN'EVEH, dwelling of ffintu, the me- | situated on the east bank of the Tigris,
(tropolis of ancient Assyria, called by the opposite and below the modern Mosul.
Greeks and Romans " the great Ninus ;" I Its origin is traced to the times near the
312

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NIN

flood. See NIMROD. For nearly fifteen
centuries afterwards it is not mentioned.
In the books of Jonah and Nahum it is
described as an immense city, three days'
journey in circuit, containing more than
one hundred and twenty thousand young
children, or probably six hundred thou
sand souls. It contained "much cattle,"
and numerous parks, gardens, groves,
etc. Its inhabitants were wealthy, war
like, and far advanced in civilization. It
had numerous strong-holds with gates
and bars ; and had multiplied its mer
chants above the stars : its crowned
princes were as locusts, and its captains
as grasshoppers. With this description
agrees that of the historian Diodorus
Siculus, who says Nineveh was twenty-
one miles long, nine miles broad, and
fifty-four miles in circumference ; that
its walls were a hundred feet high, and
so broad that three chariots could drive
upon them abreast ; and that it had fif
teen hundred towers, each two hundred
feet high.

Nineveh had long been the mistress
of the East ; but for her great luxury
and wickedness, the prophet Jonah was
sent, more than eight hundred years be
fore Christ, to warn the Ninevites of her
speedy destruction. See also Isa. 14 : 24,

25. Their timely repentance delayed for
a time the fall of the city ; but about 753
B. c., the period of tiie foundation of
Home, it was taken by the Medes under
Arbaces ; and nearly a century and a
half later, according to the predictions
of Nahum, chap. 1-3, and Zephaniah
2: 13, it was a second time taken by Cya-
raxes and Nabopolassar ; after which it
no more recovered its former splendor.
Subsequent writers mention it but sel
dom, and as an unimportant place ; so
complete was its destruction, that for ages
its site has been well-nigh lost, and infi
dels have even denied that the Nineveh
of the Bible ever existed. The mounds
which were the "grave" of its ruins,
Nah. 1 : 14, were so covered with soil as
to seem like natural hills. But since
1841, Layard, Botta, and others have
been exploring its remains, so long un
disturbed. The mounds chiefly explored
lie at three corners of a trapezium about
eighteen miles long, and twelve miles
wide, and nearly sixty in circumference,
thus confirming the ancient accounts of
its vast extent. The recent excavations
disclose temples and palaces, guarded
by huge winged bulls and lions with
human heads. The apartments of these
buildings are lined with slabs of stone.

WARRIOR AND HORSES, FROM THE MOUND OF KHORSABAD, NINEVEH.

covered with sculptures in bas-relief, and I which have been in part deciphered ;
inscriptions in arrow-headed characters | and these sculptured memorials of the
14 313

NIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NIN

history and customs of the Assyrians, to
gether with the various articles made of
glass, wood, ivory, and- metals, now
brought to light after a burial of twen
ty-four centuries, furnish invaluable aid
in the interpretation of Scripture, and
most signally confirm its truth. Our
surprise is equal to our gratilication,
when we behold the actual Assyrian ac
count of events recorded in Kings and
Chronicles. Not only do we find men
tion made of Jehu, Menahem, Hezekiah,
Omri, Hazael, etc., and of various cities
in Judea and Syria ; but we discover
Sennacherib's own account of his inva
sion of Palestine, and of the amount of
tribute which king Hezekiah was forced
to pay him ; also pictures representing
his capture of Lachish, 2 Kin. 18:14, and
his officers, perhaps the railing Rabsha-
keh himself, presenting Jewish captives
to the king, etc. (See cut and details in
SENNACHERIB.) These mural tablets also
furnish a graphic comment on the lan
guage of the prophet Ezekiel ; and as
he was a captive in the region of Nine

veh, he had no doubt heard of, and had
probably seen these very "chambers
of imagery," as well as the objects they
represent. We there find reproduced to
our view the men and scenes he describes
in chap. 23 : (5, 14, 15, etc. ; 20 : 7-12 :
"Captains and rulers clothed most gor
geously," "portrayed with vermilion,"
"girded with girdles upon their loins,"
"exceeding in dyed attire upon their
heads." The "vermilion" or red color
is quite prevalent among the various
brilliant colors with which these tablets
were painted, Ezek. 23 : 14, 15. Here
are "horsemen riding upon horses,"
' ' princes to look to " in respect to war
like vigor and courage ; and their horses
of high spirit, noble form, and attitudes,
and decked with showy trappings. (See
cut on previous page.) Here, in line, are
the idols, kings, and warriors of Nine
veh, in various scenes of worship, hunt
ing, and war ; fortresses attacked and
taken ; prisoners led in triumph, im
paled, flayed, and otherwise tortured ;
and sometimes actually held by cords

attached to hooks which pierce the nose
or the lips, 2 Kin. 19:28, Isa. 37:29, and
having their eyes put out by the point of
a spear, 2 Kin. 25:7. For other cuts see
NISROCH, SENNACHERIB, SIIALMANEZER,
and WAR.

The Christian world is under great ob
ligations to Layard and Botta for their
enterprising explorations, and to Raw-
linson and Hincks for their literary in
vestigations of these remains. To the
student of the Bible especially these bur
ied treasures are of the highest value,
314

and we may well rejoice not only in this
new accumulation of evidence to the
truth of the history and prophecies of
Scripture, but in the additional light
thus thrown on its meaning. How im
pressive too the warning which these
newly found memorials of a city once so
vast and powerful bring to us in these
latter days and in lands then unknown,
to beware of the luxury, pride, and un
godliness that caused her ruin.

NI'SAN, a Hebrew month, nearly an
swering to our April, but varying some-

NIS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NOA

what from year to year, according to the
course of the inoon. It was the seventh
month of the civil year ; but was made
the first month of the sacred year, at the
coming out of Egypt, Ex. 12 : 2. By
Moses it is called Abib, Ex. 13 : 4. The
name Nisan is found only after the time
of Ezra, and the return from the captiv-
"ity of Babylon. See MONTHS.

NIS'ROCH, a god of the Assyrians, in
whose temple, and in the very act of
idolatry, Sennacherib was slain by his
own sons, 2 Kin. 19 : 37. According to
the etymology, the name would signify
"the great eagle;" and the earlier As
syrian sculptures recently exhumed at
Nineveh have many representations of
an idol in human form, but with the head
of an eagle, as shown above. Among
the ancient Arabs also the eagle occurs
as an idol. The other accompanying
cut, representing a winged figure in a

circle, armed with a bow, is frequently
met on the walls cf ancient Nineveh in

scenes of worship, and is believed to be
an emblem of the supreme divinity of
the Assyrians.

NI'THE, not the substance used in
making gunpowder, but natron, a min
eral alkali composed of several salts of
soda. It effervesces with vinegar, Prov.
25 : 28, and is still used in washing, Jer.
2 : 22. Combined with oil, it makes a
hard soap. It is found deposited in, or
floating upon, certain lakes west of the
Delta of Egypt.

NO, or NO-AMMON. See AMMON.
NOAH, rest, comfort, the name of the
celebrated patriarch who was preserved
by Jehovah with his family, by means
of the ark, through the deluge, and thus
became the second founder of the human
race. The history of Noah and the del
uge is contained in Genesis, ch. 6-9. He
was the son of Lamech, and grandson of
Methuselah ; was born A. M. 1056, and
lived six hundred years before the del
uge, and three hundred and fifty after
it, dying two years before Abram was
born. His name may have been given
to him by his parents in the hope that
he would be the promised ' ' seed of the
woman" that should "bruise the ser
pent's head." He was in the line of the
patriarchs who feared God, and was him
self a just man, Ezek. 14 : 14, 20, and a
"preacher of righteousness," 1 Pet. 3:19,
20; 2 Pet, 2:5. His efforts to reform the
degenerate world, continued as some sup
pose for one hundred and twenty years,
produced little effect, Matt. 24 : 37 ; the
flood did not "find faith upon the
earth." Noah, however, was an exam
ple of real faith : he believed the warn
ing of God, was moved by fear, and pur
sued the necessary course of action, Heb.
11:7. His first care on coming out from
the ark was to worship the Lord, with
sacrifices of all the fitting animals. Lit.
tie more is recorded of him except
his falling into intoxication, a sad
instance of the shame and misfor
tune into which wine is apt to lead.
His three sons, it is believed, peopled
the whole world ; the posterity of
Japheth chiefly occupying Europe,
those of Shem Asia, and those of
Ham Africa.

Numerous traces of traditions respect
ing Noah have been found all over the
world. Among the most accurate is that
embodied in the legend of the Greeks
respecting Deucalion and Pyrrha. Wfc
315

NOB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

NUR

may also mention the medals struck at
Apamea in Phrygia, in the time of Sep
timus Severus, and bearing the name
NO, an ark, a man and woman, a raven,
and a dove with an olive-branch in its
mouth. See ARK.

NOB, a city of priests, in Benjamin,
near Jerusalem; its inhabitants were
once put to the sword by command of
Saul, for their hospitality to David,
1 Sam. 21:2 ; 22:9-23 ; Neh. 11:32 ; Isa.
10:32. Its site is unknown.

NOD, wandering, a region cast of Eden,
go named on account of the wanderings
in it of the exiled Cain, Gen. 4:16.

NOPH, sometimes called also, in He
brew, MOPII, Hos. 9 : 6, the ancient city
of Memphis in Egypt. The ruins of it,
though not to any great extent, are still
found a few miles above Old Cairo, or
Fostat, Isa. 19 : 13 ; Jer. 2 : 16 ; 44 : 1 ;
Ezek. 30:13, 16.

Memphis was the residence of the an
cient kings of Egypt till the times of the
Ptolemies, who commonly resided at Al
exandria. Here, it is supposed, Joseph
was a prisoner and a ruler, and here Mo
ses stood before Pharaoh . J : i : < ophets,
in the places above referred to, foretell
the miseries Memphis was to sulfer from
the kings of Chaldea and Persia ; and
threaten the Israelites who should retire
into Egypt, or should have recourse
to the Egyptians, that they should per
ish in that country. In this city they
fed and worshipped the sacred bull Apis,
the embodiment of their false god Osi
ris ; and Ezekiel says, that the Lord will
destroy the idols of Memphis, Ezek.
30 : 13, 16. Memphis retained much of
its splendor till it was conquered by the
Arabians in the eighteenth or nineteenth
year of the Hegira, A. D. 641 ; after which
it was superseded as the metropolis of
Egypt by Fostat, now Old Cairo, in the
construction of which its materials were
employed. The pyramids, in which its
distinguished men were buried, still sur
vive ; but the magnificent city, that
stretched along for many miles between
them and the^ river, has almost wholly
disappeared.

NORTH. See EAST. The Babylonians
and Assyrians arc represented as coming
from "the north," because they invaded
Israel by a northern route, in order to
avoid the desert, Jer. 1 : 14 ; 46 : 6, 24 ;
Zeph. 2:13. " Fair weather, ' ' says Job,
or golden weather, ' ' cometh out of the
316

north," Job 37 : 22. This is as true in
Syria and Arabia now as it was three
thousand years ago. A traveller there
remarks, ' ' Our friends, who have been
long residents, informed us that .we
should have fair weather for our start
on the morrow, as the wind wa» from

the north And m we have found

it come to pass that the clouds of a gold
en hue always followed upon a north
wind, and indicated a clear day ; and as
in the times of the Saviour, we could
always say when it was evening, 'It
will be fair weather, for the sky is red,' "
Matt. 16:2.

NOSE. Several expressions in Scrip
ture grew out of the fact that anger often
shows itself by distended nostrils, hard
breathing, and in animals by snorting,
2 Sam. 22 : 9 ; Job 39 : 20 ; Psa. 18 : 8.
Gold rings hung in the cartilage of the
nose, or the left nostril, were favorite
ornaments of Eastern women, Prov.
11 : 22 ; Ezek. 16 : 12. Kings were insert
ed in the noses of animals, to guide and
control them ; and according to the re
cently discovered tablets at Nineveh,
captives among the Assyrians were some
times treated in the same way, 2 Kin.
19:28; Ezek. 38:4. See NINKVEII.

NOV'ICE, or neophite, one recently
converted and received to the Christian
church, 1 Tim. 3:6.

NUM'BER, Isa. 65:11. See GAD III.

NUM'BERS, TIIK BOOK OF, is so called
because the first three chapters contain
the numbering of the Hebrews and Le-
vites, which was performed separately,
after the erection and consecration of
the tabernacle. The rest of the book
contains an account of the breaking up of
the Israelites from Sinai, and their sub
sequent wanderings in the desert, until
their arrival on the borders of Moab. It
was written by Moses, u. c. 1451, and is
the fourth book of the Pentateuch. See
EXODUS.

NURSE. The Bible contains various
allusions to the tender and confidential
relation anciently subsisting between a
nurse and the children she had brought
up, Isa. 49:22, 23 ; 1 Thess. 2:7, 8. See
also the story of Rebekah, attended
through life by her faithful and honored
Deborah, the oak under which she was
buried being called "The oak of weep
ing," Gen. 24 : 59 ; 35 : 8. The custom
still prevails in the better families of
Syria and India. Says Roberts in his

NYM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

OAT

Oriental Illustrations, " How often have
scenes like this led my mind to the pa
triarchal age. The daughter is about for
the first time to leave the paternal roof;
the servants are all in confusion ; each
refers to things long gone by, each wishes
to do something to attract the attention
of his young mistress. One says, 'Ah,
do not forget him who nursed you when
an infant;' another, 'How often did I
bring you the beautiful lotus from the
distant tank. Did I not always conceal
your faults?' Then the mother comes
to take leave. She weeps, and tenderly
embraces her, saying, ' My daughter, I
shall see you no more ; forget not your
mother. ' The brother enfolds his sister
hi his arms, and promises soon to come
and see her. The father is absorbed in
thought, and is only aroused by the sobs
of the party. He then affectionately em
braces his daughter, and tells her not to
fear. The female domestics must each
smell of the poor girl, and the men touch
her feet. As Rebekah had her nurse to
accompany her, so, at this day, the aya
(nurse) who has from infancy brought
up the bride, goes with her to the new
scene. She is her adviser, her assistant,
and friend, and to her will she tell all
her hopes and all her fears."

NYM'PHAS, a Christian at Laodicea,
whom Paul salutes, together with the
company of believers wont to worship
at his house, Col. 4:15.

0.

OAK. As many as six varieties of the
oak are found in Palestine. Dr. Kobin-
son speaks of one at Hebron which had
a trunk twenty-two and a half feet in
circumference ; and saw the crests and
sides of the hills beyond the Jordan still
clothed, as in ancient times, with mag
nificent oaks, Isa. 2 : 13 ; Zech. 11:2.
The oak is often referred to in Scripture,
Gen. 35 : 8 ; Isa. 44 : 14 ; Amos 2:9. There
is, however, a second Hebrew word often
translated "oak," which is supposed to
denote the terebinth or turpentine-tree,
called butm by the Arabs, Gen. 35 : 4 ;
Judg. 6:11, 19 ; 2 Sam. 18:9, 14. It is
translated "elm" in Hos. 4:13, and
"teil-tree" in Isa. 6: 13, in which pas
sages the true oak is also mentioned.
In many passages where "plain" or
" plains" occurs, we should probably

understand "terebinth," or "a grove
of terebinths," Gen. 12:6; 13:18; 14:13;
18 : 1 ; Deut. 11 : 30 ; Judg. 9 : 6. This
tree was found in all countries around
the Mediterranean, and in Palestine
grew to a large size. It was very long-
lived. For many ages after Christ, a
tree of this kind near Hebron was su-
perstitiously venerated as one of those
under which Abraham dwelt at Mamre.
Under the welcome shade of oaks and
other large trees many public affairs
were transacted ; sacrifices were offered,
courts were held, and kings were crown
ed, Josh. 24 : 26 ; Judg. 6 : 11, 19 ; 9:6.
See GROVE.

OATH, a solemn affirmation, accom
panied by an appeal to the Supreme Be
ing. God has prohibited all false oaths,
and all useless and customary swearing
in ordinary discourse ; but when the ne
cessity or importance of a matter requires
an oath, he allows men to swear by his
name, Ex. 22:11; Lev. 5:1. To swear by
a false god was an act of idolatry, Jer.
5:7; 12:16.

Among the Hebrews an oath was ad
ministered by the judge, who stood up,
and adjured the party who was to be
sworn. In this manner our Lord was
adjured by Caiaphas, Matt. 26:63. Jesus
had remained silent under long exami
nation, when the high-priest, rising up,
knowing he had a sure mode of obtain
ing an answer, said, " I adjure thee by
the living God, that thou tell us whether
thou be the Christ." To this oath, thus
solemnly administered, Jesus replied that
he was indeed the Messiah.

An oath is a solemn appeal to God, as
to an all-seeing witness that what we
say is true, and an almighty avenger if
what we say be false, Heb. 6 : 16. Its
force depends upon our conviction of the
infinite justice of God ; that he will not
hold those guiltless who take his name
in vain ; and that the loss of his favor
immeasurably outweighs all that could
be gained by false witness. It is an
act of religious worship ; on which ac
count God requires it to be taken in his
name, Deut. 10 : 20, and points out the
manner in which it ought to be admin
istered, and the duty of the person who
swears, Exod. 22 : 11 ; Deut. 6:13; Psa.
15 : 4 ; 24 : 4. Hence atheists, who pro
fess to believe that there is no God, and
persons who do not believe in a future
state of reward and punishment, cannot
317

OBA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

OFF

consistently take an oath. In their
mouths an oath can he only profane
mockery.

God himself is represented as confirm
ing his promise by oath, and thus con
forming to what is practised among men,
Psa. 95 : 11 ; Heb. 6 : 13, 16, 17. The
oaths forbidden in Matt. 5 : 84, 85 ; Jas.
5:12, must refer to the unthinking, hasty,
and vicious practices of the Jews ; other
wise Paul would have acted against the
command of Christ, Rom. 1:9; Gal.
1:20; 2 Cor. 1:23. That person is obli
ged to take an oath whose duty requires
him to declare the truth in the most sol
emn and judicial manner; though un
doubtedly oaths are too often adminis
tered unnecessarily and irreverently, and
taken with but slight consciousness of
the responsibility thus assumed. As we
are bound to manifest every possible de
gree of reverence towards God, the great
est care is to be taken that we swear nei
ther rashly nor negligently in making
promises. To neglect performance is
perjury, unless the promise be contrary
to the law of nature and of God ; in
which case no oath is binding. See COR-
BAN, and Vows.

A customary formula of taking an oath
was, "The Lord do so to me, and more
also ;" that is, the Lord slay me, as the
victim sacrificed on many such occasions
was slain, and punish me even more than
this, if I speak not the truth, Ruth 1:17 ;
1 Sam. 3:17. Similar phrases are these :
"As the Lord liveth," Judg. 8:19 ; "Be
fore God I lie not," Rom. 9:1; "I say
the truth in Christ," 1 Tim. 2:7 ; " God
is my record," Phil. 1 : 8. Several acts
are alluded to as accompaniments of an
oath ; as putting the hand under the
thigh, Gen. 24 : 2 ; 47 : 29 ; and raising
the hand towards heaven, Gen. 14 : 22,
23; Deut. 32:40; Rev. 10:5.

OBADI'AH, I., the chief officer of king
Ahab's household, who preserved the
lives of one hundred prophets from the
persecuting Jezebel, by concealing them
in two caves and furnishing them with
food, 1 Kin. 18:4.

II. The fourth of the minor prophets,
supposed to have prophesied about 587
B. c. It cannot indeed be decided with
certainty when he lived, but it is prob
able that he was contemporary with Jer
emiah and Ezekiel, who denounced the
same dreadful judgments on the Edom-
*tes, as the punishment of their pride,
318

violence, and cruel insul tings over the
Jews after the destruction of their city.
The prophecy, according to Usher, was
fulfilled about five years after the de
struction of Jerusalem.

III. Eight or ten others of this name
are mentioned in 1 Chr. 3 : 21 ; 7 : 3 ; 8 : 38 ;
9 : 16, 44 ; 12 : 9 . 27 : 19 ; 2 Chr. 17 : 7 ;
34:12; Ezra 8:9; Neh. 10:5.

O'BED, son of Boaz and Ruth, and
grandfather of David, Ruth 4 : 17. See
also the genealogies of Christ, Matt. 1:5;
Luke 3:32.

O'BED-E'DOM, a Levite, whose special
prosperity while keeper of the ark after
the dreadful death of Uzziah encouraged
David to carry it up to Jerusalem. Obed-
edom and his sons were made doorkeep
ers of the tabernacle at Jerusalem, 2 Sam.
6 : 10-12 ; 1 Chr. 15 : 18-24 ; 16 : 38 ; 26 : 4-
8, 15.

O'DED, a prophet of the Lord, who,
being at Samaria when the Israelites un
der king Pekah returned from the war
against Judah and brought 200,000 cap
tives, went to meet them, and remon
strated with them ; so that the principal
men in Samaria took care of the prison
ers, gave them clothes, food, and other
assistance, and carried the feeble on
asses. Thus they conducted them to
Jericho, 2 Chr. 28:9, etc.

OFFENCE'. This word answers to
two different terms in the original, the
one signifying a breach of the law, Rom.
5 : 15, 17, the other a stumbling-block
or cause of sin to others, Matt. 5 : 29 ;
18 : 6-9 ; or whatever is perverted into
an occasion or excuse for sin, Matt. 15 : 12;
John 6:61 ; Rom. 9:33 ; Gal. 5:11.

OFFERING. In the Hebrew, an of
fering, minchah, is distinguished from a
sacrifice, zebah, as being bloodless. In
our version, however, the word offering
is often used for a sacrifice, as in the case
of peace-offerings, sin-offerings, etc. Of
the proper offerings, that is, the unbloody
offerings, some accompanied the sacri
fices, as flour, wine, salt; others were
not connected with any sacrifices. Like
the sacrifices, some, as the first-fruits and
tenths, were obligatory ; others were vol
untary offerings of devotion. Various
sorts of offerings are enumerated in the
books of Moses. Among these are, 1.
Fine flour, or meal ; 2. Cakes baked in
an oven ; 3. Cakes baked on a plate or
shallow pan ; 4. Cakes cooked in a deep
vessel by frying in oil, (English version,

OG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

OL1

"frying-pan," though some understand
here a gridiron, or a plate with holes ;)
5. First-fruits of the new corn, either in
the simple state, or prepared by parch
ing or roasting in the ear, or out of the
ear. The cakes were kneaded with olive
oil, or fried in a pan, or only dipped in
oil after they wei-e baked. The bread
offered for the altar was without leaven ;
for leaven was never offered on the altar,
nor with the sacrifices, Lev. 2 : 11, 12.
But they might make presents of com
mon bread to the priests and ministers
of the temple. Honey was never offered
with the sacrifices, but it might be pre
sented alone, as first-fruits, Lev. 2:11, 12.
Those who offered living victims were not
excused from giving meal, wine, and
salt, together with the greater sacrifices.
Those who offered only oblations of
bread or of meal, offered also oil, in
cense, salt, and wine, which were in a
manner their seasoning. The priest in
waiting received the offerings from the
hand of him who brought them, laid a
part on the altar, and reserved the rest
for his own subsistence as a minister of
the Lord. Nothing was wholly burned
up but the incense, of which the priest
retained none. See Lev. 2 : 2, 13, etc. ;
Num. 15:4, 5.

In some cases the law required only
offerings of corn or bread, as when they
offered the first-fruits of harvest, whether
offered solemnly by the nation, or as the
devotion of private persons. The un
bloody offerings signified, in general, not
so much expiation, which was the pecul
iar meaning of the sacrifices, as the con
secration of the offerer and all that he
had to Jehovah. Only in the case of the
poor man, who could not afford the ex
pense of sacrificing an animal, was an
unbloody offering accepted in its stead,
Lev. 5:11. See SACRIFICES.

OG, an Amoritish king of Bashan east
of the Jordan, defeated and slain by the
Israelites under Moses. He was a giant
in stature, one of the last of the Rephaim
who had possessed that region ; and his
iron bedstead, fourteen feet long, was
preserved after his death as a relic. Ash-
taroth-carnaim and Edrei were his chief
cities; but there were many other walled
towns, and the land was rich in flocks
and herds. It was assigned by Moses to
the half-tribe of Manasseh, Num. 21:33;
32:33; Deut. 1:4; 3:1-13; 4:47; 31:4;
Josh. 2:10; 12:4; 13:30.

OIL was employed from the earliest
periods in the East, not only for the
purpose of consecration, but to anoint
the head, the beard, and the whole per
son in daily life, Gen. 28 : 18. See
ANOINTING. It was also universally used
for food, Ezek. 16:13. Fresh and sweet
olive oil was greatly preferred to butter
and animal fat as a seasoning for food,
and to this day in Syria almost every
kind of food is cooked with oil. It had
a place also among the meat-offerings in
the temple, being usually mixed with
the meal of the oblation, Lev. 5 : 11 ;
6 : 21. For lamps, also, pure olive oil
was regarded as the best, and was used
in illuminating the tabernacle. These
many uses for oil made the culture of
the olive-tree an extensive and lucrative
business, 1 Chr. 27 : 28; Ezek. 27 : 17 ;
Hos. 12:1. Oil was as much an article
of storage and of traffic as corn and wine,
2 Chr. 32 : 28 ; Ezra 3:7. The best oil
was obtained from the fruit while yet
green, by a slight beating or pressing,
Ex. 27:20; 29:40. The ripe fruit is now,
and has been from ancient times, crushed
by passing stone rollers over it. The
crushed mass is then subjected to pressure
in the oil-mill, Hebrew, gath-shemen. The
olive-berries are not now trodden with
the feet. This, however, seems to have
been practised among the Hebrews, at
least to some extent, when the berries
had become soft by keeping, Mic. G : 15.
Gethsemane, that is, oil-press, probably
took its name originally from some oil-
press in its vicinity. See OLIVE.

OINT'MENTS were much used by the
ancient Hebrews, not chiefly for medical
purposes as among us, but as a luxury,
Ruth 3:3; Psa. 104:15; Song 1:2; Matt.
0:17; Luke 7:46. Their perfumery was
usually prepared in olive oil, and not in
volatile extracts and essences. The sa
cred ointment is described in Ex. oO:22-
33. The ointments of the rich were
made of very costly ingredients, and
their fragrance was highly extolled, Isa.
39 : 2 ; Amos 6:6; Matt. 26:7-9 ; John
12:5. See ANOINTING.

OL'IVE. This is one of the earliest
trees mentioned in Scripture, and has
furnished, perhaps ever since the deluge
the most universal emblem of peace,
Gen. 8 : 11. It is always classed "am on 3
the most valuable trees of Palestine,
which is described as a land of oil olivd
and honey, Deut. 6:11 ; 8:8 ; Hab. 8:17.
319

OL1

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

OL1

No tree is more frequently mentioned in
the Greek and Roman classics. By the
Greeks it was dedicated to Minerva, and
employed in crowning Jove, Apollo, and
Hercules. The olive is never a very large
or beautiful tree, and seldom exceeds
thirty feet in height : its leaves are dark
green on the upper surface, and of a sil
very hue 011 the under, and generally
grow in pairs. Its wood is hard, like
that of box, and very close in the grain.
It blossoms very profusely, and bears
fruit every other year. The flower is at
first yellow, but as it expands, it becomes
whiter, leaving a yellow centre. The
fruit resembles a plum in shape and in
color, being first green, then pale, mid
when ripe, black. It is gathered by
shaking the boughs and by beating them
with poles, Dent. 24:20, Isa. 17:6. and
is sometimes plucked in an um*ipe state,
put into some preserving liquid, and ex
ported. It is principally valuable for the
oil it produces, which is an important
article of commerce in the East. A f ull-
sized tree in full bearing vigor is said to
produce a thousand pounds of oil, Judg.
9:8, 9 ; 2 Chr. 2: 10. The olive delights
in a stony soil, and will thrive even on
the sides and tops of rocky hills, where
there is scarcely any earth ; hence the
expression, "oil out of the flinty rock,"
etc., Deut. 82 : 13 ; Job 29 : 6. *It is an
evergreen tree, and very long-lived, an
emblem of a fresh and enduring piety,
Psa. 52:8. Around an old trunk young
plants shoot up from the same root, to
320

adorn the parent stock when living, and
succeed it when dead ; hence the allu
sion in describing the family of the just,
Psa. 128 : 3. It is slow of growth, and
no less slow to decay. The ancient trees
now in Gethsemane are believed by
many to have sprung from the roots of
those which witnessed the agony of our
Lord. The "wild olive-tree " is smaller
than the cultivated, and inferior in all

its parts and products. A graft upon

it, from a good tree, bore good fruit ;

while a graft from a " wild' ' olive upon
a good tree, remains "wild" as before.
Yet, " contrary to nature," the sinner
engrafted on Christ partakes of His nature
and bears good fruit, Rom. 11:13-26.

OL'IVES, MOUNT OF, Ezck. 11 : 23,
called also OLIVET, 2 Sam. 15:30, a ridge
running north and south on the east side
of Jerusalem, its summit about half a
mile from the city wall, and separated
from it by the valley of the Kidron. It
is composed of a chalky limestone, the
rocks everywhere showing themselves.-
The olive-trees that formerly covered it,
and gave it its name, are now represent
ed by a few trees and clumps of trees
which ages of desolation have not eradi
cated. There are three prominent sum
mits on the ridge ; of these the south
ernmost, which is lower than the other-
two, is now known as the "Mount of
Offence," originally the "Mount of Cor
ruption," because Solomon defiled it by
idolatrous worship, 1 Kin. 1 1:5-7; 2 Kin.
23 : 13. Over this ridge passes the road
to Bethany, the most frequented road to
Jericho and the Jordan. Ihe sides of
the mount of Olives towards the west
contain many tombs, cut in the rocks.
The central summit rises two hundred
feet above Jerusalem, and presents a
fine view of the city, and indeed of the
whole region, including the mountains
of Ephraim on the north, the valley of
the Jordan on the east, a part of the
Dead sea on the south-east, .and beyond
it Kerak in the mountains of Moab. Per
haps no spot on earth unites so fine a
view, with so many memorials of the
most solemn and important eventt
Over this hill the Saviour often climbed
in his journeys to and from the holy
city. Gethsemane lay at its foot on the
west, and Bethany on its eastern slope,
Matt. 24 : 3 ; Mark 13 : 3. It was prob
ably near Bethany, and not as tradition
says on the middle summit, that our

OME

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

OPH

Lord ascended to heaven, Luke 24 : 50,
Acts 1 : 12, though superstition has built
the "Church of the Ascension" on the
pretended spot, and shows the print of
his feet on the rock whence he ascended !
From the summit, three days before his
death, he beheld Jerusalem, and wept
over it, recalling the long ages of his
more than parental care, and grieving
over its approaching ruin. Scarcely any
thing in the gospels moves the heart
more than this natural and touching
Scene. No one can doubt that it was GOD
who there spoke ; his retrospect, his pre
diction, and his compassion alike proved
it. See Luke 19 : 37-44, in connection
with Matt. 23 : 35-38, spoken the next
day. The same spot is associated with
the predictions of his future judgments
in the earth, Zech. 14 : 4. See view of
the central summit in GETIISEMANE.
Also SEPULCHRES.

OMEGA, the last letter of the Greek
alphabet. See letter A.

O'MER, a measure of capacity among
the Hebrews ; the tenth part of an
ephah ; a little more than five pints.

OM'RI was general of the army of
Elah king of Israel ; but being at the
siege of Gibbethon, and hearing that his
master Elah was assassinated by Zimri,
who had usurped his kingdom, he raised
the siege, and being elected king by his
army, marched against Zimri, attacked
him at Tirzah, and forced him to burn
himself and all his family in the palace
in which he had shut himself up. After
his death, half of Israel acknowledged
Omri for king, the other half adhered to
Tibni, son of Ginath, which division con
tinued four years. When Tibni was dead,
the people united in acknowledging Omri
as king of all Israel, who reigned twelve
years, six years at Tirzah, and six at Sa
maria, 1 Kin. 16:8-28.

Tirzah had previously been the chief
residence of the kings of Israel ; but
when Omri purchased the hill of Sho-
meron, 1 Kin. 16 : 24, he built there a
new city, which he called Samaria, from
the name of the previous possessor, She-
mer or Shomer, and there fixed his royal
seat. From this time Samaria was the
capital of the kingdom of the ten tribes.
It appears, under the name of Beth-
Omri, on the stone tablets recently ex
humed by Layard from the ruins of Nin
eveh.

ON. See HELIOPOLIS.
. 14*.

ONES'IMUS had been a slave to Phil-
emon of Colosse, and had run away
from him, and iled to Rome ; but being
converted to Christianity through the
preaching of Paul, he was the occasion
of- Paul's writing the epistle to Phile
mon, Col. 4:9; Phile. 10.

ONESIPH'ORUS, a Christian friend of
Paul at Ephesus, who came to Rome
while the apostle was imprisoned there
for the faith, and at a time when almost
every one had forsaken him. This is
supposed to have occurred during Paul's
last imprisonment, not long before his
death. Having found Paul in bonds,
after long seeking him, he assisted him
to the utmost of his power, and without
regard to danger ; for which the apostle
implored the highest benedictions on
him and his family, 2 Tim. 1 : 10-18 ;
4:19.

ON'ION, one of the vegetables of
Egypt for which the Hebrews murmured
in the desert, Num. 11 : 5. Hasselquist
says that the onions of Egypt are re
markably sweet, mild, and nutritious.
Juvenal, Pliny, and Luciaii satirize the
superstitious regard of the Egyptians for
this bulb.

O'NO, a town of Benjamin, near Lyd-
da, 1 Chr. 8 : 12 ; Ezra 2 : 33. The ' ' plain
of Ono ' ' is supposed to denote a portion
of the plain of Sharon near Ono, Neh.
6:2; 11:35.

ON' YCHA, an ingredient of the sacred
incense, whose fragrance perfumed the
sanctuary alone, Ex. 30 : 34. It is con
jectured to mean the Blatta Byzantina of
the shops ; an article which consists of
the cover or lid of a species of muscle,
and when burnt emits a musky odor.
The best onycha is found in the Red sea,
and is white and large.

ON'YX, a nail, the eleventh stone in
the high-priest's breastplate, Ex. 28:20.
The modern onyx has some resemblance
to the agate ; and the color of the body
of the stone is like that of the human
nail ; hence its name. The Hebrew word
so translated is not known with certain
ty to signify the onyx ; but denoted some
valuable stone, Gen. 2:12; Ex. 25:7;
28 : 9-12, 20. A species of marble resem
bling the onyx was known to the Greeks,
and may have been the "onyx-stones"
stored up by David for the temple,
IChr. 29:2.

O'PHEL, a quarter of Jerusalem adja*
cent to the temple, and therefore occu-
321

OPII

LIBLE DICTIONARY.

ORN

pied by the Nethinim, Keh. 3 : 26, 27 ;
11 :21. It appears to have been enclosed
by a wall, and fortified by a strong tow
er, 2 Chr. 27:3 ; 33 : 14 ; and is thought
to be meant by the Hebrew OPIIKL, trans
lated "strong-hold," in Mic. 4:8. There
can be little doubt that the name be
longs to the lower ridge into which
mount Moriah sinks, south of the area
of the mosque. It is one hundred yards
wide, and extends six hundred yards to
the south, terminating in a bluff forty or
fifty feet high above the pool of Siloam.
It is separated from mount Zion on the
west by the valley called Tyropoeon,
and is now devoted to the culture of
olives, figs, and other fruit.

O'PHIK, I., one of the sons of Jok-
tan, who settled in southern Arabia,
Gen. 10:20-29.

II. A country to which the ships of
Solomon traded, arid which had for a
long time been celebrated for the pu
rity and abundance of its gold, Job
22 : 24 ; 28 : 16. " Gold of Ophir" was
proverbially the best gold, Psa. 45 : 9 ;
Isa. 13 : 12. The only passages which
give us any information as to the loca
tion of Ophir are 1 Kin. 9:26-28 ; 10:11,
22; 22:48, with the parallel passages in
2 Chr. 8:18 ; 9:10, 21 ; 20 : 36, 37 ; from
which it appears that the so called
' ' ships of Tarshish ' ' went to Ophir ;
that these ships sailed from Ezion-geber,
a port of the Ked sea ; that a voyage
was made once in three years; that
the fleet returned freighted with gold,
peacocks, apes, spices, ivory, algum-
wood, and ebony. Upon these data in
terpreters have undertaken to determine
the situation of Ophir ; but they have
arrived at different conclusions. Jose-
phus places it in the peninsula of Malac
ca. Others have placed it at Sofala, in
South Africa, where mines of gold and
silver have been found, which appear to
have been anciently and extensively
worked. Others still suppose it to have
been Southern Arabia.

OPH'BAH, I., a town of the Benja-
mites, located by Eusebius five miles east
of Bethel ; near which site stands the
modern village Taiyibeh, on a conical
hill, Josh. 18:23 ; 1 Sam. 13:17.

II. A town of Manasseh where Gideon
resided ; and where after his death his
ephod was superstitiously adored, Judg.
6:11-24; 8:27.

OB/ACLE, a supernatural cominunica-
322

tion ; applied to single divine revelations
and to the entire word ot God, Acts
7 : 38 ; Bom. 3:2 ; Heb. 5:12, etc. It is
also spoken of the covering of the ark
of the covenant ; as if God there sat
enthroned, and delivered his oracles,
2 Sam. 16:23. See MERCY-SEAT. In
other places, it means the ' ' Holy of Ho
lies" in the temple, where the ark was
placed, 1 Kin. 6:5, 16, 19; 8:6.

Strikingly unlike the true and living
oracles of God were the famous counter
feit oracles of numerous heathen tem
ples. The priests who pretended to con
vey to applicants the responses of their
gods, often gave a reply capable of two
opposite interpretations, when neither
private information nor their own expe
rience or sagacity gave them the clue to
a safe answer. Thus Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus, was encouraged to a war with
Home, by an oracle which was found
after his defeat to foretell defeat as much
as victory: Aio te, Aeacida, Bomanos
vincere posse.

O'BEB, and ZE'EB, raven and wolf, two
Midianite chiefs, captured after the vic
tory of Gideon, and slain at the spots
whither they had fied, and which were
afterwards called, in memory of them,
'>tfhe rock of Oreb" and the wine-press
or cellar of Zeeb, Judg. 7 : 25. Their
punishment foretells that of all God's
enemies, Psa. 83:12; Isa. 10:26.

OR'GAN, Psa. 150 : 4, a wind instru
ment apparently composed of several
pipes. It cannot, however, mean the
modern organ, which was unknown to
the ancients ; but refers probably to the
ancient syrinx, or pipes, similar to the
Pandean pipes, a series of seven or more
tubes of unequal length and size, closed
at one end, and blown into with the
mouth at the other, Gen. 4 : 21 ; Job
21:12. See Music.

OBI'ON, Job 9:9, one of the brightest
constellations of the southern hemi
sphere. The Hebrew chesil signifies, ac
cording to the best interpreters and the
ancient versions, the constellation Orion,
which, on account of its supposed con
nection with storms and tempests, Virgil
calls "nimbosus Orion," stormy Orion.
In Job 38:31, fetters are ascribed to him ;
and this coincides with the Greek fable
of the giant Orion, bound in the heav
ens for an unsuccessful war against the
gods.

OB'NAN. See ARAUNAH.

ORP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

OST

OR'PAH, the Moabitess, Naomi's
daughter-in-law, who remained with her
people and gods, when Ruth followed
Naomi and the Lord, Ruth 1 : 4-14. The
one was taken, and the other left.

O'SEE, the Greek form of HOSEA, Rom.
9:25.

OS'PREY, a bird of the eagle kind,
unlit for food, Lev. 11 : 13. It is thought
to be the sea-eagle, or the black eagle
of Egypt. See BIRDS.

OS'SIFRAGE, bone-breaker; in Hebrew
PERES, to break; an unclean bird of the
eagle family, Lev. 11 : 13 ; Deut. 14 : 12.
Some interpreters think the vulture is
intended ; others, a mountain bird like
the lammergeyer of the Alps, ^ which
breaks the bones of wild goats by hunt
ing them over precipices.

OS'TRICH, the largest of birds, and a
sort of connecting link between fowls
and quadrupeds, termed by the Persians,
Arabs, and by Greeks, the " camel-bird."
It is a native of the dry and torrid re
gions of Africa and Western Asia. The
gray ostrich is seven feet high, and its
neck three feet long ; it weighs nearly
eighty pounds, and is strong enough to
carry two men. The other species, with
glossy black wings and white tail, is
sometimes ten feet high. The beautiful
plumes so highly valued are found on
the wings, about twenty on each, those
of the tail being usually broken and
worn. There are no feathers on the
thighs, or under the wings ; and the neck
is but scantily clothed with thin whitish
hairs. The weight of the body and the
size and structure of the wings show that
the animal is formed for running rather
than flying.

The ostrich is described in Job 39:13-
18 ; and in various places where our
translation calls it the "owl," Job
30:29; Jer. 50:39; or "daughter of the
owl," Isa. 13 : 21 ; 34 : 13 ; 43 : £0 ; Mic
1:8. In these and other passages it fig
ures as a bird of the desert. Shy and
timorous, it is occasionally driven by
hunger to visit and ravage cultivated
fields ; but is usually found only in the
heart of the desert, in troops, or small
groups, or mingling familiarly with the
herds of wild asses, gnus, and quaggas.
Its food is often scarce and poor, plants
of the desert "withered before they are
grown up;" also snails, insects, and
various reptiles ; for it has a voracious
and indiscriminating appetite, swallow
ing the vilest and the hardest substances.
Job speaks particularly of the speed of
the ostrich, " She scorneth the horse and
his rider." So Xenophon, the biogra
pher of Cyrus, says of the ostricbes of
Arabia, that none could overtake them,
the baffled horsemen soon returning froir
the chase ; and the writer of a voyage to
Senegal says, "The ostrich sets off at a
hard gallop; but after being excited a
little, she expands her wings as if to
catch the wind, and abandons herself to
a speed so great, that she seems not to
touch the ground. I am persuaded she
would leave far behind the swiftest Eng
lish courser."

She scoops out for herself a circular
nest in the sand, and lays a large num
ber of eggs ; some of which are placed
without the nest, as though intended for
the nourishment of the young brood.
The mother bird, with the help of the
sun in the tropics, and of her mate in,
the cool nights, performs the process of
incubation ; but her timidity is such that
she flies from her nest at the approach of
danger, and as Dr. Shaw remarks, "for
sakes her eggs or her young ones, to
which, perhaps, she never returns ; or if
she does, it may be too late either to
restore life to the one, or to preserve the
lives of the others. Agreeably to this
account, the Arabs meet sometimes with
whole nests of these eggs undisturbed ;
some of them are sweet and good, others
are addle and corrupted. They often
meet with a few of the little ones no
bigger than well-grown pullets, half
starved, straggling and moaning about,
likfc so many distressed orphans for their
mother. In this manner the ostrich
323

OTH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

OX

May be said to be ' hardened against her
young ones, as though they were not
hers; her labor.' in hatching and attend
ing them so far, 'being vain, without
fear,' or the least concern of what be
comes of them afterwards. This want
of affection is also recorded in Lam. 4: 3,
' The daughter of my people is become
cruel, like the ostriches in the wilder
ness ;' that is, apparently by deserting
her own children, and receiving others
in return."

When the ostrich is provoked, she
sometimes makes a fierce, angry, and
hissing noise, with her throat inflated,
and her mouth open ; at other times she
has a moaning and plaintive cry ; and
in the night the male repels prowling
enemies by a short roar which is some
times taken for that of a lion, Mic. 1:8.

OTH'NIEL, son of Kenaz, and first
judge of the Israelites, delivering them
from the tyranny of the king of Meso
potamia, and ruling them in peace forty
years. His wife Achsa. daughter of his
uncle Caleb, was. the reward of his valor
in taking the city of Debir, Josh. 15:17;
Judg. 1:13; 3:9, 10.

OUCH'ES, sockets in which precious
stones were set, Ex. 28:11, 25 ; 39:6.

OV'EN. See BREAD.

another, Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14 : 16 ; Isa
34:11, the ibis or night-heron.

THE SCREECH-OWL; STRIX FLAMMEA.

OWL, a night bird of prey, unfit for
food. Several species are found in Pal
estine, and are mentioned in the Bible ;
as in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16; Isa.
1 4 : 23 ; 34 : 15 ; Zeph. 2 : 14. One of the
woi Is. however, translated "owl." prpb-
ab] j means •• OSTRICH," (which see ;) and
324

THE BULL OF SYRIA.

OX, the male of the beeve kind when
grown, synonymous in the Bible with
BULL; a clean animal, by the Levitical
la.v ; much used for food, 1 Kin. 19 : 21,
and constituting no small part of the
wealth of the Hebrews in their pastoral
life, Gen. 24:35; Job 1:14; 42:12. Oxen
were used in agriculture for ploughing,
1 Kin. 19 : 19 ; and for treading out the
grain, during which they were not to be
muzzled, 1 Cor. 9 : 9, but well fed, Isa.
30 ; 24. The testing of a nc\v yoke of
oxen is still & business of great impor
tance in the East, as of old, Luke 14:19.
A passage in Campbell's travels in South
Africa well illustrates the proverbial ex-

sssion, " as a bullock unaccustomed to
the yoke," Jer. 31 : 18: "I had frequent
opportunities of witnessing the conduct of
oxen when for the first time put into the
yoke to assist in dragging the wagons.
On observing an ox that had been in
yoke beginning to get weak, or his hoofs
to be worn down to the quick by tread
ing on the sharp gravel, a fresh ox was
put into the yoke in his place. When
the selection fell on an ox I had received
as a present from some African king, of
course one completely unaccustomed to
the yoke, such generally made a strenu
ous struggle for liberty, repeatedly break
ing the yoke, and attempting to make
its escape. At other times such bullocks
lay down upon their sides or back, and
remained so in defiance of the Hotten
tots, though two or three of them would
be lashing them with their ponderous
whips. Sometimes, from pity to the
animal, I would interfere, and beg them
to be less cruel. 'Cruel,' they would
say, ' it is mercy ; for if we do not con-

PAD

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PAL

quer him new, he will require to be so
beaten all his life.' "

The "wild ox," mentioned in Dent.
14:5, is supposed to have been a species
of stag or antelope. See BULLS OF BA-

B1IAN.

P.

PA'DAN-A'RAM, the plains of Aram or
Syria, Gen. 25:20; 28:2; 31:18, or sim
ply PADAN, Gen. 48 : 7, the plain, in dis
tinction from the " mountains " of Aram,
Num. 23 : 7. See MESOPOTAMIA, and
SYRIA.

PALESTINE denotes, in the Old Tes
tament, the country of the Philistines,
which was that part of the Land of Prom
ise extending along the Mediterranean sea
on the varying western border of Simeon,
Judah, and Dan, Ex. 15:14; Isa. 14:29,
31 ; Joel 3:4. Palestine, taken in later
usage in a more general sense, signifies
the whole country of Canaan, as well
beyond as on this side of the Jordan ;
though frequently it is restricted to the
country on this side that river ; so that
in later times the words Judea and Pal
estine were synonymous. We find also
the name of Syria- Palcstina given to the
Land of Promise, and even sometimes
this province is comprehended in Coclc-
Syria, or the Lower Syria. Herodotus is
the most ancient writer known who
speaks of Syria- Palestina. He places it
between Phoenicia and Egypt. See CA
NAAN.

PALM'ER-WORM. This old English
term, meaning pilgrim-worm, is used in
Joel 1:4; 2 : 25 ; Amos 4 : 9, like "can
ker-worm" and "caterpillar," for the
locust in one or another of its various
species or transitions. These insects are
very destructive even before they reach
the winged state. See LOCUST.

PALM-TREE, Ex. 15 : 27. This tree
is called in Hebrew tamar, from its
straight, upright, branchless growth, for
which it seems more remarkable than
any other tree ; it sometimes rises to the
height of a hundred feet. See TAMAR.

The palm is one of the most beautiful
trees of the vegetable kingdom. The
stalks are generally full of rugged knots,
which render it comparatively easy- to
climb to the top for the fruit, Song
7:7,8. These projections are the ves

tiges of the decayed leaves ; for the trunk
is not solid like other trees, but its cen
tre is filled with pith, round which is a
tough bark, full of strong fibres when
young, which, as the tree grows old,
hardens and becomes ligneous. To this
bark the leaves are closely joined, which
in the centre rise erect, but after they
are advanced above the sheath that sur
rounds them, they expand very wide on
every side the stem, and as the older
leaves decay, the stalk advances in
height. With its ever verdant and
graceful crown continually aspiring tow
ards heaven, it is an apt image of the
soul growing in grace, Psa. 92:12. The
leaves, when the tree has grown to a
si^e for bearing fruit, are six to eight feet
long, are very broad when spread out,
and are used for covering the tops of
houses, and similar purposes.

The fruit, from which the palm is
often called the date-tree, grows below
the leaves in clusters sometimes weigh
ing over fifteen pounds, and is of a sweet
and agreeable taste. The diligent na
tives, says Mr. Gibbon, celebrate, either
in verse or prose, the three hundred
and sixty uses to which the trunk, the
branches or long leaf-stalks, the leaves,
fibres, and fruit of the palm are skilfully
applied. A considerable part of the in
habitants of Egypt, of Arabia, and Per
sia, subsist almost entirely on its fruit.
They boast also of its medicinal virtues.
Their camels feed upon the date stone.
From the leaves they make couches, bas
kets, bags, mats, and brushes : from ths
325

PAL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PAR

branches or stalks, cages for their poul
try, and fences for their gardens; from
the fibres of the trunk, thread, ropes,
and rigging ; from the sap is prepared a
spirituous liquor; and the body of the
tree furnishes fuel : it. is even said that
from one variety of the palm-tree, the
phoenix farinifera, meal has been extract
ed, which is found among the fibres of
the trunk, and' has been used for food.

Several parts of the Holy Land, no
less than of Idumasa, that lay contigu
ous to it, are described by the ancients
to have abounded with date-trees. Ju-
dea particularly is typified in several
coins of Vespasian by a disconsolate
woman sitting under a palm-tree, with
the inscription, JUDAEA CAPTA. In Deut.
34:3, Jericho is called the "city of palm-
trees ;" and several of these trees are
still found in that vicinity ; but in gen
eral they are now rare in Palestine.
Palm wreaths, and branches waved in
the air or strown on the road, are asso
ciated not only with the honors paid to
ancient conquerors in the Grecian games
and in war, but with the triumphant
entry of the King of Zion into Jerusa
lem, John 12 : 12, 13, and with his more
glorious triumph with his people in
heaven, Rev. 7:9.

PAL'SY, or paralysis, strikes some
times one side or portion of the body,
and sometimes the whole : affecting the
power of motion, or the power of sen
sation, or both. It is one of the least
curable of diseases ; but the Saviour
healed it with a word, Matt. 4 : 24 ;
12 : 10 ; Mark 2 : 3-12. The " withered
hand," Mark 3:1, was probably an effect
of the palsy. There is also a palsy of the
soul, which the Great Physician can heal,
and he alone.

PAMPHYL'IA, a province of Asia Mi
nor, having Cilicia east, Lycia west, Pi-
ridia north, and the Mediterranean south.
It is opposite to Cyprus, and the sea be
tween the coast and the island is called
the ' ' sea of Pamphy lia. " The chief city
of Pamphylia was Perga, where Paul and
Barnabas preached, Acts 13:13 ; 14:24.

PAN'NAG, in Ezek. 27: 17, is the He
brew word for some unknown product
of Palestine, which the Jews sold to
the Tyrians. It is variously understood
to mean millet, sweetmeats, a delicate
spice, etc.

PA'PER. PAPYRUS. See BOOK.

PA'PHOS, a maritime city on the
326

western extremity of the isle of Cyprus.
It had a tolerable harbor, and was the
station of a Roman proconsul. About
sixty furlongs from the city was the cel
ebrated temple of Venus, who was hence
often called the " Paphian goddess."
The infamous rites in honor of this god
dess continued to be practised hundreds
of years after Paul and Barnabas intro
duced the gospel here, though their la
bors were blessed with some fruits, Acts
13:6-13. See ELYMAS.

PARABLE, derived from a Greek word
which signifies, to compare things to
gether, to form a parallel or similitude
of them with other things. What we
call the Proverbs of Solomon, which are
moral maxims and sentences, the Greeks
call the Parables of Solomon. In like
manner, when Job answers his friends,
it is said he took up his "parable,"
Job 27 : 1 ; 29 : 1. In the New Testa
ment the word parable denotes some
times a true history, or an illustrative
sketch from nature ; sometimes a prov
erb or adage, Luke 4:23 ; a truth darkly
or figuratively expressed, Matt. 15 : 15 ;
a type, Heb. 9:9; or a similitude, Matt.
24 : 32. The parabolical, enigmatical,
figurative, and sententious way of speak
ing, was the language of the Eastern
sages and learned men, Psa. 49:4 ; 78:2;
and nothing was more insupportable
than to hear a fool utter parables, Prov.
26:7.

The prophets employed parables the
more strongly to impress prince and peo
ple with their threatening^ or their prom
ises. Nathan reproved David under the
parable of a rich man who had taken
away and killed the lamb of a poor
man, 2 Sam. 12. See also Judg. 9:7-15 ;
2 Kin. 14 : 9, 10. Our Saviour frequently
addressed the people in parables, there
by verifying the prophecy of Isaiah, 6:9,
that the people should see without know
ing, and hear without understanding, in
the midst of instructions. This result,
however, only proved how inveterate
were their hardness of heart and blind
ness of mind ; for in no other way could
he have offered them instruction more
invitingly, clearly, or forcibly, than by
this beautiful and familiar mode. The
Hebrew writers made great use of it ;
and not only the Jews, but the Arabs,
Syrians, and all the nations of the East
were and still are admirers of this form
of discourse.

PAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TAR

In the interpretation of a parable, its
primary truth and main scope are chiefly
to be considered. The minute particu
lars are less to be regarded than in a sus
tained allegory ; and serious errors are
occasioned by pressing every detail, and
inventing for it some spiritual analogy.

The following parables of our Lord are
recorded by the evangelists.

Wise and foolish builders, Matt. 7.: 24-27.

Children of the bride-chamber, M*tt. 9 :15.

New cloth and old garment, Matt. 9 :16.

New wine and old bottles, Matt. 9 : 17.

Unclean spirit, Matt. 12 :43.

Sower, Matt. 13 :3, 18 ; Luke 8:5, 11.

Tares, Matt. 13 : 24-30, 36-43.

Mustard -seed, Matt. 13 : 31, 32 ; Luke 13 :19.

Leaven, Matt. 13 :33.

Treasure hid in a field, Matt. 13 :44.

Pearl of great price, Matt. 13 : 45-46.

Net cast into the sea, Matt. 13 : 47-50.

Meats defiling not, Matt. 15 : 10-15.

Unmerciful servant, Matt. 18 : 23-35.

Laborers hired, Matt. 20 :1-16.

Two sons, Matt. 21 : 28-32.

Wicked husbandmen, Matt. 21 : 33-45.

Marriage-feast, Matt. 22 :2-14.

Fig tree leafing, Matt. 24 : 32-34.

Man of the house watching, Matt. 24 :43.

Faithful and evil servants, Matt. 24 : 45-51.

Ten virgins, Matt. 25 : 1-13.

Talents, Matt. 25 : 14-30.

Kingdom divided against itself, Mark 3 :24.

House divided against itself, Mark 3 :25.

Strong man armed, Mark 3:27; Luke
11:21.

Seed growing secretly, Mark 4 : 26-29.

Lighted candle, Mark 4:21 ; Luke 11 :33-
36.

Man taking a far journey, Mark 13 : 34-37.

Blind leading the blind, Luke G :39.

Beam and mote, Luke 6 :41, 42.

Tree and its fruit, Luke 6 : 43-45.

Creditor and debtors, Luke 7 : 41-47.

Good Samaritan, Luke 10 : 30-37.

Importunate friend, Luke 11 :5-9.

Kich fool, Luke 12 : 16-21.

Cloud and wind, Luke 12 : 54-57.

Barren fig tree, Luke 13 :6-9.

Men bidden to a feast, Luke 14 : 7-11.

Builder of a tower, Luke 14 : 28-30, 33.

King going to war, Luke 14 : 31-33.

Savor of salt, Luke 14 :34, 35.

Lost sheep, Luke 15 :3-7.

Lost piece of silver, Luke 15 : 8-10.

Prodigal son, Luke 15 : 11-32.

Unjust steward, Luke 16 : 1-8.

Kich man and Lazarus, Luke 16 : 19-31.

Importunate widow, Luke 18 :l-8.

Pharisee and publican, Luke 18 :9-14.

Pounds, Luke 19 : 12-27.

Good shepherd, John 10 :l-fi.

Vine and branches, John 15 :l-5.

PAR'ADISE, a Greek word signifying
a park, or garden with trees. The He
brew word CAN, garden, is used in a similar
way, Neh. 2:8; Eccl. 2:5; Song 4:13.

The Septuagint uses the word Para
dise when speaking of the garden of

Eden, in which the Lord placed Adam
and Eve. This famous garden is indeed
commonly known by the name of "the
terrestrial paradise," and there is hardly
any part of the world in which it has not
been sought. See EDEN.

In the New Testament, "paradise" is
put, in allusion to the paradise of Eden,
for the place where the souls of the
blessed enjoy happiness. Thus our Sav
iour tells the penitent thief on the cross,
' ' To-day shalt thou be with me in par
adise ;" that is, in the state of the bless
ed, Luke 23:43. Paul, speaking of him
self in the third person, says, "I knew
a man that was caught up into paradise,
and heard unspeakable words, which it
is not lawful for a man to utter, ' ' 2 Cor.
12 : 4. And in Rev. 2:7; 22 : 14, the
natural features of the scene where in
nocence and bliss were lost, are used to
depict the world where these are restored
perfectly and for ever.

PA'RAN, or EL-PARAN, Gen. 14 : 6, a
large tract of desert country lying south
of Palestine, and west of the valley El
Arabah, which runs from the Dead sea
to the gulf of Akaba. It was in and
near this desert region that the Israel
ites wandered thirty-eight years. See
EXODUS. It extended on the south to
within three days' journey of Sinai, Num.

10 : 12, 33 ; 12 : 16, if not to Sinai itself,
Deut. 33 : 2 ; Hab. 3:3. On the north,
it included the deserts of Kadesh and
Zin, Num. 13:3, 21, 27. Here Hagar and
Ishmael dwelt, Gen. 21 : 14, 21 ; and
hither David, and afterwards Hadod,
retired for a time, 1 Sam. 25 : 1 ; 1 Kin.

11 : 18. Burckhardt found it a dreary
expanse of calcareous soil, covered with
black flints. Some cities and cultivat
ed grounds, however, and considerable
patches of pasture lands, were anciently
found in this region. The north-east
part is traversed "from east to west by
ranges of hills.

PARCHED GROUND, in Isa. 35 : 7,
translated by Lowth "the glowing
sand," by Henderson "the vapory illu
sion," and in German sand-meer and ivas-
serschein, sand -sea and water -show, is
understood to refer to the mirage, an
optical illusion described by almost all
travellers in tropical deserts. The in
experienced wanderer sees at a distance
what he thinks is a beautiful sheet of
water ; and imagination clothes the far
ther shore with herbage, shrubbery,
327

PAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PAR

buildings, etc. ; but on hasting towards
it he finds the delightful vision recede
and at length disappear, and nothing
remains but the hot sands. Quintus Cur-
tius long ago gave an account of this
wonder in his Life of Alexander the
Great. It is thus described in St. John's
"Egypt and Nubia:"

"I had been riding along in a rev-
ery, when chancing to raise my head, I
thought I perceived, desertwards, a dark
strip on the far horizon. What could it
be ? My companion, who had very keen
sight, was riding in advance of me, and
with a sudden exclamation, he pulled
up his dromedary, and gazed in the
same direction. I called to him, and
asked him what he thought of yonder
strip, and whether he could make out
any thing in it distinctly. He answer
ed, that water had all at once appeared
there; that he saw the motion of the
waves, and tall palms and other trees
bending up and down over them, as if
tossed by a strong wind. This, then,
was the mirage. My companion gal
loped towards it, and we followed him,
though the Arabs tried to prevent us ;
and ere long I could with my own eyes
discern something of this strange phe
nomenon. It was, as my friend had
reported, a broad sheet of water, with
fresh green trees along its banks ; and
yet there was nothing actually before us
but parched yellow sand.

" Far as we rode in the direction of the
apparition, we never came any nearer to
it; the whole seemed to recoil, step for
step, with our advance. We halted, and
remained long in contemplation of the
magic scene, until whatever was un
pleasant in its strangeness ceased by
degrees to aflect us. Never had I seen
any landscape so vivid as this seeming
one ; never water so bright, or trees so
softly green, so tall and stately. We
returned slowly to our Arabs, who had
not stirred from the spot where we left
them. Looking back once more into
the desert, we saw the apparition grad
ually becoming fainter, until at last it
melted away into a dim band, not un
like a thin mist sweeping over the face
of a field."

The same phenomenon may be allud
ed to in the expression, "waters that
fail," Jcr. 15 : 18. It is ascribed to the
unequal refraction of the rays of light,
caused in some way by excessive heat.
328

The Saviour and his proffered blessings
are not, like earthly hopes, a deception
and a mockery, but true waters of eter
nal life.

PARCH'MENT. See BOOK.

PAR'MENAS, one of the first seven
deacons, Acts 6:5.

PAR'THIA is supposed to have been
originally a province of Media, on its
eastern side, which was raised into a
distinct, kingdom by Arsaces, B. c. 250.
It soon extended itself over a great part
of the ancient Persian empire, and is fre
quently put for that empire in Scripture,
and other ancient writings. Parthia
maintained itself against all aggressors
for nearly five hundred years, and was
not subjugated even by the Romans ;
but in A. D. 226, one of the descendants
of the ancient Persian kings united it to
his empire, and Persia resumed its for
mer name and dynasty.

The Parthians were celebrated, espec
ially by the poets, for a peculiarity of
their mode of fighting on horseback,
which consisted in discharging their ar
rows while they fled. They would seem
to have borne no very distant resem
blance to the modern Cossacks. It is
said the Parthians were either refugees
or exiles from the Scythian nations.
Jews and proselytes from among them
were present at Jerusalem at the Pente
cost, Acts 2:9.

PARTITION, Eph. 2:14. See the
various courts under TEMPLE.

RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE ; TERDIX RUBUA.

PARTRIDGE, a well-known bird,
three varieties of which are found hi

PAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PAS

Palestine. Saul's hunting of David like
a partridge upon the mountain, 1 Sam.
26 : 20. may be illustrated by an occa
sional practice of the Arabs, who, ob
serving that this bird becomes languid
on being started several times in quick
succession, at length rush suddenly in
upon it and knock it over with their
clubs. In Jer. 17 : 11, we may best ren
der, As the partridge gathereth eggs
which she hath not laid ; the meaning
being that she loses her toil, since the
young birds, when hatched, forsake her.

PAE'VAIM, 2 Chr. 3 : 6, the region of
fine gold ; probably Ophir ; or according
to Gescnius, the East.

PASH'UIl, I., the son of Immer, a
priest and a chief officer in the temple ;
he violently opposed the prophet Jere
miah, and persecuted him even with
blows and confinement in the stocks ;
but all recoiled on his own head, Jer.
20:1-G.

II. The son of Malchiah, an enemy of
Jeremiah, and active in securing his im
prisonment, Jer. 21 : 1 ; 88 : 1-G. Many
descendants cf this Pashur returned from
captivity at Babylon, 1 Chr. 9:12; Ezra
2: 08.

PAS'SION, Acts 1:3, suffering; the last
sufferings and deatli of Christ. In Acts
14: 15, James 5 : 17, "like passions" is
nearly equivalent to "the same human
nature."

PASS'OVER, Hebrew PESACII, Greek
PASCIIA, a passing over, a name given to
the festival established and to the vic
tim offered in commemoration of the
coming forth out of Egypt, Ex. 12 ; be
cause the night before their departure,
the destroying angel, who slew the first
born of the Egyptians, passed over the
houses of the Hebrews without entering
them, they being marked with the blood
of the lamb, which for this reason was
called the Passover, Mark 14 : 12, 14,
1 Cor. 5:7, or the paschal lamb.

The month of the exodus from Egypt,
called Abib by Moses, and afterwards
named Nisan, was ordained to be there
after the lirst month of the sacred or
ecclesiastical year. On the fourteenth
day of this month, between the two
evenings, (see EVENING,) they were to
kill the paschal lamb, and to abstain
from leavened bread. The day follow
ing, being the fifteenth, reckoned from
six o'clock of the preceding evening, was
the grand feast of the Passover, which

continued seven days, usually called
"the days of unleavened bread," or
"the Passover," Luke 22 : 1 ; but only
the first and the seventh day were pe
culiarly solemn, Lev. 23 : 5-8 ; Num.
28 : 16, 17 ; Matt. 26 : 17. They were
days of rest, and were called Sabbaths
by the Jews. The slain lamb was to be
without defect, a male, and of that year.
If no lamb could be found, they might
take a kid. They killed a lamb or a kid
in each family ; but if any family was
not large enough to eat the lamb, they
might associate another small family with
them. The Passover was to be slain and
eaten only at Jerusalem, though the re
mainder of the festival might be observed
in any place. The lamb was to be roast
ed entire, and eaten the same night, with
unleavened bread and bitter herbs; not
a bone of it was to be broken ; and all
that was not eaten was to be consumed
by fire, Ex. 12 ; John 19:86. If any one
was unable to keep the Passover at the
time appointed, he was to observe it on
the second month ; he that wilfully neg
lected it, forfeited the covenant favor of
God ; while on the other hand, resident
foreigners were admitted to partake of
it, Num. 9:6-14 ; 2 Chr. £0. The direc
tion to eat the Passover in the posture
and with the equipments of travellers,
seems to have been observed only on the
first Passover. Besides the private fami
ly festival, there were public and national
sacrifices offered on each of the seven
days of unleavened bread, Num. 28 : 19.
On the second day also the first-fruits of
the barley harvest were offered in the
temple, Lev. 23 : 10.

Jewish writers give us full descrip
tions of the Passover feast, from which
we gather a few particulars. Those who
were to partake having performed the
required purifications and being assem
bled at the table, the master of the feast
took a cup of unfermcnted wine, and
blessed God for the fruit of the vine, of
which all then drank. This was follow
ed by a washing of hands. The paschal
lamb was then brought in, with unleav
ened cakes, bitter herbs, and a sauce or
fruit-paste. The master of the feast then
blessed God for the fruits of the earth,
and gave the explanations prescribed in
Ex. 12:26, 27, specifying each particular.
After a second cup", with a second wash
ing of hands, an unleavened cake was
broken and distributed, and a blessing
329

PAS

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PAU

pronounced upon the Giver of bread.
When all had eaten sufficiently of the
food before them, a third cup of thanks
giving, for deliverance from Egypt and
for the gift of the law, was blessed and
drunk, Matt. 26:27; 1 Cor. 10:16; this
was called " the cup of blessing." The
repast was usually closed by a fourth cup
and psalms of praise, Psa. 145 : 10 ; 136,
etc. ; Matt. 26:30.

Our Saviour partook of the Passover
for the last time, with his disciples, on
the evening with which the day of his
crucifixion commenced, Matt. 26 : 17 ;
Mark 14 : 12 ; Luke 22 : 7. The follow
ing day, commencing with the sunset
three hours after his death, was the Jew
ish Sabbath, and was also observed as " a
Passover," John 13 : 29 ; 18:28; 19:14,
31. Compare Matt. 27:62.

This sacred festival was both com
memorative and typical in its nature
and design ; the deliverance which it
commemorated was a type of the great
salvation it foretold. The Saviour iden
tified himself with the paschal lamb as
its great Antitype, in substituting the
Lord's supper for the Passover. " Christ
our Passover is sacrificed for us," 1 Cor.
5:7; and as we compare the innocent
lamb slain in Egypt with the infinite
Lamb of God, the contrast teaches us
how infinite is the perdition which He
alone can cause to ' ' pass over ' ' us, and
how essential it is to be under the shel
ter of his sprinkled blood, before the
night of judgment and ruin overtakes
us.

The modern Jews also continue to
observe the Passover. With those who
live in Palestine the feast continues a
week ; but the Jews out of Palestine
extend it to eight days, according to an
ancient custom, by which the Sanhedrim
sent two men to observe the first appear
ance of the new rnoon, who immediately
gave notice of it to the chief of the coun
cil. For fear of error, they kept two
days of the festival.

As to the Christian Passover, the
Lord's supper, it was instituted by
Christ when, at the last Passover supper
he ate with his apostles, he gave them a
symbol of his body to eat, and a symbol
of his blood to drink, under the form
of bread and wine ; prefiguring that he
should give up his body to the Jews and
to death. The paschal lamb which the
Jews killed, tore to pieces, and ate, and
330

whose blood preserved them from the
destroying angel, was a type and figure
of our Saviour's death and passion, and
of his blood shed for the salvation of the
world.

PAS'TOR, shepherd, one whose office it
is to feed and guard the flock of Christ,
Eph. 4:11 ; 1 Pet. 5:2. See SHEPHERD.

PASTURAGE. See SHEPHERD.

PAT'ARA, a maritime city of Lycia in
Asia Minor, at the mouth of the river
Xarithus, celebrated for an oracle of
Apollo, who was supposed to reside here
during the six winter months, and the
rest of the year at Delos. Paul, in pass
ing from Philippi to Jerusalem, found
here a ship for Phoenicia, in which he
embarked, Acts 21:1.

PATE, Psa. 7 : 16, an obsolete word for
head, or top of the head.

PATH'ROS, Isa. 11:11 ; Jer. 44:1, 15 ;
Ezek. 29: 14 ; 30: 14, one of the three an
cient divisions of Egypt, namely, Upper
or Southern Egypt, which Ezekicl speaks
of as distinct from Egypt, and the origi
nal abode of the Egyptians ; as indeed
Ethiopia and Upper Egypt really were.
Its early inhabitants, called Pathrusim,
were descendants of Mizraim, Gen. 10:14.
See EGYPT.

PAT'MOS, an island of the ^Egean sea,
to which the apostle and evangelist John
was banished by Domitian, A. D. 95,
Rev. 1:9. It is a rocky and desolate
island, about twenty-eight miles in cir
cumference, with a bold and deeply
indented shore ; and was used by the
Romans as a place of banishment for
many criminals. It lies between Samos
and Naxos, about forty miles west by
south from the promontory of Miletus ;
and contains at present some four thou
sand inhabitants, mostly Greeks. Its
principal port is a deep bay on the north
east side ; the town lying on a high and
steep hill, the summit of which is crown
ed by the old and castle-like monastery
of St. John. Half way down the hill is
a natural grotto, now covered by a Greek
chapel, school, etc. In this cave, over
looking the sea and its islands towards
his beloved Ephesus, tradition says that
John saw and recorded his prophetic vis
ions. The island is now called Patino ;
and the port Patmo, or San Giovanni di
Patino.

PAUL, the distinguished "apostle of
the Gentiles;" also called SAUL, a He
brew name. He is first called Paul in

PAU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PAU

Acts 13:12 ; and as some think, assumed
this Roman name according to a com
mon custom of Jews in foreign lands,
or in honor of Sergius Paulus, ver. 7,
his friend and an early convert. Both
names, however, may have belonged to
him in childhood. He was horn at Tar
sus in Cilicia, and inherited from his
father the privileges of a Roman citizen.
His parents belonged to the tribe of
Benjamin, and brought up their son as
"a Hebrew of the Hebrews," Phil. 3 : 5.
Tarsus was highly distinguished for
learning and culture, and the opportuni
ties for improvement it afforded were no
doubt diligently improved by Paul. At
a suitable age he was sent to Jerusalem
to complete his education in the school
of Gamaliel, the most distinguished and
right-minded of the Rabbis of that age.
It does not appear that he was in Jerusa
lem during the ministry of Christ ; and
it was perhaps after his return to Tarsus
that he learned the art of tent-making,
in accordance with a general practice
among the Jews, and their maxim, "He
that does not teach his son a useful
handicraft, teaches him to steal," Acts
18:3; 20:34; 2 Thess. 3:8.

We next find him at Jerusalem, appar
ently about thirty years of age, high in
the confidence of the leading men of the
nation. He had profited by the instruc
tions of Gamaliel, and became learned in
the law ; yielding himself to the strictest
discipline of the sect of the Pharisees, he
had become a fierce defender of Judaism
and a bitter enemy of Christianity, Acts
8:3; 26 : 9-11. After his miraculous
conversion, of which we have three ac
counts, Acts 9 ; 22 ; 26, Christ was all in
all to him. It was Christ who revealed
himself to his soul at Damascus, Acts
26 : 15 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 8 ; to Christ he gave
his whole heart, and soul, mind, might,
and strength ; and thenceforth, living or
dying, he was "the servant of Jesus
Christ." He devoted all the powers of
his ardent and energetic mind to the
defence and propagation of the gospel of
Christ, more particularly among the
Gentiles. His views of the pure and
lofty spirit of Christianity, in its worship
and in its practical influence, appear to
have been peculiarly clear and strong ;
and the opposition which he was thus
led to make to the rites and ceremonies
of the Jewish worship, exposed him
everywhere to the hatred and malice of

his countrymen. On their accusation,
he was at length put in confinement by
the Roman officers, and after being de
tained for two years or more at Caesarea,
he was sent to Rome for trial, having
himself appealed to the emperor. There
is less certainty in respect to the accounts
which are given of Paul afterwards by
the early ecclesiastical writers. Still, it
was a very generally received opinion in
the earlier centuries, that the apostle
was acquitted and discharged from his
imprisonment at the end of two years ;
and that he afterwards returned to Rome,
where he was again imprisoned and put
to death by Nero.

Paul appears to have possessed all the
learning which was then current among
the Jews, and also to have been ac
quainted with Greek literature ; as ap
pears from his mastery of the Greek
language, his frequent discussions with
their philosophers, and his quotations
from their poets — Aratus, Acts 17 : 28 ;
Menander, 1 Cor. 15 : 33 ; and Epimeni-
des, Tit. 1 : 12! Probably, however, a
learned Greek education cannot with
propriety be ascribed to him. But the
most striking trait in his character is
his enlarged view of the universal de
sign and the spiritual nature of the re
ligion of Christ, and of its purifying and
ennobling influence upon the heart and
character of those Avho sincerely profess
it. From the Saviour himself he had
caught the flame of.universal love, and
the idea of salvation for all mankind,
Gal. 1 : 12. Most of the other apostles
and teachers appear to have clung to Ju
daism, to the rites, ceremonies, and dog
mas of the religion in which they had
been educated, and to have regarded
Christianity as intended to be engrafted
upon the ancient stock, which was yet
to remain as the trunk to support the
new branches. Paul seems to have been
among the first to rise above this narrow
view, and to regard Christianity in its
true light, as a universal religion. While
others were for Judaizing all those who
embraced the new religion by imposing
on them the yoke of Mosaic observances,
it was Paul's endeavor to break down
the middle wall of separation between
Jews and Gentiles, and show them that
they were all ' ' one in Christ. ' ' To this
end all his labors tended ; and, ardent
in the pursuit of this great object, he did
not hesitate to censure the time-serving
331

PAU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PAU

Peter, and to expose his own life In re
sisting the prejudices of his countrymen.
Indeed, his rive years' imprisonment at
Jerusalem, Caasarea, and Home arose
chiefly from this cause.

The following chronological tahle of
the principal events in Paul's life may
be of use in directing and assisting in
quiries into this most interesting portion
of history. The different chronologies of
Hug, Lardner, and Conybeare and How-
son, are here presented side by side ;
and thus the table, while it shows the
general agreement of chroiiologists, shows
also that it is impossible to arrive at en
tire certainty in this respect.

5 *

2 u
36 30

Paul's conversion, Acts 9. In the K
twenty-first year of Tiberius ---- 36

He goes to Arabia, and returns to
Damascus, Gal. 1 : 17 ; and in the
third year escapes from Damas
cus, and visits Jerusalem, Acts
9 : 23-26, in the year ............ 39 39 38

From Jerusalem he goes to Tarsus,
Acts 9 : 30 ; and after several
years of labor in Cilicia and Syr
ia, Gal. 1 :21, during which it is
supposed most of the sufferings
occurred which are mentioned in
2 Cor. 11: 24-26, he went with
Barnabas to Antioch in Syria,
Acts 11 :i5, 26, where they labor
ed during the year ........... ---44 43 44

From Antioch. he is sent with Bar
nabas to Jerusalem, his second
visit, to carry relief for the fam
ine, and returns to Antioch, Acts
11:30 ............... - ........... 45 44 45

First great missionary' tour, with
Barnabas, from Antioch to Cy-
pnis, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconi-
um, Lystra, and Derbe ; And re
turning through the same places
and Attalia to Antioch, Acts
13:14, about two years, com
mencing ........................ — 45 48

Third visit to Jerusalem, with Bar
nabas, to consult respecting cir
cumcision, etc., and return to
Antioch, Acts 15 :2-30 .......... 53 50 50

Second missionary t^ur. from An
tioch, through Cilicia, Derbe,
Lystra, Phrygia, Galatia, Troas, -
Neapolis, Philippi, Thessaloni-
ca, Berea, Athens, and Corinth,
Acts 15:35 to 18:1, where he
findsAquila ............... 54 51 52

After eighteen months at Corinth,
he makes his fourth visit to Je
rusalem, by Cenchrea, Ephesus,
and Caesarea, and returns to An
tioch, Acts 18: 11-22, in ......... 56

Third missionary tour, through
Galatia and Phrygia, arriving at
Ephesus, Acts 19 :1, in .......... 57

And after two years at Ephesus,

going through Troas and Mace
donia to Corinth. Act

— 54
53 54
Acts 20:1 ---- 59 56 57

Fifth visit to Jerusalem, from Cor
inth, by Philippi, Troas, Mile
tus, Tyre, Ptolemais, and Caesa
rea, Acts 20 : 3 to 21 : 15 60 58 58

After two years' imprisonment at
Jerusalem and Caesarea, he sails
from teidon, by Myra, Fair Ha
vens, etc., to Malta, where he is
shipwrecked ; in the spring, he
proceeds to Home, Acts 21 : 17 to
28:16 63 61 61

Two years' imprisonment in Rome,
and release, Acts '28 : 30 65 63 63

After laboring, as some think in
Spain, Kom. 15:24, 28; also in
Ephesus ; Macedonia, 1 Tim.
1:3; Crete, Tit, 1:5; Asia Mi
nor, 2 Tim. 1 :15 ; and Nicopolis,
Tit. 3 :13, he is again a prisoner
at Rome, joyfully awaiting mar
tyrdom, though almost alone,
2 Tim. 2:9; 4:6-18 — 65 68

These various journeys of St. Paul,
many of them made on foot, should
be studied through on a map ; in con
nection with the inspired narrative in
Acts, and with his own pathetic descrip
tion of his labors, 2 Cor. 11 : 23-29,
wherein nevertheless the half is not told.
When we review the many regions he
traversed and evangelized, the converts
he gathered, and the churches he found
ed, the toils, perils, and trials he endur
ed, the miracles he wrought, and the
revelations he received, the discourses,
orations, and letters in which he so ably
defends and unfolds Christianity, the
immeasurable good which God by him
accomplished, his heroic life, and his
martyr death, he appears to us the most
extraordinary of men.

The character of Paul is most fully
portrayed in his epistles, by which, as
Chrysostom says, he "still lives in the
mouths of men throughout the whole
world. By them, not only his own con
verts, but all the faithful even unto this
day, yea, and all the saints who are yet
to be born until Christ's coming again,
both have been and shall be blessed."
In them we observe the transforming
and elevating power of grace in one
originally turbulent and passionate —
making him a model of manly and
Christian excellence ; fearless and firm,
yet considerate, courteous, and gentle;
magnanimous, patriotic, and self-sacri
ficing ; rich in all noble sentiments and
affections.

EPISTLES OF PAUL.— There are fourteen
epistles in the New Testament usually
ascribed to Paul, beginning with that to.
the Romans, and ending with that to

332

PAV

BIBLE DICTIONARY,

PEA

the Hebrews. Of these the first thirteen
have never been contested ; as to the
latter, many good men have doubted
whether Paul was the author, although
the current of criticism is in favor of this
opinion. These epistles, in which the
principles of Christianity are developed
for all periods, characters, and circum
stances, are among the most important
of the primitive documents of the Chris
tian religion, even apart from their in
spired character; and although they
seem to have been written without spe
cial premeditation, and have reference
mostly to transient circumstances and
temporary relations, yet they every
where bear the stamp of the great and
original mind of the apostle, as puriiied,
elevated, and sustained by the influences
of the Holy Spirit.

It is worthy of mention here, that an
expression of Peter respecting ' ' our be
loved brother Paul ' ' is often a little mis
understood. The words "in which" in
2 Pet. 3 : 16, are erroneously applied to
the ' ' epistles ' ' of Paul ; and not to
"these things" immediately preceding,
that is, the subjects of which Peter was
writing, as the Greek shows they should
be. Peter imds no fault, either with
Paul, or with the doctrines of revela
tion.

The following is Lardner's arrange
ment of the epistles of Paul, with the
places where they were written, and the
dates:

EPISTLES. PLACES. A. D.

1 Thessalonians Corinth 52

2 Thessaloiiians " - 52

Galatians I Corinth or ) end of 52

"'\ Ephesua j or beginning of 53

1 Corinthians --Ephesus beginning of 53

1 Timothy Macedonia 53

Titus " or near it, near end 53

2 Corinthians-- " --- about Oct. 57

Romans Corinth

Ephesians Home

2 Timothy

Philippians —

Colossians

Philemon •

Hebrews

Feb. 53
April, Cl
May, 61
-before end of 62
" 62
« 62
-spring, 63

The arrangement of Hug is somewhat
different ; and some critics who find evi
dence that Paul was released from his
first imprisonment and lived until the
spring of A. D. 68, assign the epistles
Hebrews, 1 Timothy, Titus, and 2 Timo
thy to the last year of his life. See TIM
OTHY.

PAVE'MENT. See GABBATHA.

,;.;;";;., V^' ' " v.

PEACOCKS appear not to have been
known in Palestine, until imported in
the navy of Solomon, 1 Kin. 10 : 22 ;
2Chr. 9:21. See TARSITTSTI.

PEARLS were ranked by the .indents
among the most precious substances,
Rev. 17 : 4, and were highly valued as
ornaments for women. Their modest
splendor still charms the orientals, and
a string of pearls is a favorite decoration
of eastern monarchs. The kingdom of
heaven is compared to a goodly pearl, so
superior to all others that the pearl mer
chant sold all that he had to secure it,
knowing that he could obtain for it tho
highest price, Matt. 13 : 45, 46. The
gates of heaven are described as consist
ing of pearls; "every several gate wag
one pearl," Rev. 21 : 21. The Saviour
forbade his apostles to cast their pearls
before swine, Matt. 7:6; that is, to ex*
pose the precious truths of the gospel
unnecessarily to those who reject them
with scorn and violence.

Pearls are a stony concretion in a spe*
cies of oyster, found in the Persian gulf,
on the coast of Ceylon, Java, Sumatra,
etc., and in smaller quantities in various
other places in both hemispheres. It is
not known whether the pearl is a natu>
ral deposit, or the consequence of disease,
or of the lodging of some foreign body,
as a grain of sand, within the shells.
The pearl-oyster grows in clusters, on
rocks in deep water ; and is brought up
by trained divers, only during a few
333

PEE BIBLE DICTIONARY.

FEN

weeks of calm weather in spring. The
shell itself yields the well-known "moth
er of pearl."

PEEP, in Isa. 8: 19, denotes the stifled,
piping voice of necromancers.

PE'KAH, son of Remaliah, and gen
eral of the army of Pekahiah king of
Israel. He conspired against his master,
attacked him in the tower of his royal
palace of Samaria, and having slain him,
B. c, 758, he reigned in his place twenty-
years. In the latter part of his evil
reign he formed an alliance with the
Syrians of Damascus, and they attacked
Ahaz king of Judah, who in turn sought
the aid of Assyria. The result was, that
Damascus was taken by Tiglath-pileser
king of Assyria, and with it all the lands
of Israel east of the Jordan and north of
the sea of Galilee, their inhabitants being
carried captive. Shortly afterwards Ho-
shea son of Elah conspired against Pekah,
slew him, and reigned in his stead, 2 Kin.
15:25-38; 16:1-9; Isa. 7; 8:1-9; 17.

PEKAHIAH, son and successor of
Menahem king of Israel, was a wicked
prince, and reigned but two years. Pe
kah, son of Pi,emaliah, conspired against
him, and killed him in his own palace,
2 Kin. 15:22-25.

PE'LEGr, son of Eber, and fourth in
descent from Shem. He was called Pe-
leg, division, because in his time the earth
was divided, Gen. 10:25; 11:16.

PEL'ETHITES are always mentioned
together with the Cherethites, as consti
tuting the king's body-guard, 2 Sam.
8 : 18 ; 22 : 23. The word, if not the
name of a Jewish or a Philistine family,
is supposed to signify runners; and thus
they would seem to have been the royal
messengers ; just as the Cherethites, from
a Hebrew word signifying to cut off, were
the king's executioners. See CHERE
THITES.

334

PEL'ICAN, Lev. 11 : 18, sometimes
translated cormorant, Isa. 34:11; Zeph.
2 : 14 ; a voracious waterfowl, somewhat
gregarious and migratory, frequenting
tropical climates, and still found on the
waters of Egypt and Palestine. It fully
equals the swan in size, and resembles it
in shape and color. Its plumage is of a
grayish white, except the long feathers,
which are black. Its great peculiarity
is its broad, flat bill, fifteen inches long ;
and the pouch of the female under the
bill, used for the temporary storage of
food, and said to be able to hold fifteen
quarts. When empty, this pouch is not
seen ; but when full, it presents a very
singular appearance. The pelican is a
dull, indolent, and melancholy bird ; and
its voice is harsh and dissonant, Psa.
102 : 6. Its Hebrew name is probably
derived from its habit of emptying its
pouch of the food stored in it, by com
pressing it against its breast. The young
then receive their food from their moth
er's bill ; and the current tradition that
she tears her own breast to feed them
with her blood, may have this origin.
The pelican's bill also, terminating in a
strong, curved, crimson tip and resting
on the white breast, might seem to be
tinged with blood.

PEN. The ancient pen was a stylus
of hardened iron, Jer. 17 : 1, sometimes
pointed with diamond, for writing on
hard substances, like metallic plates :
when waxen tablets were used, the stylus
had one end made broad and smooth,
for erasing errors, 2 Kin. 21 : 13. FOT
parchment, cloth, and similar substances,
a reed pen was used, or a fine hair pen
cil, with ink, Judg. 5:14; Job 19 : 24 ;
Isa. 8:1 ; Jer. 30:23 ; 3 John 13.

PEN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PER

PENI'EL, or PENU'EL, a town beyond
the Jordan, and near the Jabbok ; de
fended by a strong tower, which Gideon
broke down because the men of Penuel
refused to aid him against the Midianites,
Judg. 8 : 8-17. It was restored by Jero
boam I., 1 Kin. 12 : 25. It received its
name, the face of God, from Jacob's there
wrestling with the Angel Jehovah face
to face, Gen. 32:30.

PENIN'NAH, the second wife of Elka-
nah the father of Samuel. See HANNAH.
Their story illustrates the evils of polyg
amy, 1 Sam. 1.

PEN'NY, the Greek drachma, or Ro
man denarius, equivalent to about four
teen cents. In reading the Scripture
passages in which this word occurs, we
should consider that the real value of
money, to purchase labor or commodi
ties, was far greater then than now ; and
also that even the nominal value of the
drachma would be better expressed by
"shilling," or "franc," than by "pen
ny." Thus, "two hundred shillings'
worth of bread would not suffice," Mark
6 : 37 ; " he took out two francs and gave
them to the host, ' ' Luke 10 : 35. So in
Rev. 6:6, "a measure of wheat for a
penny ' ' expresses to the English reader
the idea of great plenty ; whereas the
original indicates a distressing scarcity.
A drachma in Christ's time was good
wages for a day's labor in a vineyard,
Matt, 20:2.

PEN'TATEUCH, the five books, the
books of Moses; that is, Genesis, Exo
dus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
See articles on those books, and also
MOSES.

PEN'TECOST, the fiftieth, a feast cele
brated the fiftieth day after the sixteenth
of Nisan, which was the second day of
the feast of the passover, Lev. 23:15, 16.
The Hebrews call it the ' ' feast of weeks, "
Ex. 34 : 22, because it was kept seven
weeks after the passover. They then
offered the first-fruits of their wheat har
vest, which at that time was completed,
Dent. 16 : 9, 10. These first-fruits con-
335

sisted in two loaves of leavened bread,
of five pints of meal each, Lev. 23 : 17.
Besides this offering, there were special
sacrifices prescribed for this festival,
Num. 28:26-31.

The feast of Pentecost was instituted,
first, to oblige the Israelites to repair
to the temple of the Lord, and there
acknowledge his dominion over their
country and their labors, by offering to
him the first-fruits of all their harvests.
Secondly, to commemorate, and to ren
der thanks to God for the law given
from mount Sinai, on the fiftieth day
after their coming out of Egypt. It was
on the day of Pentecost, that the Holy
Spirit was first poured out upon the
apostles and the Christian church, Acts
2:1-3. On this occasion, as on the Pass
over seven weeks before, Judaism was at
the same time honored and gloriously
superseded by Christianity. The paschal
lamb gave place to "Christ our Pass
over ;" and the Jewish feast in memory
of the giving of the law, to the gift of
the Holy Spirit for "every nation under
heaven," ver. 5. This gift was for the
whole period of the gospel dispensation ;
and the mighty effects then produced
foreshow the yet greater works the Spir
it will perform in answer to prayer.

PE'OR, a mountain of Moab, from
which Balaam surveyed the camp of
Israel, Num. 23 : 28. It probably lay a
few miles north-east of the Dead sea, but
is not now recognized. This name and
vicinity are also associated with an idol
of the Moabites, Deut. 4:8. See BAAL.

PE'REZ-UZ'ZAH, 2 Sam. 6:8. See

UZZAII.

PER'FUMES. The use of perfumes
was common among the Hebrews and
the orientals generally, before it was
known to the Greeks and Remans. Mo
ses also speaks of the art of the per
fumer, in the English Bible "apothe
cary;" and gives the composition of two
perfumes, of which one was to be offered
to the Lord on the golden altar, Ex.
30 : 34-38, and the other to be used for
anointing the high-priest and his sons,
the tabernacle, and the vessels of divine
service, Ex. 30:23-33. The Hebrews
had also perfumes for embalming their
dead. The composition is not exactly
known, but they used myrrh, aloes, and
other strong and astringent drugs prop
er to prevent infection and corruption.
See EMBALMING, and OINTMENT.

PER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PER

PER'GA, a city of Pamphylia, Acts
13 : 13 ; 11: 25. This is not a maritime
city, but is situated on the river Oestrus,
at some distance from its mouth, which
has long been obstructed by a bar. It
was one of the most considerable cities
in Pamphylia ; and when that province
was divided into t\vo parts, this city be
came the metropolis of one part, and
Side of the other. On a neighboring
mountain was a splendid temple of Di
ana, which gave celebrity to the city.

PER'GAMOS, now Bergamo, a city of
Mysia, in Asia Minor, and the residence
of the Attalian princes. There was here
collected by the kings of. this race a no
ble library of two hundred thousand vol
umes, which, after the country was ceded
to the Rom ins, was transported to Egypt
for Cleopatra, and added to the library
at Alexandria. Hence the word parch
ment, from the Latin pergamentum,
Greek pergamcne ; great quantities of
this material being here used, and its
manufacture perfected. Pergamos was
the birthplace of Galen, and contained a
famous temple of Esculapius the god of
medicine, who was worshipped under
the form of a living serpent. A Chris
tian church was established here in the
apostolic age, and was adlrcsse I by St.
John, Rev. 1 : 11; '1 : 12. The modern
city, called Bergamo, lies twenty miles
from the sea on the north side of the
river Caicus, and contains twelve thou
sand inhabitants. A large castle in ruins
stands on the highest of three mountains
which environ the town, and many re
mains of the ancient city still exist.

PER'IZZITES, Gen. 15:20, ancient in
habitants of Palestine, who had mingled
•with the Cana mites, or were themselves
descendants of Canaan. They appear to
have dwelt in the centre of Canaan, Gen.
34:30; Josh. 11:3; 17:15; Judg. 1:4,5;
but there were some of them on each side
of the river Jordan, in the mountains, and
in the plains. In several places of Scrip
ture, the Canaanites and Perizzites are
mentioned as the chief people of the coun
try ; as in the time of Abraham and Lot,
Gen. 13:7. Some remnants of this race
existed in Solomon's day, and were sub
jected by him to a tribute of service,
1 Kin. 9:20. See CANAANITES.

PER'SIA, in Hebrew Paras, Ezek.
27 : 10, a vast region in Asia, the south
western province of which lying between
ancient Media on the north and the Per-
336

sian gulf on the south, appears to hare
been the ancient Persia, and is still call
ed Pharsistan, or Fars. The Persians,
who became so famous after Cyrus, the
founder of their more extended monar
chy, were anciently called Elamitcs ; and
later, in the time of the Roman emper
ors, Parthians. See PARTIIIA.

The early history of the Persians, like
that of most of the oriental nations, is
involved in doubt and perplexity. Their
descent is traced to Shem, through his
son Elam, after whom they were original
ly named. It is probable that they enjoy
ed their independence for several ages,
with a monarchical succession of their
own ; until they were subdued by the
Assyrians, and their country attached as
a province to that empire. From this pe
riod, both sacred and profane writers dis
tinguish the kingdom of the Medcs from
that of the Persians. It is not improba
ble that, during this period, petty revo
lutions might have occasioned temporary
disjunctions of Persia from Assyria, and
that the Persian king was quickly again
made sensible of his true allegiance.
When Media became independent, undei
Dejoccs and then Phraortcs, Persia be
came also subject to its sway, as a tribu
tary kingdom. Media having vanquish
ed her great rival Assyria, enjoyed a long
interval of peace, during the reign of
Astyages, son of Cyaxarcs. But his suc
cessor, Cyaxares the Second, united with
the Persians against the Babylonians,
and gave the command of the combined
armies to Cyrus, who took the city of
Babylon, killed Belshazzar, and termi
nated that kingdom 538 u. c.

Cyrus succeeded to the thrones of Me
dia and Persia, and completed the union
between those countries, which appear
to have been in reality but two nations
of the same race, having the same relig
ion, (see MAGI and MEDIA,) and using
languages near akin to each other and
to the ancient Sanscrit. Previously to
their union under Cyrus, Daniel speaks
of the law of the Modes and Persians as
being the same. The union was effected
B. c. 536. The principal events relating
to Scripture, which occurred during the
reign of Cyrus, were the restoration of
the Jews, the rebuilding of the city and
temple, and the capture of Babylon, u. c.
539, Ezra 1 : 2. His dominion extended
from the Mediterranean to the region of
the Indus. Cambyses his successor, B. c.

PER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PET

629, added Egypt to the Persian realm,
and the supremacy of Egypt and Syria
was often in contest during subsequent
reigns, Ezra 4:6. He was followed by
Smerdis the Magian, B. c. 522, Ezra 4:7 ;
Darius Hystaspis, B. e. 521, Ezra 5:6;
Xerxes, the Ahasuerus of the book of
Esther, B. c. 485 ; Artabanus, B. c. 465 ;
Artaxerxes Longimanus, B. c. 464, Neh.
2:1; Xerxes II., B. c. 424; Sogdianus
and Darius Nothus, B. c. 424 ; Arta
xerxes Mnemon, B. c. 404 ; Artaxerxes
Ochus, B. c. 364 ; Arses, B. c. 338 ; and
Darius Codomanus, B. c. 335, who was
subdued and slain by Alexander of Mace-
don, B. c. 330. In the seventh century
Persia fell under the power of the Sara
cens, in the thirteenth it was conquered
by Genghis Khan, and in the fourteenth
by Tamerlane. Modern Persia is bound
ed north by Georgia, the Caspian sea,
and Tartary ; east by Afghanistan and
Beloochistan ; south by Ormus ; and west
by the dominions of Turkey. Its inhab
itants retain to a remarkable extent the
manners and customs of ancient Persia,
of which we have so vivid a picture in
Esther, Ezra, Nehcmiah, and Daniel.

PER'SIS, a Roman lady, whom Paul
salutes, Rom. 16:12, and calls his belov
ed sister.

PES'TILENCE, or PLAGUE, in the He
brew tongue, as in most others, expresses
all sorts of distempers and calamities.
The Hebrew word which properly signi
fies "the plague" is extended to all epi
demical and contagious diseases. The
prophets generally connect together the
sword, the pestilence, and the famine,
as three evils which usually accompany
each other.

The glandular plague, which in mod
ern times has proved so fatal in the East,
is the most virulent and contagious of
diseases. In the fourteenth century it
overran Europe, Asia, and Africa, and
25,000,000 are estimated to have died of
it within three years. Like the Asiatic
cholera, it is one of the most appalling
scourges sin has brought on this world ;
and may in this point of view correspond
with the ' ' plagues ' ' referred to in the
Bible, Ex. 9:14 ; 11:1 ; 1 Kin. 8:37.

PE'TER. This name in Greek signi
fies a rock, as does also the name Cephas
in Syriac. Peter was one of the twelve
apostles, and was also called Simon,
Matt. 16 : 17, and Simeon, Acts 15 : 14.
He was of Bethsaida, and was the son of
15

Jonas, a fisherman, which occupation he
also followed. After his marriage he
resided at Capernaum, Matt. 8:14, Luke
4:38, though called at a later period to
labor elsewhere as an apostle, and it
would seem often accompanied in hia
journeys by his wife, 1 Cor. 9:5. When
first introduced to Jesus by his brother
Andrew, he received from Him the name
of Peter, John 1 : 42, probably in refer
ence to the boldness and firmness of his
character, and his activity in promoting
his Master's cause. He receiyed his sec
ond call, and began to accompany Christ,
at the sea of Galilee near his residence,
and thenceforth learned to be a " fisher
of men," Matt. 4:18-20; Luke 5:1-11.
Many remarkable incidents are recorded
in the gospels, which illustrate his char
acter. Among these are, his attempt to
walk on the water to meet Christ, Matt.
14 : 29 ; his avowal of the Messiahship
and divinity of the Saviour, Matt. 16: 16 ;
his errors as to the design of Christ's in
carnation, Matt. 16 : 22, 23 ; his warm
attachment to the divine Teacher, John
6:67-69; his cutting off the ear of Mal-
chus, John 18 : 10 ; his boastful deter
mination to adhere to his Master un
der all circumstances, and his subse
quent denial of Him with oaths, Matt.
26 : 74 ; Mark 14 : 29 ; John 13 : 37, 38 ;
his poignant repentance, Matt. 26 : 75,
and our Lord's forgiveness, after receiv
ing an assurance of his love, which was
thrice uttered as his denial of Christ
had been, John 21 : 15-18. The death
and resurrection of Christ, and the cir
cumstances which accompanied them,
led to a wonderful change in the apos
tle's mind, and thenceforward his bold
and steadfast course is worthy of bis
name. On the day of Pentecost, he was
one of the principal witnesses for the
Saviour ; in company with John he soon
after healed a lame man at the temple
gate, addressed the assembled crowd,
was imprisoned, and fearlessly vindicat
ed himself before the Sanhedrim, Acts
4 : 8-21. We find him afterwards de
nouncing the judgment of God on a
guilty couple who had dared to lie to
the Holy Ghost, Acts 5 : 1-11 ; visiting
Samaria, .and rebuking Simon the ma
gician, Acts 8:5-24 ; healing ^Eneas and
raising Dorcas to life at Lydda, Acts
9:32-43 ; seeing at Joppa a vision which
prepared him to preach the gospel to
the gentile Cornelius, Acts 10; impris-
337

PHA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PHA

oned by Herod Agrippa, and delivered
by an angel, Acts 12 : 3-19 ; and taking
a part in the council at Jerusalem, Acts
15:7-11. The Bible gives us little infor
mation as to his subsequent labors ; but
it is probable that the three apostles who
were most distinguished by the Saviour
while upon earth continued to be favored
as chief instruments in advancing his
cause. Paul speaks of "James, Cephas,
and John, who seemed to be pillars,"
Gal. 2:9. Yet in the same chapter we
find him publicly reproving Peter for his
wavering course in respect to the de
mands of Judaizing Christians, which he
had been one of the iirst to repel at Je
rusalem, Acts 15 : 9. He seems to have
labored at Corinth, 1 Cor. 1 : 12 ; 3 : 22,
and at Babylon, 1 Pet. 5 : 13. Papal
writers affirm that he was the bishop of
Rome. But the evidence is strongly
against this assertion. Paul wrote to
the Roman Christians, giving them di
rections and saluting the principal per
sons by name ; he also wrote six letters
from Rome ; but in none of these letters,
nor in the narrative in Acts, is there the
slightest intimation that Peter was or
had been at Rome. And as Peter never
resided at Rome, he was never made the
head of the church universal. Whatev
er honor and authority he received from
Christ, in establishing the first institu
tions of Christianity and declaring what
it enjoined and from what it released,
Matt. 16 : 18, 19, the other apostles also
received, Matt. 18 : 18 ; John 20 : 23 ;
1 Cor. 5 : 3, 5 ; Eph. 2 : 20 ; Rev. 21:14.
There is no evidence that he had any
supremacy over them, nor that he had
any successor in that influence which
was naturally accorded to him as one of
the oldest, most active, and most faith
ful of those who had " seen the Lord."

EPISTLES OF PETER. We have two
epistles attributed to Peter by the com
mon consent of the Christian church.
The genuineness of the first has never
been disputed ; it is referred to as his
accredited work by several of the apos
tolical fathers. It appears to have been
addressed to Christian churches in Asia
Minor, composed primarily of converted
Jews and proselytes, but including many
converts from paganism, 1 Pet. 4:3. It
was written probably at Babylon on the
Euphrates, 1 Pet. 6 : 13. See BABYLON.
Some, however, interpret this of Rome,
and others of a petty town in Egypt call-
338

ed Babylon. The "fiery trials " throngb
which the church was then passing are
supposed to have been the persecutions
in the latter years of Nero's reign, which
terminated A. D. 68. Peter exhorts them
to faith, obedience, and patience, in view
of the truth of the gospel and the cer
tainty of salvation in Christ.

The second epistle was addressed to
the same persons as the former one ; its
general design being to confirm the doc
trines which had been delivered in that,
and to excite the Christian converts to a
course of conduct becoming in every re
spect their high profession of attachment
to Christ. This epistle was less confident
ly ascribed to the great ' ' apostle of the
circumcision," by the early church, than
the first epistle. There is no sufficient
ground, however, for doubting its canon
ical authority, or that Peter was its au
thor, 2 Pet. 1:1, 18 ; 3:1. Compare also
1 Pet. 3:20; 2 Pet. 2:5. In many pas
sages it resembles the epistle of Jude.

PHA'RAOH is properly an Egyptian
word adopted into the Hebrew, and sig
nifies king ; so that when we find this
name, it means everywhere the king.
Thus, also, Pharaoh Hophra is simply
king Hophra. The above cut, from an
Egyptian monument, represents a Pha^
raoh's daughter, probably Shishak's.

Of the kings of Egypt, there are not
less than twelve or thirteen mentioned
in Scripture, all of whom bore the gen
eral title of Pharaoh, except four. Along
with this title, two of them have also
other proper names, Necho and Hophra.

PHA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PHA

The following is their order. Some of
them have been identified, by the labors
of Champollion and others, with kings
whose proper names we know from other
sources, while others still remain in ob
scurity. Indeed, so brief, obscure, and
conflicting are the details of Egyptian
history and ancient chronology, that no
name before that of Shishak can be re
garded as identified beyond dispute.

1. PHARAOH, Gen. 12 : 15, in the time of Abra
ham, B. c. 1920. He was probably a king of
the Theban dynasty.

2. PHARAOH, the master of Joseph, Gen.
37 : 36 ; 39-50 ; Acts 7 : 10, 13, B. c. 1728. Some
suppose that the Pharaoh to whom Joseph
became prime minister was the son of the one
mentioned in Gen. 37 : 36.

3. PHARAOH, who knew not Joseph, and un
der whom Moses was born, B. c. 1571, Ex. 1:8;
Acts 7 :18; Heb. 11:23.

Very probably there was another Pharaoh
reigning at the time when Moses fled into
Midian, and who died before Moses at the age
of eighty returned from Midiau into Egypt,
Ex. -1 : 11-23 ; 4 : 19 ; Acts 7 : 23.

4. PHARAOH, under whom the Israelites left
Egypt, and who perished in the Red sea, Ex.
5-14 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 7 ; Neh. 9 : 10 ; Psa. 135 : 9 ;
136 : 15 ; Rom. 9 : 17 ; Heb. 11 : 27, B. c. 1491.

5. PHARAOH, in the time of David, 1 Kin.
11 : 18-22, B. c. 1030.

6. PHARAOH, the father in-law of Solomon,
1 Kin. 3:1; 7:8; 9 : 16, 24, B. c. 1010.

7. SHISHAK, near the end of Solomon's reign,
and under Rehoboam, B. c. 975, 1 Kin. 11 :40 ;
14 : 25 ; 2 Chr. 12 :2. From this time onward
the proper names of the Egyptian kings are
mentioned in Scripture. See SHISHAK.

8. ZERAH, king of Egypt and Ethiopia in the
time of Asa, B. c. 930 ; called Usorchon by his
torians. See ZERAH.

9. So, or Sevechus, contemporary with Ahaz,
B. c. 730, 2 Kin. 17 :4. See So.

10. TIRHAKAH, king of Ethiopia and Egypt,
in the time of Hezekiah, B. c. 720, 2 Kin. 19 : 9;
Is a. 37 : 9. The Tearcho of Strabo, and the
Taracles of Manetho. See TIRHAKAH.

11. PHARAOH NECHO, in the time of Josiah,
B. c. 612, 2 Kin. 23 : 29, 30, etc. ; 2 Chr. 35 :20-
24, etc. Necho, the son of Psammeticus. See
NECHO.

12. PHARAOH HOPHRA, contemporary with
Nebuchadnezzar. He was the grandson of
Necho, and is the Apries of Herodotus. Zed-
ekiah formed an alliance with him against
Nebuchadnezzar, and he drove the Assyrian^
from Palestine, took Zidon and Tyre, and re
turned :o Egypt with great spoil. He seems
to have done nothing to prevent the subse
quent destruction of Jerusalem, Jer. 37 : 1-5 •
47 : 1 ; Ezek. 29-32. He reigned twenty-fiy«
years, and was dethroned by hi- ;*rmy after
an unsuccessful expedition against Cyrene,
as was foretold, Jer. 44 :30.

PHARISEES, a numerous and domi
nant sect of the Jews, agreeing on some
main points of doctrine and practice, but
divided into different parties or schools
on minor points ; as for instance, the

schools or followers of Hillel and Sham-
mai, who were celebrated rabbins or
teachers. The name is commonly de
rived from the Hebrew purash, to sep
arate, as though they were distinguished
from the rest of the nation by their supe
rior wisdom and sanctity. They first ap
peared as a sect after the return of the
Jews from captivity. In respect to their
tenets, although they esteemed the writ
ten books of the Old Testament as the
sources of the Jewish religion, yet they
also attributed great and equal authority
to traditional precepts relating principally
to external rites : as ablutions, fastings,
long prayers, the distribution of alms,
the avoiding of all intercourse with Gen
tiles and publicans, etc. See Matt. 6:5;
9:11; 23:5; Mark 7:4 ; Luke 18:12. In
superstitious and self-righteous formal- '
ism they strongly resembled the Romish
church. They were rigid interpreters
of the letter of the Mosaic law, but not
unfrequently violated the spirit of it by
their traditional and philosophical inter
pretations. See Matt. 5:31, 43 ; 12 : 2 ;
19:3 ; 23:23. Their professed sanctity and
close adherence to all the external forms
of piety, gave them great favor and influ
ence with the common people, and espec
ially among the female part of the com
munity. They believed with the Stoics,
that all things and events were controlled
by fate ; yet not so absolutely as entirely
to destroy the liberty of the human will.
They considered the soul as immortal,
and held the doctrine of a future resur
rection of the body, Acts 23 : 8. It is also
supposed by some that they admitted
the doctrine of metempsychosis, or the
transmigration of souls ; but no allu
sion is made to this in the New Testa
ment, nor does Josephus assert it. In
numerous cases Christ denounced the
Pharisees for their pride and covetous -
ness, their ostentation in prayers ; arms,
tithes, and fasts, Matt. 0:2, 6, Luke
18 : 9, and their hypocrisy in employing
the garb of religion to cover the profli
gacy of their dispositions and conduct •
as Matt. 23 ; Luke 16 : 14 ; John 7 : 48,
49 ; 8 : 9. By his faithful reproofs he
early incurred their hatred, Matt. 12:14 ;
they eagerly sought to destroy him, and
his blood was upon them and their chil
dren. On the other hand, there appear
to have been among them individuals of
probity, and even of genuine piety ; as
| in the case of Joseph of Arirnathea, Nio-
339

PHA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PHI

odemus, the aged Simeon, etc., Matt.
27 : 57 ; Luke 2 : 25 ; John 3 : 1. Saul of
Tarsus was a Pharisee of the strictest
sect, Acts 26: 5; Gal. 1:14. The essen
tial features of their character are still
common in Christian lands, and are no
less odious to Christ than of old.

PHAR'PAR, a river of Damascus. See
in ABANA.

PHE'BE, or PIICE'BE, a Christian wom
an of Cenchrea, the eastern port of Cor
inth, hearer of the epistle of Paul to the
Komans, in which he commends her to
their confidence and Christian love. She
appears to have been a deaconess of the
church, and to have had both the means
and the disposition to do good abun
dantly. Paul says, "she hath been a
succorer of many, and of me also," Rom.
16:1, 2. One who succors a faithful ser
vant of Christ may thereby aid in the
accomplishment of immeasurable good.
The Holy Spirit presents the character
and works of Phoebe as worthy of all
imitation. Such mothers in Israel will
be held in everlasting remembrance.

PHE'NICE, a city near the south coast
of Crete, having a harbor, now called Lu-
tro, opening to the south-east. Paul, on
his voyage to Rome from CaBsarea, was
unable to make this port, Acts 27 : 12.

PHENI'CIA, or PHENICE. See PIKE-
NICIA.

PHI'CHOL, apparently the title borne
by the ' ' captain of the host ' ' of the king
of Gerar, in the time of Abraham and
Isaac, Gen. 21:22; 26:26.

PHILADELPHIA, a city of Lydia, in
Asia Minor, where was one of the seven
Asiatic churches, highly praised by Christ
for its fidelity, Rev. 3 : 7-13. Philadel
phia was so called from Attains Philadel-
phus, king of Pergamos, by whom it was
founded. It stood between the river
Hermus and mount Tmolus, about twen
ty-eight miles south-east of Sardis. It
suffered greatly by frequent earthquakes,
and it was anciently matter of surprise
that the city was not on this account
abandoned. It is now a mean and ill-
built town, of large extent, with a pop-
alation of 12,000, including about 1,000
Greek Christians, who have a resident
bishop and about twenty inferior cler
gy. There are five churches, and six
mosques, one of which the native Chris
tians believe to have been the church in
which worshipped the primitive Chris
tians whom John addressed.
340

PHILEMON, a rich citizen of Colosse,
in Phrygia, to whom Paul wrote an epis
tle, on occasion of sending back to him
his servant Onesimus. Philemon, convert
ed by the instrumentality of Paul, is ex
horted to receive Onesimus as " a brother
beloved." Paul was then a prisoner at
Rome. His letter is universally admired
for its delicacy, courtesy, and manliness.
See ONESIMUS, arid EPISTLE.

PHILE'TUS, a heretic, excluded from
the church for denying the resurrection,
and promoting infidelity, 2 Tim. 2 : 17,
18. See HYMENEUS.

PHIL'IP, I., THE TETRARCH, a SOn of

Herod the Great, by his wife Cleopatra.
In the division of Herod's kingdom,
he was made tetrarch of Batanea, Tra-
chonitis, and Auranitis, Luke 3:1. See
HEROD I. From him the city of Cassarea
Philippi took its name..

II. HEROD PHILIP, another son of Her
od the Great by Mariamne the daughter
of Simon, not his favorite Mariamne.
By Joscphus he is called Herod. He
lived a private life, having been disin
herited by his father ; and was the for
mer husband of Herodias, Matt. 14 : 3.
See HERODIAS.

III. THE APOSTLE, a native of Beth-
saida, a disciple at first of John the Bap
tist, and one of the twelve who were ear
liest called to follow Christ, Matt. 10:3 ;
John 1:43-48 ; Acts 1:13. He is several
times mentioned in the gospels, John
6:5-7; 12:21; 14:8-10. Tradition says
that he preached the gospel in Phrygia,
and died at Hierapolis in Syria.

IV. The DEACON and EVANGELIST, Acts
6:5; 21 : 8 ; Eph. 4:11; a resident of
C;esarea, at least during one portion of
his life, having four daughters who were
endowed with the gift of prophecy, Acts
2:17 ; 21:8, 9. After the death of Ste
phen, when the Christians were driven
from Jerusalem, except the apostles, he
preached the gospel in Samaria with
great success, and wrought many mira
cles. From the midst of these happy
scenes he was called away to labor in a
distant spot, with a single soul ; but the
gospel light was carried by the Ethio
pian eunuch into the darkness of Africa,
and is supposed to have there enlight
ened multitudes. In the narrative of
Luke, Philip is incidentally distinguish
ed from the apostles, Acts 8 : 1, 14, 16.
He preached the gospel in the cities on
the coast, from Ashdod to Cassarea,

PHI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PHI

where at a later period Paul and his
companions were his guests for "many
days," Acts 21:8-16. His subsequent
history is unknown.

PHILIP' PI, a city of proconsular Mac
edonia, so called from Philip king of
Macedon, who repaired and beautified
it ; whence it lost its former name of
Dathos. It was constituted a lloman
"colony" by Augustus, and as such
possessed certain peculiar privileges,
which made it a " chief city of that part
of Macedonia." This expression, how
ever, is supposed to mean, in Acts 16: 12,
that it was the first city the traveller
met after landing at its port Neapolis,
from which it lay ten miles north-west
on an extensive plain. Here was fought
the celebrated battle in which Brutus
and Cassius were overthrown by Octa-
vius and^ Antony, B. c. 42. Here, too,
Paul firs't preached the gospel on the
continent of Europe, A. D. 52, having
been led hither from Troas by a heaven
ly vision. The first convert was Lydia ;
and the church which at once sprang up
here was characterized by the distinguish
ed traits of this generous and true-heart
ed Christian woman. Having cast out a
spirit of divination from a young damsel
here, Paul and Silas were seized and cru
elly scourged and imprisoned. But their
bonds were miraculously loosed, their
jailor converted, and they permitted to
pass on to Amphipolis. Luke appears to
have remained here, and to have rejoin
ed Paul when he again visited Philippi
on his fifth journey to Jerusalem, A. D.
58, Acts 16 : 8-40 ; 20 : 3-6. The site is
now strowri with ruins.

Paul's EPISTLE TO THE PuiLiPPiANS, writ
ten during his first imprisonment at
Rome, A. D. 62, gratefully and warmly
acknowledges the receipt of their gift by
the hand of Epaphroditus, and their con
tinued affection towards him ; also their
irreproachable Christian walk, and their
firmness under persecution, Phil. 1:7,
28, 29 ; 2:12 ; 4:10-15. See also 2 Cor.
8:1, 2.

PHILISTINES, a celebrated people,
who inhabited the southern seacoast of
Canaan, which from them took the name
of Philistia, Psa. 60 : 8 ; 108:9, or Pales
tine. They seem originally to have mi
grated from Egypt to Caphtor, by which
some understand Crete, and others with
the ancients Cappadocia, Gen. 10 : 14,
and thence to have passed over to Pal

estine under the name of Caphtorim,
where they drove out the Avim, who
dwelt from Hazerim to Azzah, that is,
Gaza, and dwelt in their stead, Deut.
2 : 23. The country they inhabited lay
between the higher land of Judea and
the Mediterranean, and was in the main
a level and fertile territory. It resem
bles our own western prairies ; and bears
splendid crops year after year, though
miserably cultivated and" never ma
nured.

The Philistines were a powerful people
in Palestine, even in Abraham's time,
B. c. 1900, for they had then kings and
considerable cities, Gen. 20 : 2 ; 21 : 32 ;
Ex. 13 : 17. They are not enumerated
among the nations devoted to extermi
nation with the seed of Canaan. Joshua,
however, did not hesitate to attack them
by command from the Lord, because they
possessed various districts promised to
Israel. But these conquests must have
been ill-maintained, since under the
judges, at the time of Saul, and at the
beginning of the reign of David, the
Philistines had their own kings and lords.
Their state was divided into five little
principalities, at the head of each of which
was a "lord," namely, Gaza, Ashkelon,
Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron — and they op
pressed Israel during the government of
the high-priest Eli, that of Samuel, and
during the reign of Saul, for about one
hundred and twenty years. Shamgar,
Samson, Samuel, and Saul opposed them,
and were victorious over them with great
slaughter, at various times, but did not
destroy their power, Judg. 3:14 ; 1 Sam.
4; 7; 14; 31. They maintained their
independence till David subdued them,
2 Sam. 5 : 17 ; 8, from which time they
continued in subjection to the kings of
Judah, down to the reign of Jehoram,
son of Jehoshaphat, when they revolt
ed, 2 Chr. 21 : 16. Jehoram made war
against them, and probably reduced
them to obedience ; for it is observed that
they revolted again from Uzziah, who
kept them under his sway during his
whole reign, 2 Chr. 26:6, 7. During the
unfortunate reign of Ahaz, the Philis
tines made great havoc in the territory
of Judah ; but his son and successor
Hezekiah again subdued them, 2 Chr.
28 : 18 ; 2 Kin. 18 : 8. They regained
their full liberty, however, under the
later kings of Judah ; and we see by the
menaces uttered against them by the
341

PHI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PHI

prophets Isaiah, Amos, Zephaniah, Jer
emiah, and Ezekiel. that they brought
many calamities on Israel, for which God
threatened to punish them with great
misfortunes, Jer. 47 ; Ezek. 25:15 ; Amos
1 : 6-8 ; Obad. 19 ; Zech. 9 : 5. See also
Neh. 13 : 23. They were partially sub
dued by Esar-haddon king of Assyria,
and afterwards by Psammetichus king
of Egypt ; and there is great probability
that they were reduced by Nebuchad
nezzar, as well as the other people of
Syria, Phosnicia, and Palestine, during
the siege of Tyre. They afterwards fell
under the dominion of the Persians ;
then under that of Alexander the Great,
who destroyed Gaza, the only city of the
Philistines * that dared to oppose him.
They appear to have become entirely
incorporated with the other inhabitants
of the land under the Maccabees, and
are no more mentioned as a distinct peo
ple. The ancient Philistines appear in
sacred history as a warlike people, not
strangers to the arts of life, Judg. 15 : 5 ;
1 Sam. 13 : 20 ; worshippers of Baal and
Ashtoreth,. under the names of Baal-zc-
bub and Dagon ; having many priests
and diviners, 1 Sam. 6 : 2 ; 2 Kin. 1:2;
Isa. 2 : 6. They appear to have been of
the race of Shem, their language being
akin to the Hebrew, yet distinct from it,
Neh. 13 : 24. Their land, once rich and
covered with cities and towns, is now
desolate, Zeph. 2:4-7.

PHILOS'OPHY, love of wisdom, in the
New Testament means the vain and per
nicious speculations of human reason ;
the wisdom of this world, and ' ' science
falsely so called," 1 Cor. 1 : 18-27 ; 1 Tim.
6:20, in opposition to gospel truth. Paul
cautioned the Colossians lest any man
should spoil or plunder them through
" philosophy," Col. 2:8 ; and it is one of
the most melancholy proofs of the deprav
ity of the human heart, that it has been
able so to pervert that noble faculty,
the reason. The loftiest human intel
lects have often been the blindest as to
religious truth ; and the range and vigor
of men's reasoning powers have been the
measure, not of their knowledge and
love of God, but of their pride, rebellion,
and folly, Matt. 11 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 2 : 14 ;
3 : 18-20. In Athens, the Epicurean and
Stoic philosophers made a jest of Paul's
discourses; and in many places of his
epistles, he opposes the false wisdom of
the age, that is, the pagan philosophy,
342

to the wisdom of Jesus Christ, and the
true religion, which to the philosophers
and sophists seemed to be mere folly,
because it was built neither on the elo
quence nor the subtlety of those who
preached it, but on the power of God,
and on the operations of the Holy Ghost
in the hearts and minds of believers ;
and because it did not amuse and flatter
man, but proved him a guilty rebel
against God, in perishing need of a Sav°
iour.

As there arose, under the influence
of philosophy, several sects among the
Greeks, as the Academics, the Peripa
tetics, and the Stoics, so also there arose
among the Jews several sects, as the
Essenes, the Pharisees, aud the Saddu-
cees. The Pharisees had some resem
blance to the Stoics, the Sadducees to
the Epicureans, and the Essenes to the
Academics. The Pharisees were proud,
vain, and boasting, like the Stoics ; the
Sadducees, who denied the immortality
of the soul, and the existence of spirits,
freed themselves at once, like the Epi
cureans, from all solicitude about futu
rity : the Essenes were more moderate,
more simple and religious, and therefore
approached nearer to the Academics.

The danger against which Paul warn
ed the church in his day still exists.
Pride of intellect naturally allies itself
with the atheism and impenitence of the
heart, refuses to yield to the claims of
revelation, and rejects whatever dis
pleases its taste or rises above its 'com
prehension. True wisdom, on the con
trary, is humble and docile. "Whoso
ever shall not receive the kingdom of
God as a little child, shall in no wise
enter therein."

PHIN'EHAS, I., son of Eleazar, and
grandson of Aaron the high-priest. His
zealous and decided character was shown
in the prompt execution of the profligate
prince of Judah, and his companion a
woman of Midian, in the plains of Moab,
Num. 25. For this bold and timely ser
vice, the high-priesthood was secured to
his family, also remaining faithful ; and
except during an interval from Eli to
Zadok, his posterity were at the head of
the priesthood till the destruction of the
temple. Phinehas led the host of Israel
.in the subsequent battle with the Mid-
ianites, Num. 31 : 6; Psa. 106 : 30, 31.
He was at the head of the deputation
sent to remonstrate with the tribes be-

PIKE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PHY

•yond the Jordan respecting the altar
they had erected, Josh. '22 : 5-34. Dur
ing the life of his father, he was super
intendent of the Levites, Num. 3 : 32 ;
and afterwards became the high-priest,
Josh. 24 : 33, and as such communicated
the will of God as to the punishment of
the men of Gibeah, Judg. 20:28.

II. A son of Eli the high-priest. See

HOPHNI.

PH(ENI'CIA, PIIENICIA, or PHENICE,
Acts 15 : 3, in its largest sense, designat
ed a narrow strip of country extending,
nearly the whole length of the eastern
coast of the Mediterranean sea, from An-
tioch to the borders of Egypt. But Phoe
nicia Proper was included between the
cities of Laodicea in Syria and Tyre, and
comprehended mainly the territories of
Tyre and Sidon. Before Joshua conquer
ed Palestine this country was possessed
by Canaanites, sons of Ham, divided into
eleven families, of which the most pow
erful was that of Canaan, the founder of
Sidon, and head of the Canaanites prop
erly so called, whom the Greeks named
Phoenicians. Only these preserved their
independence under Joshua, and also
under David, Solomon, and the succeed
ing kings ; but they were subdued by
the kings of Assyria and Chaldea. Af
terwards, they were successively subject
to the Persians, Greeks, and Romans.

The Phoenicians were long renowned
as a rich, cultivated, and powerful peo
ple. They were a confederacy of com
mercial cities, each of which with the
adjacent territory was subject to its own
king. Their coast was crowded with
towns ; and their fleets were the first to
lose sight of the shores, traverse the
whole Mediterranean, and establish their
commerce and their colonies even on re
mote coasts of Europe and Africa. The
productions of all known lands were
exchanged in their markets, Ezek. 27.,
Carthage, the early rival of Rome, was
a Phoenician colony ; as were also Cadiz
and Tarshish in Spain, Ezek. 38 : 13.
Their language was almost identical with
that of the Jews, and may be traced in
the names of several Spanish cities. Sol
omon was indebted to them for aid in
erecting the temple, and in building and
navigating his ships. See TYRE. Their
territory lay between the seashore and
the summits of Lebanon ; and being well
watered and fertile, it produced at its
various elevations a rich variety of agri

cultural products. Its inhabitants were
worshippers of Baal and Ashtoreth.

At this day, Phoenicia i« in subjection
to the Turks, and belongs in the pasha-
lie of Acre, not having had any national
or native kings, or any independent form
of government, for more than two thou
sand years. The name Phoenicia is not
in the books of Hebrew Scripture ; but
only in the Maccabees and the New Tes
tament. The Hebrew always reads Ca
naan, Isa. 23 : 11, margin. Matthew
calls the same person a Canaanitish wom
an, 15 : 22, whom Mark calls a Syro-Phce-
nician, 7 : 26, that is, a Phoenician of
Syria, because Phoenicia then made a
part of Syria.

PHRYG'IA, an inland province of Asia
Minor, bounded north by Bithynia and
Galatia, east by Cappadocia, south by
Lycia, Pisidia, and Isauria, and west by
Mysia, Lydia, and Caria. It was called
Phrygia Pacatiana, and also Phrygia
Major, in distinction from Phrygia Mi
nor, which was a small district of Mysia
near the Hellespont, occupied by some
Phrygians after the Trojan war. The
eastern part of Phrygia Major was also
called Lycaonia. This region was a high
table lu,nd, fruitful in corn and wine,
and celebrated for its fine breed of cattle
and of sheep. Of the cities belonging to
Phrygia, Laodicea, Hierapolis, Colosse,
and Antioch of Pisidia, are mentioned in
the New Testament. St. Paul twice
travelled over it, preaching the gospel,
Acts 2: 10; 16:6; 18:23.

PHUT, or PUT, a son of Ham, Gen.
10:6, whose posterity are named with
Cush and Luclim as serving in Egyptian
armies, and as part of the host of Gog,
Jer. 46 : 9 ; Ezek. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 5 ; 38 : 5 ;
Nah. 3:9. In several of these passages
Phut is translated Libyans. Josephus
identifies them with the Mauritanians,
in Northern Africa towards the west.
See LIBYA.

PHYLAC'TERIES were little rolls of
parchment, in which were written cer
tain words of the law, and which were
worn by the Jews upon their foreheads,
and upon the left arm. The custom was
founded on a mistaken interpretation of
Ex. 13:9, 16, "And it shall be for a
token upon thy hand, and for frontlets
between thine eyes."

Leo of Modena informs us particularly
about these rolls. Those worn upon the
forehead have been described under the
343

I'll Y

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PIL

article FRONTLETS, which see. Those that
were to be fastened to the arms were two
rolls of parchment written in square let
ters, with an ink made on purpose, and
with much care. They were rolled up to
a point, and enclosed in a sort of case of
black calf-skin. They then were* put
upon a square bit of the same leather,
whence hung a thong of the same, of
about a finger's breadth and a cubit and

a half long. These rolls were placed at
the bending of the left arm, and after
the thong had made a little knot in the
form of the letter Yodh (i,) it was
wound about the arm in a spiral line,
which ended at the top of the middle
finger. They were called the Tephila of
the hand.

The phylactery, from a Greek word
signifying preservative, was regarded not
only as a remembrancer of God's law,
but as a protection against demons. It
was probably introduced at a late period
in the Old Testament history. Our Sav
iour reproaches the pride and hypocrisy
of the Pharisees, shown in making their
phylacteries broad as a sign of their supe
rior wisdom and piety, Matt. 23:5. Da
vid, on the other hand, says, "Thy word
have I hid in my heart, that I might not
sin against thee," Fsa. 119:11.

PHYSI'CIANS. The medical skill of
the Egyptians was widely celebrated.
Each physician confined his practice to
diseases of a single class, and thus a
large household would require the at
tendance of numerous physicians, Gen.
50:2. The Hebrews also had profession
al physicians, Ex. 21 : 19 ; Prov. 17 : 22 ;
Matt. 9 : 12 ; Luke 4 : 23 ; 8:43. In the
early ages they had little anatomical
skill, partly on account of the ceremo
nial defilement caused by touching a
corpse. They gave their attention to
external rather than to internal injuries
and diseases, Isa. 1:6; Ezek. 30 : 21 ;
though they also prescribed for internal
and mental disorders, 1 Sam. 16 : 16 ;
2 Chr. 16 : 12. They made use of salves,
balms, and poultices, hyssop, oil baths,
mineral baths, and river bathing, with
344

many other remedies, Jer. 46:11. Many'
wickedly had recourse to amulets and
enchantments.

PI-BE'SETH, a city of Egypt, called
by the Greeks Bubastos, and containing
a famous temple of the goddess Bubastis,
who was compared to the Diana of South
ern Europe. This temple was annually
visited by immense multitudes. The
ruins of Pi-beseth, on the eastern arm
of the Nile near the ancient canal to
Suez, consist of extensive mounds of
bricks and broken pottery, Ezek. 30:17.

PIG'EONS. See DOVES.

PI-HAHI'ROTH, a place near the gulf
of Suez, on its north-west side. It was
the third and last encampment of the
Hebrews, before crossing the Red sea,
Ex. 14 : 2, 9 ; Num. 33 : 7. Its exact lo
cation cannot now be determined. See
EXODUS.

PI'LATE, or PON'TITTS PI'LATE, was the
fifth or sixth Roman procurator in the
province of Judea, after the banishment
of Archelaus. He was appointed A. D. 26,
and continued in the province ten years,
usually residing at Ca^sarea. Pilate be
came odious both to the Jews and to the
Samaritans for the severity and cruelty
of his administration, Luke 13 : 1 ; and
being accused by the latter before Vitel-
lius, the governor of Syria, he was re
moved from his office and sent to Rome
to answer to their accusations before the
emperor. Before his arrival, Tiberius
was dead ; and Pilate is said to have
been banished by Caligula to Vienna in
Gaul, and there to have died by his own
hand.

The character of Pilate is graphically
described in the gospels. When Jesus
had been condemned by the high-priest
and the Sanhedrim, he was brought be
fore Pilate the governor, without whose
consent he could not be executed. Pi
late saw in Jesus an innocent victim of
Jewish malice, and desired to save him.
' Though dull and ignorant as to religious
truth, he had some dim sense of the su
periority of Christ's character, and feared
to wrong him. All that he saw of Christ
deepened this feeling ; and he tried every
method to soften the obduracy of the
Jews. But he had not the firmness
of character, the deep-rooted principle
of justice, and the consciousness of rec
titude necessary to carry him through ;
and after repeated efforts, Luke 23:7, 14-
20 ; John 18 : 31, 38 ; 19:4-6, 9-12, 15,

PIL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PIT

he at length gave way, and sacrificed a
righteous man, rather than to provoke
complaints against his administration
and an investigation by the emperor.
His washing of his hands, and his in
scription upon the cross, only condemned
himself. He would probably send a de
tailed report of his procedures to Tiberi
us ; and the early fathers mention such
an account as circulating in their day.
The "Acts of Pilate," however, now in
existence, are a subsequent fabrication.
The Roman historian Tacitus, speaking
of Christians, says, "The author of this
name was Christ, who was capitally pun
ished in the reign of Tiberius, by Pontius
Pilate."

PIL'LAR sometimes means a monu
mental column, Gen. 35 : 20 ; 2 Sam.
18 : 18 ; or a column of cloud or smoke,
Ex. 13 : 21 ; Judg. 20 : 40. The stately
column which adorns and supports the
front of a temple, Judg. 16 : 25-30 ; Job
9:6; 26 i 11, illustrates the position of
prophets, Jer. 1:18, apostles, Gal. 2:9,
believers, Rev. 3 : 12, and the church
itself, respecting the truth, 1 Tim. 3:15.

PILLED, peeled, as a tree of its bark,
Gen. 30:37.

PIL'LOWS were placed on the divans
around an Eastern reception-room. The
luxurious appliances mentioned in Ezek.
13 : 18, 19, were temptations to ease and
voluptuousness ; and emblems of similar
soporifics for the conscience.

PINE, in Neh. 8 : 15, denotes some
tree of a resinous nature. A different
word in Isa. 41:19 ; 60:13, probably in
dicates the pine ; a noble emblem of the
promised prosperity of the church. Sev
eral varieties of pine abound upon mount
Lebanon, the largest of which is the
sunobar kubar ; also found on several
sandy plains of Palestine. Its wood is
much used for beams and rafters.

PIN'NACLE, literally a wing ; proba
bly some part of the battlements on the
outer wall of the temple, perhaps of Sol
omon's porch, accessible by stairs, Matt.
4:5, 6. Josephus describes a gallery
coustmcted by Herod to overhang the
deep valley of the Kidron, and says that
the beholder on looking down from it
would become dizzy. See TEMPTATION.

PIPE, a musical wind instrument, con
sisting of a tube with holes, like a flute
or clarionet, 1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 1 Kin. 1:40 ;
Isa. 5 : 12 ; 30 : 29 ; Jer. 48 : 36 ; Matt.
9:23. The double pipe had two tubes,
15*

uniting in the mouth-piece; the tube
played with the left hand emitting a
few deep sounds, and serving as a base.
The Scotch Deputation of Inquiry speak
of overtaking among the hills of Judea
"an Arab playing with all his might
upon a shepherd's pipe made of two
reeds. This was the first time we had
seen any marks of joy in the land, for
certainly ' all joy is darkened, the mirth
of the land is gone,' " Isa. 24 : 11. See
Music.

PIS'GAH, a mountain ridge, the north
ern part of the Abarim range, east of the
Dead sea ; Nebo was one of its summits,
Deut. 32 : 49 ; 34 : 1. It was in the south-
ern part of the kingdom of Sihon, Num.
21:20; 23:24; and afterwards belonged
to the Reubenites, Josh. 12 : 3 ; 13:20.

PISID'IA, a province of Asia Minor,
separated from the Mediterranean by
Pamphylia, lying on mount Taurus and
the high table land north of it, and run
ning up between Phrygia and Lycaonia
as far as Antioch its capital. The Pisid-
ians, like most of the inhabitants of the
Taurus range, were an unsubdued and
lawless race ; and Paul in preaching the
gospel at Antioch and throughout Pi-
sidia, Acts 13:14 ; 14:24, was in peril by
robbers as well as by sudden storms and
floods in the mountain passes. Churches
continued to exist here for seven or eight
centuries.

PI'SON, one of the four rivers that
watered Paradise, Gen. 2 : 11, 12, and
which ran through all the land of Havi-
lah, where excellent gold was found. It
has, of course, been placed as variously
as the garden of EDEN, to which article
and EUPHRATES the reader is referred-

PIT, a reservoir, either natural or arti
ficial, for water. Pits were sometimes
used as dungeons, Gen. 37 : 20 ; Jer. 38 : 6 ;
or being slightly covered, and baited,
they served as traps to catch wild beasts,
a device which illustrates the plots of
designing men and women, Psa. 119:85 ;
Prov. 22:14 ; 26:27 ; Ezek. 19 : 4. The
word pit is also used to denote the grave,
Psa. 28:1 ; 30:3, 9 ; and hell, Rev. 20:1.

PITCH, Gen. 6 : 14, Ex. 2:3, translat
ed "slime" in Gen. 11:3; 14:10, is
properly bitumen or asphaltum, ancient
ly found on and near the Dead sea, which
was hence called the lake Asphaltites.
It abounded in the vicinity of Babylon,
and was used as fuel. The ark of Noah
and that of Moses were rendered water-
345

PIT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PLO

proof by it ; and the bricks of the tower
of Babel were cemented with it. It is
commonly found in a solid state ; but
being liquified by heat, and used as a
mortar, it becomes as hard as the rocks it
cements together. It is still thrown up
by earthquakes from the bottom of the
Dead sea, and floats to the shore some
times in large masses. See SEA III.

PI'THOM, one of the cities built by
the children of Israel for Pharaoh in
Egypt, during their servitude, Ex. 1:11.
This is probably the Pathumos mention
ed by Herodotus, which he places near
Pi-beseth and the Pelusiac arm of the
Nile, not far from the canal made by the
kings Necho and Darius to join the Red
sea with the Nile. See EGYPT.

PLAGUE. See PESTILENCE.

PLAIN. See CANAAN, and OAK.

PLAN'ETS, 2 Kin. 23 : 5. The Hebrew
word means inns or lodgings, and is used
with reference to the sun, denoting the
twelve constellations of the zodiac, the
houses of the sun in its annual apparent
course round the heavens. These con
stellations are here spoken of as objects
of idolatrous worship in Judah. Com
pare Gen. 37:9.

PLEDGE. The Jewish law protected
the poor who were obliged to give secu
rity for a loan or the fulfilment of a con
tract. If a man pawned his robe, the
usual covering for the cool nights, it
must be returned on the same day, Ex.
22:26, 27. The creditor could not enter
a house and take what he pleased ; and
the millstone being a necessary of life,

] could not be taken, Dent, 24 : 6, 10, 11.
Compare Job 22 : 6 ; 24 : 3, 7. Idolaters
sometimes disregarded these prohibi
tions, Amos 2:6-8. See LOANS. Pledges
are necessary from the vicious, who can
not be trusted, Prov. 20:16.

PLEI'ADES, a cluster of seven stars in
the neck of Taurus, or the Bull, one of
the twelve signs of the zodiac. The sun
enters Taurus about the middle of April ;
and the appearance of the Pleiades, there
fore, marks the return of spring, Job
9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8.

AXCIENT PLOUGH, YOKES. SHARES, AXD GOAD.

PLOUGH, a slight and inefficient in
strument in the East, but used from the
earliest times, Gen. 45:6; Deut. 22:10;
Job 1 : 14. See cut in MEROM. The
plough now generally used in Syria con
sists substantially of but three parts :
the beam or pole fastened to the yoke ;
the ploughshare ; and the handle. The
two latter parts, and even all three, are
sometimes formed of a single branch of
a tree with two limbs projecting in op
posite directions. The ploughshare is

PLOUGHING AND SOWING ; FROM AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING.

sometimes defended by a strip of iron,
Isa. 2:4; Joel 3: 10. As the handle was
single, and with attention was easily

ploughman brandished in the other a
formidable goad, six or eight feet long,
armed at the point with a pike, and at

managed by one hand, Luke 9:62, the I the heavy eud, which was two inches
346

POE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

POE

thick, with a small iron spade for clear
ing the share from clay, Judg. 3 : 31 :
1 Sam. 13:21 ; Acts 9:5. Ploughs were
drawn by oxen, asses, and heifers, Deut.
22:10 ; Judg. 14:18 ; at this day camels
and cows are also used in Palestine.
Ploughing commenced soon after the
autumnal rains had set in, towards the
last of October.

POETRY OF THE HEBREWS. Of all the
fine arts, poetry alone was cultivated
among the Hebrews; and under the in
spiration of the Almighty was carried to
the highest degree of perfection. The
poetry of this people was almost wholly
lyric ; whether didactic, elegiac, pasto
ral, or prophetic, it was still LYRIC.
The essence of lyric poetry is the vivid
expression of internal emotions. It is
therefore subjective ; in opposition to
epic poetry, which treats of external ob
jects, and is therefore objective. The
chief subject of Hebrew poetry was re
ligion, and then patriotism ; which,
under the theocracy, was very nearly
allied to religion. The most obvious
and striking characteristic of the poetry
of the Hebrews is sublimity. Religious
poetry was in ancient times almost pe
culiar to the Jews ; the little that is
found among other ancient nations is
unworthy of comparison with it ; as also
is the Koran, which is an attempted imi
tation of the poetical parts of the Old
Testament. The present prevailing views
of the nature of Hebrew poetry were first
developed by Bishop Lowth in his Lec
tures on the Poetry of the Hebrews.

Hebrew poetry differs from Hebrew
prose in three respects : 1. In the pe
culiar poetical nature of the contents ; of
which the characteristics are sublimity,
boldness, abruptness, lofty metaphors,
personifications, etc. 2. In the peculi
arities of the poetic dialect or diction,
which, however, are not so striking as
among the Greeks and Romans. 3. In
rhythm, which differs from metre ; the
latter importing a measure of syllables
or feet, the former a harmonious arrange
ment of words and members. It is the
opinion of those best acquainted with
the subject, that the Hebrews had no
prosody, that is, no measure of syllables
into poetic feet, as dactyles, trochees,
and spondees. It is believed that the
Hebrew poetry, much of which was de
signed to be sung or chanted, was char
acterized by a certain melodious flow and

cadence which is now irrecoverably lost,
together with the true pronunciation of
the language.

But aside from this, the rhythm of
Hebrew poetry consists in Avhat is called
its PARALLELISM, of whk'h the fundament
tal principle is, that every verse must
consist of at least TWO corresponding
parts or members.

The parallelism ot Hebrew poetry oc
curs either in the thought, or solely in
the form. Of the former there are three
kinds : namely,

1. Synonymous ; where the two mem
bers express the same idea in different,
but closely, and often literally, corre
sponding words : as for example,

What is man, that thou art mindful of him?
And the son of man, that thou dost visit him?

Psa. 8:4.

Why do the heathen rage t
And the people imagine a vain thing I

Tsa. 2 : L

He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh ;
The Lord shall have them m derision,

Psa. 2:4.

Doth the wild ass Dray when he hath grass ?
Or loweth the ox over his fodder ?

Job 6: 5.

So also the song of Lamech, Gen.
4:23, and Job 7:1, etc.

2. Antithetical ; where an antithesis
of thought is expressed by corresponding
members : as for example,

The house of the wicked shall be overthrown .
But the tabernacle of the upright shall flour*
ish. Prov. 14 : IL

A soft answer turneth away wrath ;
But grievous words stir up anger.

Prov. 15:1.

3. Synthetic ; which is a mere juxta
position ; or rather, the thought is car
ried forward in the second member with
some addition ; the correspondence of
words and construction being as before :
as for example,

The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the

soul :
The testimony of the Lord is sure, making

wise the simple.
The statutes of the Lord are right, rejoicing

the heart :

The commandment of the Lord is pure, en
lightening the eyes.
The fear of the Lord is clean, enduring for

ever.

The judgments of the Lord are true and right
eous altogether.

Psa. 19:7,8,9.

Mere rhythmical parallelism is that in
which no similarity or correspondence
of thought exists ; but the verse is di-
347

POE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

POM

vided by the caesura, as it were, into cor
responding numbers. This is the most
imperfect species of parallelism, and may
be compared with the hexameter, divid
ed by the caesura : as for example,

Yet have I set my king
Upon my holy hill of Zion.

Psa. 2:6.

Many there be which say of my soul,
There is no help for him in God.

Fsa. 3:2.

This is most common in the book of
Lamentations, where there is hardly, any
other species of parallelism.

Thus far we have had regard to the
simplest and most perfect parallelisms
of two members, such as are more usu
ally found in the Psalms, Job, etc. But
in the prophets and a few of the psalms,
we lind a less regular, and sometimes
compound parallelism. Thus the paral
lelism is irregular when one member is
shorter than the other ; as Hosea 4:17 :

Ephraim is joined to idols ;

Let him alone.

Of compound parallelisms there are va
rious kinds ; as when the verse has three
members either parallel with each other,
as in Job 3 : 4, or two of them standing
opposed to the third : as for example,

For the ways of the Lord are right,
And the just shall walk in them,
But the transgressors shall fall therein.
Hos. 14 : 9.

Or when the verse has four members,
either compounded of two simple paral
lels, or the first line answering to the
third and the second to the fourth, or
all four nearly parallel to each other;
as for example,

The ox knoweth his owner,
And the ass his master's crib ;
But Israel doth not know,
My people doth not consider.

Isa. 1 : 3.

As the heaven is high above the earth,

So great is his mercy towards them that fear

him;

As far as the east is from the west,
So far hath he removed our transgressions

from us.

Psa. 103:11,12.

They have mouths, but they speak not ;
Eyes have they, but they see not ;
They have ears, but they hear not ;
Neither is there any breath in their mouths.
Psa. 135 : 16, 17.

We may name Psalms 2 and 15 as afford
ing examples of most of the species of
poetic parallelism.

In the common manuscripts and edi-
318

tions of the Hebrew Bible, the members
of the parallelisms in the poetical parts
are not written or printed separately ;
but the accents serve to divide them.
In other editions, however, the mem
bers are printed separately. It is mat
ter of regret that this mode was not
adopted in our English version; since
in many cases the common reader has
now no means of distinguishing whether
what he reads is poetry or prose in He
brew.

The preceding principles refer solely
to the rhythm of Hebrew poetry. Be
sides this, there are other peculiarities ;
as for example, the strophe, as in Psa.
107, and in Psa. 42, 43, where verses 5,
11, and 5, are a burden or refrain, re
peated at the end of each strophe. So
also the alphabetic psalms and poems,
(see LETTERS ;) and the psalms of degrees,
in which the chief words of each verse
are taken up and repeated at the begin
ning of the next verse. See DEGREES.

More than a third of the Old Testa
ment is poetry in Hebrew, including
most of Job, the Psalms, Solomon's
books, and the greater part of the
prophets ; technically, however, in the
usage of the Jews, the three poetic books
of the Old Testament are Job, Psalms,
and Proverbs, which have a system of
accentuation peculiar to themselves.
Poetic fragments are also found here and
there in the historical books, as in Gen.
4 : 23, 24 ; Ex. 32 : 18 ; Num. 21 : 14, 15,
18, 27-30; 23:7, 18; 24:3, 15. In the
New Testament, also, many passages oc
cur in which this Hebrew style seems to
be transferred to the Greek, Matt. 8:20 ;
Luke 1 : 46, 47 ; Rom. 11 : 33-35 ; Rev. 18 ;
19:1-3.

POLL, the head, Num. 2:47. To poll
the head is to cut off the hair, 2 Sam.
14:25. 26; Ezek. 44:20,

POLLUX. See CASTOR,

POME'GRANATE, grained apple, the
Punica Granatum of Linnasus ; called
alsoMalum Granatum, in French pomme
granate, whence its English name. The
tree grows wild in Persia and Syria, as
generally in the south of Europe and
north of Africa. It is low, with a straight
stem, reddish bark, many and spread
ing branches, dark green lancet-formed
leaves, and large and beautiful crimson
blossoms. The fruit is of the size of an
orange, of a tawny brown, with a thick,
astringent coat, containing an abundance

POM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

POT

of seeds, each enveloped in a distinct,
very juicy, pink coat, whose flavor, in a
wild state, is a pure and very strong
acid ; but in the cultivated plant, sweet
and highly agreeable. The ripe pulp
was eaten by itself, or with a sprinkling
of sugar; or its juice was made into a
sherbet. The value of the fruit and the
beauty of the flower made the pome
granate welcome in gardens, Song 4:13 ;
6:7, 11 ; 8:2; Joel 1:12. It was abun
dant in Palestine, Num. 13 : 23 ; Deut.
8:8. Artificial pomegranates were used
as ornaments on the robe of the high-
priest, Ex. 28 : 33, and also as an archi
tectural ornament. 1 Kin. 7:18.

POM'MELS, globular ornaments, af
fixed to the capitals of columns, 2 Chr.
4:12, 13.

PON'TUS, the sea, the north-eastern
province of Asia Minor, bounded north
by the Euxine sea, west by Galatia and
Paphlagonia, south by Cappadocia and
part of Armenia, and east by Colchis. It
was originally governed by kings, and
was in its most flourishing state under
Mithridates the Great, who waged a long
and celebrated war with the Romans,
but was at length subdued by Pompey ;
after which Pontus became a province
of the Roman empire. The geographer
Strabo was born in Amasia, its capital ;
and one of its principal towns, Trapezus,
still flourishes under the name of Trebi-
zond. Many Jews resided there, and
from time to time "went up to Jerusa
lem unto the feast," Acts 2:9. The de
voted Aquila was a native of Pontus,
Acts 18 : 2 ; and the gospel was planted
there at an early period, 1 Pet. 1:1.

POOLS. See CISTERNS.

POOR, Psa. 12 : 5 ; 41 : 1-3, especially
cared for in the Jewish dispensation, Ex.
23 : 6, Prov. 14 : 31, and even more so

under the gospel, Matt. 25 : 42-45 ; Jas.
2:5. The slight offerings required of
them by the law were as acceptable as
the hecatombs of the rich, Lev. 5:7-13 ;
Mark 12 : 41-44. The gleanings of the
fields, the olive-trees, and the vines,
were to be left for them, Lev. 19 : 9 ;
Deut. 24:19; Ruth 2:2. Every seventh
year, the spontaneous products of the
ground were free to all, Lev. 25:7 ; and
in the Jubilee their alienated inheritance
returned to their possession. Compare
also Lev. 25 ; Deut. 24. Neglect and
oppression of the poor were severely
reproved by the prophets, Isa. 10 : 2 ;
Jer. 5 : 28 ; Amos 2:6; but charity to
the poor was an eminent virtue among
primitive Christians, Matt. 6 : 2-4 ; Luke
10 : 33-35 ; 19 : 8 ; Acts 9 : 36-39 ; 10:2 ;
11:29, 30.

POPLAR, Gen. 30 : 37, Hosea 4 : 13,
probably the white poplar, so called
from the whiteness of the under side of
the leaves. It is a beautiful and shady
tree, common in Palestine and its vicin
ity. According to some, however, the
storax-tree is intended.

PORCH. See HOUSE and TEMPLE.

POR'TERS kept the gates of private
houses and of cities, 2 Sam. 18 : 26 ; 2 Kin.
7 : 10 ; Mark 13 : 34 ; John 10 : 3. The
porters of the temple were Levites, at
one period four thousand in number,
divided into courses, 1 Chr. 16:42 ; 23:5.
They stood on guard at every gate, and
were on duty within the temple in their
regular courses, 1 Chr. 26 : 1, 13, 19 ;
2 Chr. 8 : 14 ; 35 : 15. By night also they
cheered the lonely hours with songs of
praise, Psa. 134. We read, in 2 Cor.
23:2-19, of the faithful service they ren
dered in protecting Joash and slaying
Athaliah.

POSSESSED'. See DEVIL.

POSTS, special messengers in the East,
sent on occasions of importance, when
they rode swiftly, and in many cases
with fresh horses or dromedaries await
ing them at convenient distances, Esth.
8: 10, 14. Job says, "My days are swift
er than a post," Job 9 : 25. Foot-run
ners were also employed, 2 Sam. 18:22-
27 ; and experienced runners will tire
down and outrun a horse on long jour
neys. See FOOTMEN.

POT'IPHAR, a high officer of Pha
raoh, who purchased Joseph of the Mid-
ianites, and made him master of his
house, but afterwards imprisoned him
349

POT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PRA

on a false charge. He is supposed by
some to have been the same "captain
of the guard" who promoted Joseph in
prison, Gen. 37:36 ; 39:40.

POTIPHE'RA, belonging to the sun, the
priest of On, city of the sun, whose
daughter Asenath was the wife of Jo
seph, Gen. 41 : 45. The name is found,
in various forms, on ancient Egyptian
monuments.

POTS, Job 41:20, applied in Scripture
to a great variety of domestic vessels, of
earthenware, iron, brass, and gold, used
for cooking and serving food, etc., Judg.
6 : 19 ; 2 Kin. 4 : 40 ; Psa. 58 : 9 ; Eccl.
7:5; Heb. 9:4. In Psa. 68:13-, "though
ye have lain among the pots," the He
brew word means originally cattle-folds ;
and in Psa. 81:6, "his hands were deliv
ered from the pots, ' ' it refers to the bas
kets used by the Hebrews in the hard
service exacted of them in Egypt, Ex.
1:14.

POT'SHERDS, broken pieces of earth
enware, Job 2:8, Isa. 30:14, fit types of
the worthlessness and fragility of man,
Psa. 22 : 15 ; Prov. 26 : 23 ; Isa. 45 : 9.
The ruins of many of the most ancient
cities in the world show little but such
fragments of pottery covering the ground;
it is usually coarse in grain, but well
glazed. Such fragments are used by the
poor in various ways, if not utterly bro
ken into bits, Isa. 30:14. At this day it
is common to find pieces of broken jars
at eastern wells and pools, to drink from,
and to see hot embers and coals carried
in them from one spot to another.

POT'TAGE. See EDOM and FOOD.

POT'TER, a maker of earthenware,
Gen. 24 : 14, 15 ; Judg. 7 : 16, 19 ; Psa.
2:9. Ancient Egyptian paintings repre
sent the potter turning and shaping, on
his small and simple wheel made to re
volve rapidly by the foot, the lump of
clay which he had previously kneaded
with his feet. A pan of water stands
by his side, with which he kept the clay
moist. After the body of the vessel was
worked into shape and beauty, the han
dle was affixed to it, devices traced upon
it, and after drying a little, it was care
fully taken to the oven and baked. The
potter's control over the clay illustrates
the sovereignty of God, who made us of
clay, and forms and disposes of us as he
deems good : "0 house of Israel, cannot
I do with you as this potter ? saith the
Lord. Behold, as the clay is in the pot-
350

ter's hand, so are ye in my hand, saith
the Lord," Jer. 18:1-6. " Shall the thing
formed say to him that formed it, Why
hast thou made me thus? Hath not the
potter power over the clay, of the same
lump to make one vessel unto honor and
another unto dishonor?" Rom. 9:20, 21.

POT'TER' S FIELD. See ACELDAMA.

POUND, a weight, and a sum of mon
ey, put, in the Old Testament, 1 Kings
10 : 17, Ezra 2 : 69, Neh. 7 : 71, for the
Hebrew MANEH, which see ; and in the
New Testament, for the Attic MINA, which
was equivalent to one hundred drachmas,
or about fourteen dollars.

POW'ER. For the use of this word in
1 Cor. 11:10, see VEIL.

PRAYER is the offering of the emo
tions and desires of the soul to God, in
the name and through the mediation of
our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. It
is the communion "of the heart with God
through the aid of the Holy Spirit, and
is to the Christian the very life of the
soul. Without this filial spirit, no one
can be a Christian, Job 21 : 15 ; Psa.
10:4.

In all ages God has delighted in the
prayers of his saints. From the promul
gation of the law, the Hebrews did not
intermit public worship daily in the tab
ernacle or the temple. It consisted in
offering the evening and morning sacri
fices, every day, accompanied with pray
ers by the priests and Levites in that
holy edifice. Every day also the priests
offered sacrifices, incense, offerings, and
first-fruits for individuals ; they per-

PRA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PRE

formed ceremonies for the redemption of
the first-born, or for purification from
pollutions ; in a word, the people came
thither from all parts to discharge their
vows and to perform their devotions, not
only on great and solemn days, but also
on ordinary days: but nothing of this
was performed without prayer, 1 Chr.
23 : 30 ; Neh. 11 : 17 ; Luke 1 : 10. Com
pare also 1 Kin. 8:22, and the Psalms of
David for temple worship.

Pious men were accustomed to pray
thrice in the day, at fixed hours, Psa. 55:7;
Dan. 6:10. See HOURS. Social, family,
and secret prayer were all habitual with
Bible saints ; as well as brief ejacula
tions in the midst of their ordinary busi
ness, Neh. 2 : 4. No uniform posture in
prayer is enjoined in the Bible ; standing
with the hands outspread, 1 Kin. 8 : 22,
bowing the head, Gen. 24 : 26, kneel
ing, Luke 22 : 41, and prostration on the
ground, Matt. 26 : 39, were all practised.
Prayer should be offered with submission
to God's will, fervently, perseveringly,
and with a confiding reliance on God in
Christ ; it should be accompanied by
humble confession and hearty thanks
giving, and with supplications for all
living men, as well as for our friends
and those nearest to us. Habitual pray
er to God is a duty enjoined upon us by
sound reason and by right affections ;
and he who lives without it thereby re
veals the atheism of his heart. God
requires all men thus to worship him,
Ezek. 36:37 ; Matt. 7 : 1-11 ; Phil. 4:6;
1 Tim. 2:1-3 ; Jas. 1:5 ; and for neglect
ing this duty there can be no sufficient
excuse. It is often said that prayer can
not alter the unchangeable purposes of
God ; but the great scheme of his provi
dence embraces every prayer that shall
be offered, as well as the answer it shall
receive. It is objected that prayer can
not increase his knowledge of our wants,
nor his readiness to supply them ; and
that in any case he will do what is for
the best. But he deems it best to grant
many blessings in answer to prayer,
which otherwise he would withhold ;
" He will be very gracious unto thee at
the voice of thy cry ; when he shall hear
it, he will answer thee." The words of
David will be those of every truly pray
ing man : "This poor man cried, and the
Lord heard him, and delivered him out
of all his troubles," Psa. 34:6.

False and formal religion makes a

merit of its prayers, as though "much
speaking ' ' and ' ' vain repetitions ' ' could
atone for heartlessness. Hypocrites also
are wont to pray chiefly that they may
have praise of men. These sins Christ
reproves in Matt. 6 : 5-15, and gives to
his disciples the form of the Lord's pray
er as a beautiful model. In Eph. 6:18 ;

1 Thess. 5 : 17 ; 1 Tim. 2:8, Paul directs
that believers should pray in all places
and at all times, lifting up pure hands
towards heaven, and blessing God for all
things, whether in eating, drinking, or
whatever they do ; and that every thing
be done to the glory of God, 1 Cor.
10:31. In a word, our Saviour has rec
ommended to us to pray without ceas
ing, Luke 18:1; 21:36.

PREACH'ING, the public and oral in
culcation of the truths of religion, espec
ially of the gospel of Christ, Isa. 61 : 1 ;
Acts 8:4 ; 2 Cor. 5:20 ; Eph. 3:8. Pub
lic instruction in religion was no doubt
given in the earliest ages. Enoch proph
esied, Jude 14, 15 ; and Noah was a
preacher of righteousness, 2 Pet. 2 : 5.
Frequent instances of religious addresses
occur in the history of Moses, the judges,
and the prophets ; and these were to
some extent in connection with the Jew
ish ritual, Neh. 8. The psalms sung in
the temple conveyed instruction to the
people. After the captivity, numerous
synagogues were erected, in which the
word of God was read and expounded
from Sabbath to Sabbath. Under the
gospel dispensation, the preaching of
Christ crucified, by those whom he calls
to be his ambassadors, is an established
ordinance of prime importance — God's
chief instrumentality for the conversion
of the world, Mark 16:15 ; 1 Cor. 1:21 ;

2 Tim. 2:2; 4:2.
PREPARATION. The day on which

our Saviour was crucified was called the
"day of preparation," or "the prepara
tion of the Passover," as preceding the
Passover Sabbath, which commenced at
sunset, Matt. 27:62; John 19:31.

PRETO'RIUM, a name given in the
gospels to the house in which dwelt the
Roman governor of Jerusalem, Mark
15 : 16. Here he sat in his judicial ca
pacity, and here Jesus was brought be
fore him. See GABBATIIA. This was
the palace built by Herod at Jerusalem,
near the tower of Antonia, with which it
had communication. It was a magnifi
cent building, and inclosed a spacious
351

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PRI

court, Matt. 27:27; Mark 15:16; John
18:28, 33. Here the Roman procurators
resided whenever they visited Jerusa
lem, their head-quarters being at C;«sa-
rea, Acts 23 : 23 ; 25 : 1. The pretorium
or palace of Herod (English translation,
"judgment-hall") at Coesarea is also
mentioned in Acts 23 : 35. Paul speaks
also of the pretorium (English transla
tion, "palace") at Rome, in which he
gave testimony to Christ, Phil. 1 : 13.
Some think that by this he means the
palace of the emperor Nero ; and oth
ers, that he intends the place where the
Roman Pra;tor sat to administer justice,
that is, his tribunal. Others have main
tained, with greater probability, that
under the name of the pretorium at
Rome, Paul would express the camp of
the pretorian soldiers, whither he might
have been carried by the soldier that
always accompanied him, and who was
fastened to him by a chain, as the man
ner was among the Romans.

PRESS, not only the vat in which the
juice was trodden out from the grapes,
but in some cases the whole place for the
reception of wine, grapes, and orchard-
fruit. It was often a room excavated
in the ground ; thus the husbandman
"digged a wine-press" in his vineyard,
Matt. 21:33. See also Prov. 3:10 ; Joel
3:13 ; Hag. 2:16. See WINE.

PREVENT', in the Bible means, not
to hinder, but to precede, Psa. 59 : 10 ;

1 Thess. 4 : 15 ; to anticipate, Psalm
119:147, 148; Matt. 17:25; or to seize,

2 Sam. 22:6; Job 30:27.

PRICKS, the points with which ox-
goads were armed, by kicking against
which a refractory bullock only hurt it-
352

self the more. Hence a proverb, found
in Greek and Latin as well as in He
brew, applied to those who resist lawful
authority, or the power of God, Acts
9:5; 26 : 14. Compare Job 15 : 25, 26.
See Ox.

PRIEST, one who officiated in the pub
lic worship of God, especially in making
expiation for sin, being "ordained for
men in things pertaining to God, to offer
both gifts and sacrifices for sins." In
the Old Testament, the priesthood was
not annexed to a certain family till after
the promulgation of the law by Moses.
Before that time, the iirst-born of each
family, the fathers, the princes, the
kings, were priests in their own cities
and in their own houses. Cain and
Abel, Noah, Abraham, and Job, Abime-
lech and Laban, Isaac and Jacob, offered
personally their own sacrifices. In the
solemnity of the covenant made by the
Lord with his people, at the foot of
mount Sinai, Moses performed the office
of mediator, and young men were chosen
from among Israel to perform the office
of priests, Ex. 24 : 5. But after the Lord
had chosen the tribe of Levi to serve him
in his tabernacle, and the priesthood was
annexed to the family of Aaron, the right
of offering sacrifices and oblations to God
was reserved to the priests of this family,
Num. 16:40. The punishment of Uzziah
king of Judah is well known, who having
presumed to offer incense to the Lord,
was suddenly smitten with a leprosy,
2 Chr. 26 : 19. See also the case of -Saul,
1 Sam. 13:7-14. However, it seems that
on certain occasions the Hebrew proph
ets offered sacrifice to the Lord, especial
ly before a constant place of worship was
fixed at Jerusalem. See 1 Sam. 7 : 9,
where Samuel, who was not a priest,
offered a lamb for a burnt-sacrifice to
the Lord. See also 1 Sam. 9:13 ; 16:5 ;
1 Kin. 18:31, 33.

The Lord having reserved to himself
the first-born of Israel because he had;
preserved them from the hand of the
destroying angel in Egypt, by way of
exchange and compensation, he accepted
the tribe of Levi for the service of his
tabernacle, Num. 3:41. Thus the whole
tribe of Levi was appointed to the sacred
ministry, but not all in the same man
ner ; for of the three sons of Levi, Ger-
shom, Kohath, and.Merari, the heads of
the three great families, the Lord chose
the family of Kohath, and out of this,

PRI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PRI

family the house of Aaron, to exercise
the functions of the priesthood. All the
rest of the family of Kohath, even the
children of Moses and their descendants,
remained among the Levites.

The high-priest was at the head of all
religious affairs, and was the ordinary
judge of all difficulties that belonged
thereto, and even of the general justice
and judgment of the Jewish nation, as
being at the head of all the priests by
whom this was administered, Deut.
17:8-12; 19:17; 21:5; 33:8, 10; Ezek.
44 : 24. He only had the privilege of
entering the sanctuary once a year, on
the day of solemn expiation, to make
atonement for the sins of the whole peo
ple, Lev. 16 : 2, etc. He was to be born
of one of his own tribe, whom his father
had married a virgin ; and was to be ex
empt from corporal defect, Lev. 21 : 13.
In general, no priest who had any such
defect could offer sacrifice, or enter the
holy place to present the show-bread.
But he was to be maintained by the sac
rifices offered at the tabernacle,' Lev.
21 : 17-22. The high-priest also received
a tithe from the Levites, Num. 18:28.

God also appropriated to the high-
priest the oracle of his truth : so that
when he was habited in the proper orna
ments of his dignity, and with the urim
and thummim, he answered questions
proposed to him, and God disclosed to
him secret and future things. He was
forbidden to mourn for the death of any
of his relations, even for his father or
mother ; or to enter into any place where
a dead body lay, that he might not con
tract or hazard the contraction of un-
cleanness, Lev. 21 : 10-12.

The priests served immediately at the
altar. They slew and dressed the public
sacrifices, or at least it was done by the
Levites under their direction. Private
offerers slew their own victims, except
in the case of turtle-doves or young pig
eons. But all offerings upon the altar,
the sprinkling of blood included, were
made by the priests alone. They kept
up a perpetual lire on the altar of burnt
sacrifices, and in the lamps of the golden
candlestick in the sanctuary ; they knead
ed the loaves of show-bread, baked them,
offered them on the golden altar in the
sanctuary, and changed them every Sab
bath-day. Compare Ex. 28:29; Lev. 8.
Every day, night and morning, a priest,
appointed by casting of lots at the begin

ning of the week, brought into the sano,
tuary a smoking censer of incense, and
set it on the golden table, otherwise
called the altar of incense, Luke 1 : 9.

The sacred dress of the priests consist
ed of the following articles : short linen
drawers ; a close-fitting tunic of fine lin
en or cotton, of woven work, broidered,
reaching to the feet, and furnished with
sleeves ; a girdle of fine linen. Plain
linen ephods are also ascribed to them,
1 Sam. 22 : 18 ; and a bonnet or turban,
also of fine linen, in many folds. The
priests always officiated with uncovered
feet. The high-priest wore nearly the
same dress with the priests, and four ar
ticles in addition : an outer tunic, called
the robe of the ephod, woven entire,
blue, with an ornamented border around
the neck, and a fringe at the bottom
made up of pomegranates and golden
bells : an ephod of blue, and purple,
and scarlet, and fine linen, with golden
threads interwoven, covering the body
from the neck to the thighs ; having
shoulder- pieces joined on the shoulders
by clasps of gold in which were set onyx-
stones graven with the names of the
twelve tribes of Israel ; and also a girdle
of fine linen, woven with blue, purple,
scarlet, and gold, passed several times
round the body : a breastplate, attached
at its four corners to the ephod, and like
wise bearing the names of the twelve
tribes on twelve precious stones ; and the
mitre, a high and ornamented turban
353

PRI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PRO

having on the front a gold plate with the
inscription, "HOLINESS TO THE LORD."
Neither he nor the priests wore their
sacred dresses out of the temple, as we
infer from Ezek. 42:14; 44:17-19; Acts
23:5.

The Lord had given no lands of inher
itance to the tribe of Levi, in the Land
of Promise. He intended that they
should be supported by the tithes, the
first-fruits, the offerings made in the
temple, and by their share of the sin-
offerings and thanksgiving-offerings sac
rificed in the temple ; of which certain
parts were appropriated to them. In the
peace-offerings, they had the shoulder
and the breast, Lev. 7 : 33, 34 ; in the
sin-offering, they burnt on the altar the
fat that covers the bowels, the liver, and
the kidneys ; the rest belonged to them
selves, Lev. 7:6, 10. The skin or fleece
of every sacrifice also belonged to them.
When an Israelite sacrificed any animal
for his own use, he was to give the priest
the shoulder, the stomach, and the jaws,
Deut. 18:3. The priest had also a share
of the wool when sheep were shorn,
Deut. 18 : 4. Thus, though the priests
had no lands or inheritances, their tem
poral wants were supplied. God provid
ed them houses and accommodations, by
appointing forty-eight cities for their res
idence, Nam. 35 : 1-7. In the precincts
of these cities they possessed a thousand
cubits beyond the walls. Of these forty-
eight cities, six were appointed as cities
of refuge for those who had committed
casual and involuntary manslaughter.
The priests had thirteen of these cities ;
the others belonged to the Levites, Josh.
21:10.

A principal employment of the priests,
next to attending on the sacrifices and
the temple service, was the instruction
of the people and the deciding of contro
versies ; distinguishing the several sorts
of leprosy, divorce causes, the waters of
jealousy, vows, causes relating to the
law and uncleannesses, etc. They pub
licly blessed the people in the name of
the Lord. In time of war their duty
was to carry the ark of the covenant, to
consult the Lord, to sound the holy
trumpets, and to encourage the army,
Num. 10:8, 9; Deut. 20:2.

The priesthood of Christ is the sub
stance and truth, of which that of the
Jews was but a shadow and figure.
Christ, the everlasting priest according
354

to the order of Melchizedek, abides for
ever, as Paul observes; whereas the
priests according to the order of Aaron
were mortal, and therefore could not
continue long, Heb. 7. The Lord, to
express to the Hebrews what great favors
he would confer on them, says he would
make them kings and priests, Ex. 19:0;
and Peter repeats this promise to Chris
tians, or rather, he tells them that they
are in truth what Moses promised to
Israel, 1 Pet. 2:5, 9. See also Rev. 1:6.
In an important sense every Christian
offers himself a spiritual sacrifice, "ac
ceptable to God through Jesus Christ;"
but in the Christian church, there is no
priest to make expiation for sin by a sac
rifice but Christ alone, Heb. 9:11-26.

PRIS'CA, or PRISCIL'LA, the wife of
Aquila. See AQUILA.

PROCH'ORUS, one of the seven origi
nal deacons, Acts 6: 5, of whom nothing
more is known.

PROGNOSTICATORS, Isaiah 47 : 13,
Chaldeans, who pretended to foretell
future events by the varying aspects of
the moon, or month by month.

PROM'ISE, used by Paul to denote the
spiritual gifts of God, chiefly the Mes
siah, the Holy Spirit, and the fulness of
gospel blessings, of which an assurance
was given to Abraham and other saints
in behalf of themselves, and of believers
who should come after them, Romans
4 : 13, 14 ; Gal. 3 : 14-29. The ' ' children
of the promise" are either Isaac's pos
terity, as distinguished from Ishmael's;
Jews converted to Christianity ; or all
true believers, who by faith lay hold on
the promise of salvation in Christ. In
Heb. 11:39, "promise" means the thing
promised, Acts 1:4. The "exceeding
great and precious promises" of God,
include all good things for this life and
the future ; which are infallibly secured
to his people in Christ, 2 Cor. 1 : 20 ;
1 Tim. 4:8 ; 2 Pet. 1:4. On the ground
of the infinite merits of their Redeemer,
infinite love, unbounded wisdom, and
almighty power are pledged for their
benefit ; and having given them his only
Son, God will with him freely give them
every inferior blessing he sees to be de
sirable for them, Rom. 8:32.

PROPHECY, the foretelling of future
events, by inspiration from God. It is
very different from a sagacious and hap
py conjecture as to futurity, and from a
vague and equivocal oracle, without any

PRO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PRO

certain meaning. A true prophecy can
come only from God ; and is the highest
proof of the divine origin of the message
of which it is a part. A true prophecy
may be known by these marks: being
announced at a suitable time before the i
event it foretells ; having a particular '
and exact agreement with that event;
being such as no human sagacity or fore
sight could produce ; and being deliver
ed by one claiming to be under the in
spiration of the Almighty. Many of the
prophecies of Scripture foretold events |
ages before they occurred — events of
which there was then no apparent prob
ability, and the occurrence of which de
pended on innumerable contingencies,
involving the history of things and the
volitions of persons not then in exist
ence ; and yet these predictions were ful
filled at the time and place and in the
manner prophesied. Such were the pre
dictions respecting the coming and cru
cifixion of the Messiah, the dispersion
and preservation of the Jews, etc. The
Scripture prophecies are a scheme of vast
extent, the very earliest predictions
reaching down to the end of the world's
history — a scheme gradually and harmo
niously developed from age to age, and
by many different persons, some of them
not fully apprehending, and " searching
diligently what the Spirit of Christ
which was in them did signify," 1 Pet.
1:11, the whole manifestly the work of
Jehovah, and marvellous in our eyes.
A degree of obscurity rests on the pro
phetic writings, which patient and pray
erful study alone can dispel ; while those
which are yet unfulfilled must await the
coming of the events which will make \
all at length clear. Many predictions
relating primarily to events and deliver- •
ances near at hand, were also designed
of God as sure prophecies of yet more
illustrious events hi the future. For ex
ample, the general subject of the predic
tions in -Matt. 24 is the coming of Christ, to
judge big foe* and deliver his friends.
In penning a sketch of this subject, Mat
thew imitates a painter depicting from
an eminence the landscape before him :
the tower of the village church in the
near foreground, and the mountain peak
in the dim and remote horizon, rise side
by side on his canvas. 80 in painting
the coming of Christ, Matthew sketches
first some features of his coming in the
destruction of Jerusalem to occur within

forty years, and in the next verse some
distinctive features of his second coming
at the end of the world ; yet both belong
to the same general view. Respecting
the New Testament phrase, ''This was
done that it might be fulfilled," etc.,
see FULFILLED. For other meaning* of
"prophecy," see PROPHETS.

PROPH'ETS, a class of men of God,
especially in the Old Testament dispen
sation, inspired to foretell future and se
cret events ; and who also revealed the
will of God as to current events and du
ties, and were his ambassadors to men.
But the word is sometimes used in a
wider sense: thus Aaron was Moses'
prophet, Ex. 7:1, appointed to deliver to
the people the messages that Moses re
ceived from God ; the sacred musicians
are said to prophecy, 1 Chr. 25 : 1 ; and
Paul gives the name, according to the
custom of the Greeks, to the poet Ara-
tus, "a prophet of their own," Tit. 1:12.
Scripture does not withhold the name of
prophet from impostors, although they
falsely boasted of inspiration. As true
prophets, when filled by the energy of
God's Spirit, were sometimes fervidly
and vehemently agitated, similar mo
tions were called prophesying when ex
hibited by persons who were filled with
an evil spirit. Saul, being moved by an
evil spirit, "prophesied in his house,"
1 Sam. 18 : 10. In the New Testament,
the "prophets" were a class of men
supernaturally endowed, and standing
next to the apostles. They seem to
have spoken from immediate inspiration,
whether in reference to future events or
to the mind of the Spirit generally, as
in expounding the oracles of God. See
1 Cor. 11 : 4, 5 ; 14 : 1, 30, etc. Thus it
is said in Acts 13:1, that Judas and Silas
were prophets; that there were in the
church at Antiocb certain prophets and
teachers, that is, official instructors. God
has set in the church, first apostles, then
prophets, 1 Cor. 12 : 28. See also Eph.
2:20; Rev. 18:20; Acts 21:9.

The Old Testament prophets were spe
cial agents of Jehovah, raised up and
sent as occasion required, to incite to
duty, to convict of sin, to call to repent
ance and reformation, to instruct kings,
and denounce against nations the judg
ments of God, 2 Kin. 17 : 13 ; Jer. 26:1.
They aided the priests and Levites in
teaching religion to the people, especial
ly in the kingdom of Israel, from which
355

PRO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PRO

the true priests of the Lord withdrew,
2 Kin. 4 : 23 ; and cooperated with the
kings in public . measures to promote
piety and virtue. They were humble,
faithful, self-denying, fearless men,
2 Kin. 1:8; Zech. 13 : 4 ; Matt. 3:4;
aloof from the pleasures and luxuries of
life, 2 Kin. 5 : 15 ; often persecuted, and
slain, Matt. 23 : 34-37 ; Heb. 11 : 32-38 ;
James 2 : 10 ; but exerting a powerful
influence as witnesses for God. Some of
them were called from the plough and
the herd, 1 Kin. 19 : 20 ; Amos 7 : 14 ;
Zech. 13:5. There were also "schools
of the prophets," first mentioned in the
time of Samuel, established at Gibeah,
Naioth, Bethel, Gilgal, and Jericho,
where young men were instructed in re
ligion and prepared to guide in religious
worship, 1 Sarn. 10 : 5 ; 19 : 20 ; 2 Kin.
2:3, 5 ; 4 : 38. Many of the ' ' sons of the
prophets" here taught became not only
religious teachers, but inspired prophets.
Amos speaks of his own case as an ex
ception, Amos 7 : 14, 15. There are sev
eral prophetesses mentioned in Scripture ;
as Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah ; and
in the New Testament, Anna, Elisabeth,
and Mary, and the four daughters of
Philip seem to have partaken for a time
of prophetic inspiration.

The prophets received their messages
from God, sometimes in visions, trances,
and dreams. Compare Num. 24 : 2-16 ;
Joel 2 : 28 ; Acts 10 : 11, 12 ; Eev. 1 : 10-
20. These revelations were at times
attended with overpowering manifesta
tions of the Godhead ; and at other times
were simply breathed into the mind by
the Spirit of God. Their messages were
delivered to the kings, princes, and
priests whom they most concerned, or to
the people at large, in writing, or by
word of mouth and in public places ;
often with miracles, or Avith symbolic
actions designed to explain and enforce
them, Isa. 20 ; Jer. 7:2 ; 19 ; Ezek. 3:10.

The Old Testament contains the in
spired writings of sixteen of the Hebrew
prophets ; four of whom, Isaiah, Jeremi
ah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, are called the
greater prophets, and the other twelve
the minor prophets. Respecting the true
chronological order of the prophets, there
is in some cases great diversity of opin
ion. Below is given the arrangement
preferred by some ; while others, so far
as the minor prophets are concerned, ad
here to that given in the Hebrew Bible
358

and our common version. See each name
in its place, for further particulars.

I. JONAH, during the reign oi Jeroboam II.,
king oi Israel, which commenced 8L5 B. c. ; or
perhaps as early as Joash, the predecessor oi
Jeroboam.

'2. JOEL, under Uzziah king ot Judah, nearly
800 B. c., before Amos and Hosea came upon
the stage.

3. AMOS, under Uzziah king of Judah, and
during the latter years ol Jeroboam 11., king
of Israel. About 787 B. c.

4. HOSEA, under Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and under Jerobo
am II. and his successors, kings oi Israel.
From about 785 to 725 B. c.

5. ISAIAH, near the death oi Uzziah king of
Judah, and the beginning oi the reign of Jo
tham, B. c. 758, to the reign oOlanasseh. B. c.
697.

6. MICAH, under Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze
kiah, kings of Judah. Jotham began to reign
B. c. 758, and Hezekiah died B. c. 697. Ihus
Micah was contemporary with Isaiah.

7. NAHIM, in the latter part oi the reign ol
Hezekiah, and after the expedition of fcen-
nacherib. Between 710 and 700 B. c.

8. ZEPHANIAH, soon after the beginning of
the reign of Josiah, and before the destruc
tion of Nineveh. About B. c. 630.

9. JEREMIAH, in the thirteenth year of Josiah
king of Judah, B. c. 628. Jeremiah continued
to prophesy under Shallum, Jehoiakim, Jec-
oniah, and Zedekiah, to the taking of Jeru
salem by the Chaldeans, B. c. 588. It is sup
posed he died two years afterwards, in Egypt.

10. HABAKKUK, in Judah, near the beginning
of the reign of Jehoiakim, duout 610 B. c., and
before the coming oi Nebuchadnezzar.

II. OBADIAH, near the iall and captivity of
Jerusalem, B. c, 588, and before the desolation
of Idumaea.

12. EZEKIEL, carried captive to Eabylon with
Jeconiah king oi Judah, 598 B. c. He began
to prophesy about B. c. 5PO ; and continued,
under Nebuchadnezzar, till iourteen years
after the final capture of Jerusalem «. c. 588.

13. DAMKI,, taken into Chaldea while young,
B. c. 606, the lourth year ol Jehoiakim king
of Judah. He prophesied in Eabylon to the
end oi the captivity, and probably finished
about 534 B. c.

14. HAGGAI, returned from the captivity B. c.
53R, and prophesied in the second year oi Da-
rius son of Hysiaspes, B. c. 520.

15. ZECHARIAH, prophesied in Judea at the
same time as Haggai, B. c. 520, and seems to
have continued after him.

16. MALACHI, supposed to have prophesied
about 416 B. c. , in the latter part of the admin
istration of Nehemiah at Jerusalem.

Christ, of whom all the prophets bore
witness, Luke 24 : 27. 44 ; Acts 10 : 43 ;
1 Pet. 1:10, 11, is eminently THE PRom-
KT of his church in all ages, Dent. 18: 15-
19 ; Acts 3 : 22-24 ; revealing to them,
by his inspired servants, by himself, and
by his Spirit, all we know of God and
immortality.

PROPITIATION, the offering which
appeases the wrath of one against whom

PRO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PSA

an offence has been committed. Christ
is "the propitiation for our sins," Horn.
3 : 25, inasmuch as his sacrifice alone re
moves the obstacles which prevented the
mercy of God from saving sinners, and
appeases the just wrath of the law,
1 John 2:2; 4 : 10. The same Greek
word is used in the Septuagint to denote
an "atonement," Num. 5:8; a "sin-
offering," Ezek. 44:27 ; and the covering
of the ark of the covenant, Lev. 16 : 14 ;
Heb. 9:5. See MERCY-SEAT.

PROS'ELYTE, in the Jewish sense, a
foreigner who adopted the Jewish relig
ion, a convert from heathenism to Juda
ism. The laws of the Hebrews make
frequent mention of "the stranger that
is within thy gates," Lev. 17:8-16;
24 : 16 ; Num. 15 : 14-16, and welcomed
him to all the privileges of the people of
God. Our Saviour rebukes the blind
zeal of the Pharisees to make proselytes
to ceremonial Judaism, without caring
for the circumcision of the heart, Matt.
23 : 15 ; Horn. 2 : 28, 29. According to
the later rabbins, there were two species
of proselytes among the Jews. The first
were called "proselytes of the gate,"
and were foreigners, either bond or free,
who lived among the Jews and conform
ed to their customs in regard to what
the rabbins call "the seven precepts of
Noah ;" that is, they abstained from in
jurious language in respect to God, from
idolatry, homicide, incest, robbery, re
sistance to magistrates, and from eating
blood, or the flesh of animals killed
without shedding their blood. The other
class were called "proselytes of justice ;"
that is, complete, perfect proselytes, and
were those who had abandoned their for
mer religion, and bound themselves to
the observance of the Mosaic law in its
full extent. These, according to the rab
bins, by means of circumcision, baptism,
and an offering, obtained all the rites of
Jewish citizenship, Ex. 12:48, 49. This
distinction, however, is not observable
in the Bible. Proselytes were numerous
in our Saviour's day, and were found in
many places remote from Jerusalem,
Acts 2 : 10 ; 8 : 27. Many converts to
Christianity were gathered from among
them, John 12 : 20; Acts 6:5; 13 : 43\
17:4.

PROV'ERBS, THE BOOK OF, a collection
of pointed and sententious moral max
ims, the fruit of Solomon's profound sa
gacity and unexampled experience, but

above all, of the inspiration of God. Sol
omon is said to have uttered three thou
sand proverbs, 1 Kin. 4 : 32, B. c. 1000.
The first nine chapters of Proverbs are
written in an admirable poetic style, and
are more continuous than the succeed
ing chapters, 10-22, which consist of
separate maxims. Chapters 25-29 are
proverbs of Solomon collected under the
direction of king Hezekiah. Chapter 30
is ascribed to Agur, and affords exam
ples of the enigmatic proverbs so popu
lar in the East. Chapter 31, by "king
Lemuel," is mainly a beautiful picture of
female excellence. By whose care this
book was compiled in Its present form,
is unknown ; there is no book of the Old
Testament, however, whose canonical
authority is better attested. The New
Testament contains frequent quotations
and allusions to it!} Rom. 12:20 ; 1 Thess.
5 : 15 ; Heb. 12 : 5, 6 ; Jas. 4:6; 1 Pet.
4 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 22. Its ' ' winged words ' '
are a rich storehouse of heavenly wis
dom, and few questions can arise in ac
tual life on which they do not shed light.

PROV'IDENCE, Acts 24 : 2, a superin
tending and forecasting care. The prov
idence of God upholds and governs every
created thing. Its operation is coex
tensive with the universe, and as un
ceasing as the flow of time. All his
attributes are engaged in it. He pro-
videth for the raven his food, and satis-
fieth the desire of every living thing.
The Bible shows us o!l nature looking
up to him and depending upon him, Job
38:41; Psa. 104; 145:15, 16; 147:8, 9;
and uniformly declares that every occur
rence, as well as every being, is perfectly
controlled by him. There is no such
thing as chance in the universe ; ' ' the
lot is cast into the lap, but the whole
disposing thereof is of the Lord," Prov.
16:23. Not a sparrow, nor a hair of the
head, falls to the ground without his
knowledge, Isa. 14:26, 27 ; Matt. 10:29,
30 ; Acts 17 : 24-29. Nothing that was
not too minute for God to create, is too
minute for him to preserve and control.
The history of each man, the rise and
fall of nations, and the progress of the
church of Christ, reveal at every step the
hand of Him who "worketh all things
after the counsel of his own will."

PSALMS, THE BOOK or. The Hebrew
name for this book is TEHILLIM, praises,
though many of the psalms are rather
elegiac. Most of the psalms have the su-
357

PSA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PSA

perscription mizmbr, a poem, song. This
word is rendered in the Septuagint by
psalmos, that is, a song sung to music, a
lyric poem. The Greek psalterion means
a stringed instrument ; hence by a met
aphor the book of Psalms is called Psal
ter. For the poetical characteristics of
the Psalms, see POETRY.

CLASSIFICATION. — Some writers have
classified the psalms according to their
poetic character, into odes, elegies, etc.
A preferable method is to divide them
according to their contents. In this way
they have been divided into six classes.

I. Hymns in praise of Jehovah ; tehil-
lim in the proper sense. These are di
rected to Jehovah as the God of all na
ture and the Creator of the universe,
Psa. 8, 104 ; as the protector and patron
of Israel, Psa. 20, 29, 33, or of individ
uals, with thanksgiving for deliverance
from evils, Psa. 18, 30, 46, 47 ; or they
refer to the more special attributes of
Jehovah, Psa. 90, 139. These psalms
express thoughts of the highest sublim
ity in respect to God, providence, re
demption, etc.

II. Temple hymns ; sung at the con
secration of the temple, the entrance of
the ark, etc., or intended for the temple
service, Psa. 24, 132. So also "pilgrim
songs, ".sung by those who came up to
worship in the temple, etc. ; as for ex
ample, the "songs of degrees," Psa. 120,
etc. See DEGREES.

III. Religious and moral songs of a
general character ; containing the poet
ical expression of emotions and feelings,
and therefore subjective: as for example,
confidence in God, Psa. 23, 62, 125 ; de-
votedness to God, Psa. 16 ; longing for
the worship of the temple, Psa. 42, 43 ;
prayers for the forgiveness of sin, etc.
To this class belong the seven peniten
tial psalms, as they are termed, Psa. 6,
25, 32, 35, 38, 51, 130. Also didactic
songs ; the poetical expression of some
truth, maxim, etc., Psa. 1, 34, 128 ; Psa.
15, 32, 50, etc. This is a numerous
class.

IV. Elegiac psalms, that is, lamenta
tions, psalms of complaint, generally
united with prayer for help.

V. Messianic psalms, as 2, 22, 45, 69,
72, 110, etc.

VI. Historical psalms, in which the
ancient history of the Israelites is re
peated in a hortatory manner, Psa. 78,
105, 106, 114.

358

But it is impossible to form any per
fect arrangement, because some psalms
belong in part to two or more different
classes. Besides the proper Messianic
psalms, predictions of the Messiah are
widely scattered through this book, and
the attention of the devout reader is
continually attracted by passages fore
telling His character and His works.
Not a few of these are alluded to in the
New Testament ; and it is unquestion
able that the language and structure of
many others not quoted were intended
to bear witness to the Son of God. Da
vid himself was an eminent type of the
Saviour, and many events of his life
shadowed forth his Son and Lord. The
mention of these in the inspired writings
is not undesigned ; the recorded trials
and victories of David find in their refer
ence to the Messiah their highest claim
to a place in the sacred writings. Lord
Bacon has remarked that many prophetic
passages in the Old Testament are "of
the nature of their Author, to whom a
thousand years are as one day ; and
therefore they are not fulfilled punctu
ally at once, but have springing and ger-
minant accomplishment through many
ages, though the height or fulness of
them may refer to some one age."

INSCRIPTIONS. — With the exception of
twenty-five psalms, hence called orphan
psalms, all the rest have inscriptions of
various kinds. They refer to the author,
the occasion, different kinds of song, the
melody or rhythm, the instrumental ac
companiment, the choir who shall per
form, etc. These are mostly very ob
scure, because the music and musical
instruments of the Hebrews are almost
unknown to us. They are of very high
antiquity, if not as old as the psalms
themselves ; and in the Hebrew are not
detached from the psalms, as in modern
translations. They appear with numer
ous variations in the ancient Greek and
Syriac versions. Many words in these in
scriptions remain untranslated, and can
only be conjecturally interpreted. See
HIGGAION, MASCHIL, etc.

AUTHORS AND AGE OF THE PSALMS. — •
To David are assigned seventy - three
psalms in the Hebrew, and in the Sep
tuagint eleven more. Psalm 90 is as-
.cribed to Moses. As to the authorship
of the other psalms, much diversity of
opinion has prevailed among biblical
critics.

PSA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PUB

The whole collection of the Psalms ap
pears to have first existed in five books,
after the example, perhaps, of the Penta
teuch. Each book closes with a doxology .

Book I. comprises psalms 1-41.
« II. « « 42-72.

" III. " " 73-89.

"IV. « " 90-106.

" V. " " 107-150.

One psalm occurs twice, Psa. 14 ; com
pare Psa. 63. Some occur as parts of
other psalms ; as for example, Psa. 70
forms also a part of Psa. 40. So also
some psalms are repeated from other
books of Scripture ; thus Psa. 18 is the
same with 2 Sam. 22. The final arrange
ment of the whole is generally referred
to Ezra, 450 B. c.

These invaluable sacred songs exhibit
the sublimest conceptions of God, as the
creator, preserver, and governor of the
universe ; to say nothing of the pro
phetical character of many of them, and
their relation to the Messiah and the
great plan of man's redemption. They
present us with the most perfect models
of child-like resignation and devoted-
ness, of unwavering faith and confidence
in God. They are an inspired epitome
of the Bible, for purposes of devotion ;
and are peculiarly dear to the people of
God, as expressing every phase of re
ligious experience. Luther, in his pre
face to the Psalter, has the following
beautiful language : ' ' Where canst thou
find nobler words of joy, than in the
psalms of praise and thanksgiving?
There thou mayest look into the hearts
of all good men, as into beautiful and
pleasant gardens, yea, as into heaven
itself. How do grateful and fine and
charming blossoms spring up there, from
every kind of pleasing and rejoicing
thoughts towards God and his goodness !
Again, where canst thou find more deep
or mournful words of sorrow, than in the
psalms of lamentation and woe ? There
thou mayest look again into the hearts
of all good men, as upon death, yea, as
if into hell. How dark and gloomy is it
there, from anxious and troubled views
of the wrath of God ! I hold, however,
that no better or finer book of models,
or legends of saints and martyrs, has
existed, or can exist on earth, than the
Psalter. For we find here, not alone
what one or two saints have done, but
what the Head of all saints has done,
and what all holy men still do ; in what

attitude they stand towards God and
towards their friends and enemies ; and
how they conduct themselves in all dan
gers and sufferings. And besides this,
all sorts of divine doctrines and precepts
are contained in it. Hence it is that the
Psalter is THE BOOK of all good men ; and
every one, whatever his circumstances
may be, finds in it psalms and words
suited to his circumstances, and which
are to him just as if they had been put
there on his very account, and in such a
way that he himself could not have made
or found or wished for better."

In Luke 24 : 44, the word "psalms"
denotes one of the three divisions of the
Hebrew Bible, the Hagiographa or devo
tional writings. See BIBLE. With re
gard to alphabetical psalms and psalms
of degrees, see DEGREES, and LETTERS.
PSAL'TERY. See HARP, and Music.
PTOLEMA'IS. See ACCHO.
PUB'LICAN, an officer of the revenue,
employed in collecting taxes. Among
the Romans there were two sorts of tax-
gatherers : some were general receivers,
who in each province had deputies ; they
collected the revenues of the empire,
and accounted to the emperor. These
were men of great consideration in the
government ; and Cicero says that among
these were the flower of the Roman
knights, the ornaments of the city, and
the strength of the commonwealth. But
the deputies, the under-collectors, the
publicans of the lower order, were look
ed upon as so many thieves and pick
pockets. Theocritus being asked which
was the most cruel of all beasts, answer
ed, "Among the beasts of the wilder
ness, the bear and the lion ; among the
beasts of the city, the publican and the
parasite." Among the Jews, the name
and profession of a publican were espe
cially odious. They could not, without
the utmost reluctance, see publicans ex
acting tributes and impositions laid on
them by foreigners, the Romans. The
Galileans, or Herodians, especially, sub
mitted to this with the greatest impa
tience, and thought it even unlawful,
Deut. 17 : 15. Those of their own nation
who undertook this office they looked
upon as heathen, Matt. 18 : 17. It is
even said that they would not allow
them to enter the temple or the syna
gogues, to engage in the public pray
ers or offices of judicature, or to give
testimony in a court of justice.
359

PUB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

PUR

There were many publicans in Judea
in the time of our Saviour ; Zaccheus,
probably, was one of the principal receiv
ers, since he is called " chief among the
publicans," Luke 19:2; but Matthew
was only an inferior publican, Luke
5 : 27. The Jews reproached Jesus with
being a "friend of publicans and sin
ners, and eating with them," Luke 7 : 34 ;
but he, knowing the self-righteousness,
unbelief, and hypocrisy of his accusers,
replied, "The publicans and harlots go
into the kingdom of G-od before you,"
Matt. 21 : 31. Compare also the beauti
ful demeanor of the penitent publican in
the temple, and the self -justify ing spirit
of the Pharisee, Luke 18:10-14.

PUB'LIUS, the prefect of Melita when
Paul was shipwrecked on that island

A. D. 60, Acts 28:7-9. Publius received
the apostle and his company into his
house, and entertained them with great
humanity. The governor's father, dan
gerously sick, and many others ill of
various diseases, were miraculously heal
ed ; and their hospitable care of Paul
and his friends continued through the
three wintry months of their stay, and
furnished them abundant supplies on
their departure.

PUL, I., an Assyrian king, about 765

B. c. , when Assyria is first mentioned in
Scripture after the time of Nimrod. He
invaded Israel during the reign of Mena-
hem, but was induced to retire by a
present of a thousand talents of silver,
equivalent to at least a million and a half
of dollars, 2 Kin. 15 : 19, 20 ; 1 Chr.
6:26.

II. Isa. 66 : 19, a region remote from
Judea, associated with Lud, and sup
posed by Bochart to be traceable in the
island Philae in the Nile, near the con
fines of Egypt and Ethiopia.

PULSE, a general name for peas,
beans, and all large or leguminous seeds.

PUN'ISHMENTS. The penalties in
flicted in ancient times for various crimes
and offences, varied in different nations,
and at different times. Capital punish
ment for murder is generally agreed to
have been permanently instituted at the
origin of the human race ; and Cain was
only saved from it by a special interposi
tion of God, Gen. 4 : 14, 15. It was re-
enacted, with reasons, after the deluge,
Gen. 9:5, 6, and in the wilderness, Num.
35 : 9-34 ; and was early and widely recog
nized among mankind.
3CO

The mode of capital punishment usual
among the Hebrews was stoning, Deut.
13:9, 10; 17:5 ; Josh. 17:25 ; John 8:7;
but various other modes became known
to them by intercourse with other na
tions : as decapitation, 2 Kin. 10 : 6-8 ;
Matt. 14:8-12 ; precipitation from rocks,
2 Chr. 25 : 12 ; Luke 4 : 29 ; hanging,
Josh. 8:29 ; Esth. 7 : 10; burning, Dan.
3 ; cutting asunder, Dan. 2:5; 3 : 29 ;
Heb. 11 : 27 ; beating, on a wheel-like
frame, Heb. 11 : 35 ; exposure to wild
beasts, Dan. 6; 1 Cor. 15:32; drowning,
Matt. 18:6; bruising in a mortar, Prov.
27 : 22 ; and crucifixion, John 19 : 18.

Minor punishments were scourging,
Lev. 19:20; 2 Cor. 11:24; retaliation in
kind for an injury done, Exod. 21 : 23-
25; Deut. 19:19; imprisonment, 2 Chr.
16 : 10 ; Matt. 4 : 12 ; the stocks, Acts
16:24; banishment, Rev. 1:9; and per
sonal torture, 2 Chr. 18 : 26 ; Isa. 50 : 6 ;
Matt. 18:30; Heb. 11:37.

PU'RIM, lots, a Jewish festival insti
tuted by Esther and Mordecai, during
the reign of Ahasuerus king of Persia, in
memory of the providential deliverance
of the Jews from the malignant designs
of Haman. The propriety of the name
appears from the fact that the lot was
cast in the presence of Haman for every
day from the first month to the twelfth,
before an auspicious day was found for
destroying the Jews; and thus the su
perstition of Haman was made the means
of giving them time to turn his devices
against himself, Prov. 16:33 ; Esth. 3:7 ;
9 : 20-32. This festival was preceded by
a day of fasting, and was observed by
reading the book of Esther publicly in
the synagogues, and by private festivi
ties, mutual presents, alms, plays, and
self-indulgence. Some think it is allud
ed to in John 5:1. It is still observed
by the Jews, in the month of March.

PUR'PLE. The famous and costly
Tyrian purple, the royal color of the
ancients, is said to have been discovered
by the Tyrian Hercules, whose dog hav
ing by chance eaten a shell -fish called
Purpura, and returning to his master
with his lips tinged with a purple color,
occasioned the discovery of this precious
dye. Purple, however, is much more
ancient than this, since we find it men
tioned by Moses in several places. Two
kinds of purple are mentioned in the Old
Testament : 1. ARGAMON, rendered in our
version "purple," denoting a reddish

PUT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

QUA

purple obtained from a species of muscle
or shell-fish found on the coasts of the

HELIX IANTHINA AND MUREX TRUNCULUS.

Mediterranean. 2. TECIIELETH, rendered
in the English Bible "blue." This was
a bluish or coerulean purple, likewise ob
tained from another species of shell-fish.
The "scarlet" or "crimson," for the
two words . denote essentially the same
color, was produced from the coccus in
sect, coccus ilicis. All these were sacred
colors among the Jews ; and the latter
was used for the high-priest's ephod,
and for veils, ribbons, and cloths, Ex.
26 :1, 4, 31, 36 ; 28 : 31 ; Num. 4 : 6-12 ;
15:38.

The ' ' purple ' ' of the ancients seems
.to have included many different tints
derived originally from the shell-fish,
and modified by various arts in which
the Tyrians excelled. As each fish yield
ed but a few drops of coloring matter,
the choicest purple bore a very high
price. Purple robes were worn by the
kings and first magistrates of ancient
Rome, and Nero forbade their use by
his subjects under pain of death. Our
Saviour was clothed with a royal robe of
purple, in mockery of his title, "The
King of the Jews," John 19:2, 5. Com
pare also Judg. 8:26 ; Esth. 8:15 ; Prov.
31 :22 ; Dan. 5:7; Luke 1G : 19. Moses
used much wool dyed of a crimson and
purple color in the work of the taber
nacle, and in the ornaments of the high-
priest, Ex. 25 : 4 ; 26 : 1, 31, 36 ; 39 : 1 ;
2 Chr. 3 : 14. The Babylonians also
clothed their idols in robes of a purple
and azure color, Jer. 10:9 ; Ezek. 23:15;
27:7,16.

PUTE'OLI, the wells, now Pozzuoli, a
maritime town in the Campania of Na
ples, on the northern side of the bay,
eight miles north-west from that city,
16

It was a Roman colony. Here i'aul
abode seven days, on his famous voyage
and journey from Ciesarea to Rome, Acts
28:13.

PY'GARG, white-rump. This is proper
ly the name of a species of eagle ; but is
applied, in Deut. 14 : 5, to a quadruped,
apparently a species of gazelle or ante
lope. So the Syriac version and Tar-
gums. Both the Arabic versions refer it
to a species of mountain goat.

THE QUAIL : COTURNIX COMMUNIS.

QUAILS. The oriental quail is a bird
of passage, about the size of a turtle
dove, and nearly resembling the Ameri
can partridge. Hasselquist states that
it is plentiful near the shores of the Dead
sea and the Jordan, and in the deserts of
Arabia ; and Diodorus affirms that it is
caught in immense numbers about Rhi-
nocolura, at the south-west corner of Pal
estine. Burckhardt also found great
quantities of them in the regions south
of the Dead sea. The flocks of quails,
therefore, which came up to the camp of
Israel, are entirely credible ; and the
miracle seems especially to have consist
ed in these immense flocks being directed
to a particular spot, in the extreme emer
gency of the people, by means of "a
wind from the Lord," Ex. 10:13; Num.
11:31; Psa. 78:27.

QUAR'TUS, a Christian residing at
Corinth, but according to his name of
Roman origin, whose salutation Paul
sends to the brethren at Rome, Rom.
16:23.

QUATERNION OF SOLDIERS, a detach
ment or division consisting of four men,
Acts 12 : 4. The Romans detached a
quarternion of four men for a night
361

QUE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RAB

guard, and divided the night into four
watches, so that each soldier should in
his turn be on guard three hours. (See
HOURS.) When therefore Herod, who
adopted the Roman customs, is said to
have delivered Peter to four quaterni
ons of soldiers, it is to be understood
that he was guarded by four men at a
time, namely, two in the prison with
him, and two before the doors, (compare
ver. 6,) and that they were relieved
every three hours by four others ; mak
ing in all sixteen men.

QUEEN OF HEAVEN, a name given
by the Hebrew idolaters to the moon,
Jer. 7:18; 44:17, 18. See ASHTORETII.

QUICK, in the old English sense,
means alive, or living. Num. 16 : 80 ;
2 Tim. 4:1 ; and quicken, to make alive.
God bestows spiritual life, on men dead
in trespasses and sins, Eph. 2:5, through
Christ the second Adam, who is a quick
ening Spirit, 1 Cor. 15:45.

QUICK-SANDS, Acts 27 : 17, probably
the dangerous sandbanks and whirlpools
in two gulfs on the African coast south
of Malta ; they were called the Greater
and the Lesser Syrtis, and were much
dreaded by ancient mariners. The course
of the wind by which Paul and his com
panions were driven, threatened to cast
them into the Lesser Syrtis.

R.

RAAMAH, 1 Chr. 1 :9, a region settled
by Cushites, descendants of a grandson
of Ham of the same name, Gen. 10 : 7.
It is supposed to have adjoined the Per
sian gulf on its Avestern shore towards
the north, Ezek. 27 : 12.

RAAM'SES, or RAME'SES, a city built
by the Hebrews during their servitude
in Egypt, Ex. 1 : 11. It was situated in
the land of Goshen ; and appears to have
been the capital of that country, Gen.
47 : 10, From it they commenced their
united exodus from Egypt, Ex. 12 : 37 ;
Num. 33 : 3, 5. It is thought to have
been on the line of the ancient canal
from the Nile to the Red sea, and some
thirty-five miles north-west of Suez.

RAB, RAB'BI. The word RAB in He
brew signifies chief; thus Nebuzaradan
is the chief or captain of the guard,
2 Kin. 25:8, in Hebrew rab-tabbachim ;
go Ashpenaz is the rab, chief or master
302 '

of the eunuchs, and Daniel of the ,
Dan. 1:3; 5:11. See RAB-MAG. Atalater
period, it was introduced as a solemn title
of honor in the Jewish schools, meaning
master, teacher, doctor. There were va
rious distinctions and degrees ; the term
rab was accounted the least honorable ;
that of rabbi, signifying my master, being
of higher dignity. Another form of the
word was rabban or rabbon, from which
comes also rabboni, John 20 : 16 ; this
was regarded as the highest title of hon
or, and was never formally bestowed on
more than seven persons, who all be
longed to the celebrated school of Hillel,
and were preeminently distinguished by
their rank and learning. See GAMALIEL.
The more common and usual appellation
afterwards was rabbi ; and this has de
scended among the Jews to the present
day, Matt. 23 : 7, 8. It was a title often
given to the Saviour both by his disci
ples and the people, Mark 9:5; 10 : 51 ;
11:21; John 1:88, 49; 4:31.

EAB'BATH, or RAB'BATH-AM'MON, af
terwards called Philadelphia, the capital
of the Ammonites, was situated near the
southern source of the Jabbok, some
twenty-two miles beyond Jordan. It
was famous even in the time of Moses,
Deut. 3:11 ; Josh. 13:25. When David
declared war against the Ammonites, his
general, Joab, laid siege to Rabbath-
Ammon, where Uriah lost his life by a
secret order of his prince ; and when the
city was reduced to the last extremity,
Joab sent for David to hasten and go
thither, to enjoy the honor of taking it,
2 Sam. 11 ; 12. From this time it became
subject to the kings of Judah ; but the
kings of Israel subsequently became mas
ters of it, with the tribes beyond Jordan.
Towards the conclusion of the kingdom
of Israel, Tiglath-pileser having taken
away a great part of the Israelites, the
Ammonites were guilty of many cruelties
against those who remained ; for which
the prophets Jeremiah a*nd Ezekiel pro
nounced very severe prophecies against
Rabbath, their capital, and against the
rest of the country ; which probably had
their completion live years after the de
struction of Jerusalem, Jer. 49 : 1-3 ;
Ezek. 21 : 20. Antiochus the Great after
wards took the city. It was long known
to the Greeks and Romans as Philadel
phia ; but this name is now unknown in
that vicinity, while the more ancient
name still survives. It is now called

RAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RAG

Amman, and is about fifteen miles south
east of Szalt, the ancient Ramoth-Gilead.
Burckhardt found there extensive ruins,
which he has described. He and numer
ous other travellers found it desolate, as
had been foretold; it was literally "a
stable for camels, " " a couching-place for
flocks," Ezek. 25:5.

RAB'BATH-MO'AB. See An.

RAB'BI and RABBO'NI. See RAB.

RAB-MAG, a general officer of Nebu
chadnezzar's army, at the taking of Je
rusalem, Jer. 39 : 3. He was, as his name
signifies, a chief of the Magi ; a dignitary
who had accompanied the king of Baby
lon in his campaign. See MAGI.

RAB'-SARIS, an officer sent with Rab-
shakeh and Tartan, to summon Heze-
kiah, 2 Kin. 18:17 ; Jer. 39:3. It signi
fies "the chief of the eunuchs." Such
officers, high in honor and in trust, are
found on the mural tablets of Nineveh
so wonderfully preserved to this day ;
and in the Ottoman Porte of our own
times the Kislar Aga, or chief of the
black eunuchs, is one of the highest dig
nitaries. See SlIALMANEZER.

RAB'-SHAKEH, chief butler or cup
bearer, an officer sent from Lachish by
Sennacherib king of Assyria, to summon
Hezekiah to surrender ; which message
he delivered in a most audacious and
insolent manner. The history is told in
2 Kin. 19 : 17, etc. ; 2 Chr. 32 : 9, etc. ;
Isa. 36. See NINEVEH and SENNACHERIB.

RA'CA, a word derived from a Hebrew

word signifying vain, trifling, brainless;
otherwise, beggarly, worthless. It is
thus translated by the Vulgate, in Judg.
11:3 ; in the English, "vain men." The
word includes a strong idea of contempt.
Christ says, Matt. 5 : 22, whoever shall
say to his brother, "Raca," shall be con
demned by the council, or sanhedrim.
The term translated ' ' fool ' ' in the
same passage, means vile and abandoned
wretch.

RACE, Psa. 19 : 5 ; Eccl. 9:11. Vari
ous games were instituted among the
Greeks and Romans, in honor of their
gods, and with the design of training
young men to personal vigor and activ
ity, and to intrepidity and skill in war.
These games were celebrated at stated
places and times, with great pomp ; re
nowned statesmen, legislators, and kings
engaged in them ; and it was deemed the
highest of all honors to be crowned with
a simple chaplet of laurel, olive, pine, or
parsley, in the presence of the vast as
semblage of witnesses who delighted to
honor the victor. The preparatory train
ing was very severe, and every weaken
ing indulgence was forbidden. Among
the most famous games were those cele
brated on the Isthmus of Corinth, hence
called the Isthmian games ; and to these
Paul alludes in his letters to Corinth,
1 Cor. 9 : 24-27. The foot-race was a
game of the first rank ; other games were
the chariot-race, wrestling, boxing, leap
ing, and throwing the quoit or the jave

lin. The foot-race well illustrates the
Christian warfare, the sacrifices to be
made, the diligent bringing the body

under subjection, the laying aside every
weight, the myriads of spectators lining
the course, and among them those pre-
363

RAG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RAM

riously crowned victors, the exhausting
efforts required, (from which the word
agonize is derived,) and the glorious
prize, Phil. 3 : 13, 14 ; 2 Tim. 4:7, 8 ;
Heb. 12:1.

EA'CHEL, ewe or sheep, Ruth 4 : 11,
the younger sister of Leah, daughter of
Laban, and the chosen wife of Jacob,
though her sister was favored wTith more
children. Rachel was the mother of
Joseph and Benjamin, and died soon
after the birth of the latter. See her
history in Gen. 29-35. Her sepulchre,
half an hour's walk north of Bethlehem,
is shown unto this day, the spot being
marked by a Mohammedan wely or
tomb, a stone enclosure and a dome.
The prophecy, Jer. 31 : 15, representing
her as mourning over her posterity, the
tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benja
min, is quoted in Matt. 2 : 18, in refer
ence to the massacre at Bethlehem, in
which undoubtedly many of her de
scendants suffered. It is supposed that
one of the many places called Ramah
was adjacent to Bethlehem.

RAGU'EL, Num. 10:29, or REUEL, Ex.
2:15, 18, 21, the Hebrew word being the
same in both places. These passages
represent him as the father of Hobab
and Zipporah, and he is generally sup
posed to be the same as Jethro, Moses'
father-in-law. Some, however, think he
was Jethro' s father, and that he is called
the father of the others as being the head
of the family. Compare Gen. 31 : 43 ;
2 Kin. 14:3; 16:2.

RA'HAB. The English word Rahab
represents two different Hebrew words :
I. RAIIAB, a Canaanite woman of Jeri
cho, who gave shelter to the two spies
sent in thither by Joshua; and in re
turn was spared, with all her kindred,
when the city was taken and destroyed,
Josh. 2 : 1-21 ; 6 : 17-25. Her faith, in
doing this, is commended in Heb. 11:31 ;
James 2:25. The Jews and many Chris
tians endeavor to show that Rahab was
only an honest innkeeper ; but more prob
ably the designation of "harlot" given
to her in our Bible is correct. If she had
at some time led a dissolute life, she had
evidently repented ; and she afterwards
became a worshipper of Jehovah, and
the wife of Salmon, a prince of the tribe
of Judah, Ruth 4 : 21 ; Matt. 1 : 4. The
penitent publican and sinner are always
\felcome to Christ; and many such a
one, through the renovating power of
364

grace, will shine gloriously in heaven,
while the unbelieving moralist will per
ish in his sins.

II. RAHAB, pride, insolence, a symbol
ical name for Egypt, Psa. 87:4; 89:10;
Isa. 30 : 7 ; 51 : 9. In the last of these
passages, Egypt is further symbolized as
a ferocious sea-monster ; but it is doubt
ful whether the word Rahab itself is ever
used to denote a sea-monster.

RAIN. In Scripture the "early" and
the "latter" rain of Palestine is spoken
of, Deut. 11:14; Hos. 6:3. The former
falls in the latter part of October, the
seed-time of Palestine ; and the weather
then continues variable, with more or
less rain the whole winter, until after
the latter or spring rain in April. After
wards, the weather becomes serene, and
the crops ripen. The wheat harvest
takes place in May ; by the middle of
August, the fruits are gathered in ; and
from that time to the coming of the first
or October rains, prevail the scorching
heats and droughts of summer. Noth
ing can more expressively represent spir
itual blessings than copious showers of
rain after this trying season is past,
Deut, 32:2; Job 29:23; Isa. 44:3; Hos.
10:12.

It appears from meteorological records
kept at Jerusalem, that the average an
nual fall of rain is fifty-six and a half
inches; the average fall in the United
States is forty-five inches. It would
seem therefore, that if the rains of Pales
tine could be preserved in pools and res
ervoirs, and employed in irrigating the
ground during the summer, the old fer
tility might be restored ; it would be
clothed again with verdure, and become
like "the garden of the Lord."

RAIN'BOW, Genesis 9 : 13-15. This
beautiful phenomenon is owing to the
refraction of the beams of the sun in
passing the drops of falling rain ; the
rays are separated into the prismatic
colors, and then reflected from the cloud
opposite to the sun and the spectator.
We need not suppose that the rainbow
was unknown before the flood ; but God .
then appointed it to be the cheering seal/
of his covenant with the earth, which is4
as steadfast as the natural laws from
which the rainbow springs.

RA'MAH, plural RA'MOTH, an eminence;
and hence many places in Palestine are
named Piamah, Ramath, Ramoth, Ra-
mathaim, etc. Sometimes the same

RAM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RAV

place is called by one or other of these
names indiscriminately, all signifying
the same, 2 Kin. 8 : 28, 29. Sometimes
Rama, or Ramoth, is joined to another
name, to determine the place of such
city or eminence ; and it is sometimes
put simply for a high place, and signifies
neither city nor village.

I. The principal Ramah was a city of
Benjamin, near Gibeah, towards the
mountains of Ephraim, six miles from
Jerusalem north, and on the road from
Samaria to Jerusalem, Josh. 18:25 ; Judg.
19 : 13 ; Neh. 11 : 33. It was near the
border line between Judah and Israel,
and Baasha king of Israel caused it to be
fortified, to obstruct the passage from
the land of Judah into his own territory,
1 Kin. 15:17, 21, 22. It is also referred
to in Isa. 10:29; Jer. 31:15; 40:1 ; Hos.
5 : 8. Dr. Robinson finds it in the mod
ern village Er-Ram. on a conical hill a
little east of the road above mentioned.
The ruins are broken columns, a few
bevelled stones, and large hewn stones,
and an ancient reservoir on the south
west side. The village is almost deserted.

II. A city in mount Ephraim, called
also Ramathaim-Zophim, or Ramah of
the Zuphites, the place of Samuel's birth,
residence, and burial, 1 Sam. 1:1, 19 ;
7 : 17 ; 8 : 4 ; 25 : 1 ; 28 : 3. Dr. Robin-

. son suggests Soba, five miles west of
Jerusalem, as its possible site. The re
semblance of its name Ramathaim to
Arimathea of the New Testament, to
gether with intimations of early histo
rians, have led to the general belief that
these two places were identical. Arima
thea, there is little doubt, lay on one of
the hills east of Lydda, some twenty
miles north-west of Jerusalem ; and this
site would meet most of the scriptural
intimations as to the Ramah of Samuel.
The chief difficulty is found in the ac
count of Saul's first visit to Samuel,
1 Sam. 9:4-12; 10:2. The young prince
"passed through the land of the Ben-
jamites," going south or south-west,
' ' and came to the land of Zuph ' ' and
the city where Samuel then was. After
his interview with the prophet, and on
his return home to Gibeah of Benjamin,
he passed " by Rachel's sepulchre in the
border of Benjamin at Zelzah. ' ' But the
only ' ' Rachel' s sepulchre' ' we know of
was near Bethlehem, many miles south
of the direct road from Arimathea to
Gibeah. Accordingly, if we suppose this

interview took place at Arimathea, we
seem obliged to suppose another Rachel's
sepulchre between it and Gibeah ; or, if
' ' Rachel's sepulchre ' ' was at Bethlehem,
to infer that the city where Saul actual
ly found Samuel, and at which the proph
et had only that day arrived, 1 Sam.
9:10, was not his usual residence, but
some place south or south-west of Beth
lehem, only visited by him at intervals
in his annual circuits as judge.

III. A city of Asher, Josh. 19:29.

IV. A city of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 36.
The site of both these places, visited by
Dr. Robinson, is still called Rameh.

V. A city of Gilead, 2 Kin. 8 : 28, 29.
See RAMOTII.

VI. A town belonging to Simeon,
called Ramah of the south, Josh. 19 : 8 ;
1 Sam. 30:27.

RAMATHA'IM. See RAMAH.

RAME'SES. See RAAMSES.

RA'MOTH, a famous city in the moun
tains of Gilead; often called Ramoth-
Gilead, and sometimes Ramath-Mizpeh.
or the Waton-tower, Josh. 13 : 26. It
belonged to Gad, was assigned to the
Levites, and became one of the cities of
refuge beyond Jordan, Deut. 4:43 ; Josh.
20:8 ; 21 :38. It was famous during the
reigns of the later kings of Israel, and
was the occasion of several wars between
these princes and the kings of Damas
cus, who had conquered it, and from
whom the kings of Israel endeavored to
regain it. Here Ahab died, Joram was
wounded, and Jehu was anointed king
of Israel, 1 Kin. 22 ; 2 Kin. 8 : 28, 29 ;
9:1-14; 2 Chr. 22:5, 6.

RA'VEN, Gen. 8:7, Lev. 11:15, a bird
similar to the crow, but larger, and not
gregarious. It feeds on dead bodies ;
and in its general characteristics resem
bles the crow of America. The eyes of
its victim are the first part to be devour
ed, Prov. 30 : 17 ; and it drives away its
young as soon as they can begin to shift
3C5

REA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

REE

for themselves, Job 38.: 41 ; Psa. 147 : 9.
Elijah was miraculously fed by ravens,
IKin. 17:6.

REAR'WARD, the strong battalion
that closed and guarded the rear of an
army, Josh. 6:13; Isa. 52:12; 58:8.

REBEK'AH, a daughter of Bethuel,
and sister of Laban in Mesopotamia,
who became the wife of Isaac, and twen
ty years afterwards the mother of Jacob
and Esau. The manner in which she
was sought and obtained as the wife of
Isaac, exhibits a striking picture of ori
ental manners and customs. Through
her partiality for Jacob, she was tempted
into the use of unjustifiable means to
secure for him the inheritance, not hav
ing faith to leave to God the fulfilment
of his own purposes, Gen. 25 : 22, 23.
Her deceit led to disastrous results : Ja
cob fled from home ; and when he re
turned from Mesopotamia twenty years
afterwards, his mother lay buried in the
cave of Machpelah, Gen. 24-28 ; 49:31.

RECH'ABITES. Scripture acquaints
us, Jer. 35 : 2-11, that Jonadab son of
Rechab, in the time of Jehu king of Is
rael, laid an injunction on his posterity
not to drink Avine, not to build houses,
not to plant vineyards, to have no lands,
and to dwell in tents all their lives. This
they continued to observe for above three
hundred years ; but in the last year of
Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchad
nezzar coming to besiege Jerusalem, the
llechabites were forced to take refuge in
the city, though still lodging in tents.
During this siege, Jeremiah received or
ders from the Lord to invite them into the
temple, and to offer them wine to drink.
They refused to partake of it ; and their
fidelity to their father's injunction was
a severe reproof to the Jews for break
ing their covenant with God. The Rech-
abites, originally from the land of Mid-
ian, are supposed to have retired to the
desert at the captivity of the Jews ; and
the divine promise concerning the per
petuity of the family, Jer. 35 : 19, was
undoubtedly fulfilled, though it may
now be impossible to distinguish them,
as some profess to do, among the tribes
'of Central Arabia.

REDEEM'ER, a name given to Jesus
Christ, the Saviour of the world, because
he redeems mankind from the bondage
and guilt of their sins, by dying in their
place, and thus paying their ransom,
,Matt. 20 : 28 ; Gal. 3 : 13 ; Eph. 1:7;
366

ITim. 2:6; Tit. 2:14; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19;
Rev. 5 : 9. In the law of Moses, Lev.
25:25, 48, this title is given to one who
has the right of redemption in an inher
itance, especially to a near kinsman, who
may redeem it from a stranger or any
Jew who had bought it. Such was Boaz,
who, being one of the nearest relations
of Elimelech, married Ruth the heiress
of Elimelech, and thereby reentered into
the possession of her estate. Jeremiah
redeemed the field of his nephew Hana-
meel, which was on the point of being
sold to another, Jer. 32:7, 8. So Christ
became a partaker of flesh and blood,
that as our near kinsman he might re
deem for us the heavenly inheritance,
Job 19:25, 26.

The nearest kinsman was also called
the redeemer of blood — in our English
translation, the avenger, or revenger
of blood ; and had a right to revenge
the blood of his murdered kinsman,
Num. 35 : 12, 19, 21 ; Deut. 19 : 6, 12.
To protect the innocent from these aven
gers, or redeemers, God appointed cities
of refuge throughout Israel. See REF
UGE.

RECORD'ER, or remembrancer, a sort
of registrar of affairs at the court of
Judah, 2 Sam. 8:16; 1 Kin. 4:3; 2 Kin.
18:18.

RED SEA. See SEA.

RECONCILIATION, in Scripture, is
the restoration of harmony between two
persons at- variance, by the removal of
existing obstacles, 1 Sam. 29 : 4. Christ
bids the man who has wronged his
brother, to make peace with him, and
secure his favor by confession and repa
ration, before presenting his gift at God's
altar, Matt. 5 : 23, 24. In the far more
important matter of peace with God, to
make human salvation possible, a just
God must be reconciled to the sinner,
and the rebellious sinner be reconciled
to God. This reconciliation is effected
by the blood of the Lamb through the
power of the Spirit, Rom. 5 : 10 ; 2 Cor.
5:19; Eph. 2:16.

REED, sometimes a stalk or rod of
any plant, as of the hyssop, Matt. 27 : 48 ;
John 19 : 29. Usually, however, the word
reed denotes a reed or cane growing in
marshy grounds, Job 40:21; Isa. 19:6;
slender and fragile, and hence taken as
an emblem of weakness, 1 Kin. 14 : 15 ;
2 Kin. 18 : 21 ; Isa. 36 : 6 ; Ezek. 29 : 6,
and of instability, Matt. 11:7. "A bruis-

REF

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

REF

ed reed," Isa. 42 : 3, Matt. 12 : 20, is an
emblem of a soul crushed and ready to
sink in despair under a sense of its guilty
and lost condition. Such a soul the Sav
iour will graciously sustain and strength
en. The reed of spice, or good reed, (Eng
lish version, "sweet calamus," Exod.
30:23, "sweet cane," Jer. 6 : 20,) also

called simply reed, (English version, "cal
amus" or "sweet cane,") Isa. 43:24,
Song. 4 : 14, Ezek. 27 : 19, is the sweet
flag of India, calamus odoratus. Reeds
were anciently used as pens and as meas
uring-rods, Ezek. 40:5 ; 42:16. The He
brew ' ' reed ' ' is supposed to have been
ten feet long.

REF'UGE, CITIES OF. To provide se
curity for those who should undesign-
edly kill a man, the Lord commanded
Moses to appoint six cities of refuge, or
asylums, that any one who should thus
shed blood might retire thither, and
have time to prepare his defence be
fore the judges, and that the kinsmen
of the deceased might not pursue and
kill him, Ex. 21 : 13; Num. 35 : 11-34.
Of such cities there were three on .each
side Jordan. On the west were Kedesh
of Naphtali, Shechem, and Hebron ; on
the east, Golan, Ramoth-Gilead, and Be-
zer, Josh. 20 : 7, 8. These cities served
not only for Hebrews, but for all stran
gers who resided in the country, Deut.
19 : 1-10. The Lord also commanded
that when the Hebrews should multiply
and enlarge their land, they should add
three other cities of refuge. But this
command was never fulfilled.

The custom of blood-revenge appears
to have been an institution or principle
very early introduced among the no
madic oriental tribes. So firmly was
this practice established among the Is

raelites before their entrance into the
promised land, and probably also even
before their sojourning in Egypt, that
Moses was directed by Jehovah not to
attempt to eradicate it entirely, but only
to counteract and modify it by the insti
tution of cities of refuge. The custom
of avenging the blood of a member of a
family or tribe upon some member of
the tribe or family of the slayer, still
exists in full force among the modern
Bedaweens, the representatives in a cer
tain sense of the ancient Israelites in the
desert. They prefer this mode of self-
vengeance. Niebuhr informs us that
"the Arabs rather avenge themselves,
as the law allows, upon the family of
the murderer ; and seek an opportunity
of slaying its head, or most considerable
person, whom they regard as being prop
erly the person guilty of the crime, as it
must have been committed through his
negligence in watching over the conduct
of those under his inspection. From this
time the two families are in continual
fears, till some one or other of the mur
derer's family be slain. No reconcilia-
367

REG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

REH

tion can take place between them, and
the quarrel is still occasionally renewed.
There have been instances of such fam
ily feuds lasting forty years. If in the
contest a man of the murdered person's
family happens to fall, there can be no
peace until two others of the murderer's
family have been slain." How far su
perior to this was the Mosaic institution
of cities of refuge, where the involuntary
homicide might remain in peace till the
death of the high-priest, and then go
forth in safety, while a really guilty per
son did not escape punishment.

Among most of the nations of antiqui
ty, temples, and particularly the altars
within them, were regarded as proffer
ing an asylum for fugitives from vio
lence. Among the Hebrews we find in
dications of the custom on the part of
the culprit of fleeing to the Lord's altar.
But this was not allowed to screen the
guilty from deserved punishment, Ex.
21:14; IKin. 2:28-34.

There is an appointed city of refuge
for sinners exposed to the second death,
and an altar of refuge sprinkled with
atoning blood. Happy the soul that
flees and is safe in Christ, ere it is over
taken by the avenging law of God.

REGENERATION, the new birth ;
that work of the Holy Spirit by which
the soul, previously dead in sins, is cre
ated anew in Christ unto righteousness.
It is expressed in Scripture by being born
again and born from above, John 3 : 3-7 ;
becoming a new creature, 2 Cor. 5 : 17 ;
being quickened to a new life of holi
ness, Eph. 2:1 ; having Christ formed in
the heart, Gal. 4 : 19 ; and being made
partaker of the divine nature, 2 Pet. 1:4.
The sole author of this change is the
Holy Spirit, John 1 : 12, 13 ; 3:4; Eph.
2 : 8-10 ; and he effects it ordinarily by
the instrumentality of gospel truth,
1 Cor. 4 : 15 ; Jas. 'l : 18 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 23.
In this change the moral image of God
is brought back into the soul, and the
principle of supreme love to him and
unselfish love to our neighbor is im
planted. Regeneration, producing faith,
is accompanied by justification, and by
actual holiness of life, or sanctification
begun, and completed when the "babe
in Christ" reaches in heaven "the ful
ness of the stature of the perfect man "
in Him. In Matt. 19 : 28, regeneration
means Christ's making all things new.
In Titus 3:5, " the washing of regener-
3G8

ation" denotes the purifying work of
the Spirit in the new birth.

REHABI'AH, a grandson of Moses,
and the only son of Eliezer ; his numer
ous posterity are mentioned as betoken
ing the divine favor, 1 Chr. 23:17.

RE'HOB, L, a Levitical city in Asher,
Josh. 19 : 28 ; 21 : 31, on the northern
border of the Holy Land, called also
Beth-rehob, and lying in a valley south
of Anti-Lebanon, not far north of Dan,
Num. 13:21 ; Judg. 18:28. It was long
governed by its own kings, Judg. 1 : 31,
but in the time of David was rendered
tributary, 2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8, 19. Some
think there were two cities of this name
in Asher.

II. The father of Hadadezer king of
Zobah in Syria, 2 Sam. 8:3.

REHOBOAM, the son and successor
of Solomon, by Naamah, an Ammonitess,
1 Kin. 12 ; 14:21-31 ; 2 Chr. 10-12. He
was forty-one years old when he began
to reign, and was therefore born at the
beginning of his father's reign. He as
cended the throne about 975 B. c., and
reigned seventeen years at Jerusalem.
Under his reign the ten tribes revolted,
and formed the kingdom of Israel under
Jeroboam. The immediate cause of this
schism was Rehoboam's headstrong folly
in rejecting experienced counsellors, and
claiming tyrannical power. He at once
sought to recover the revolted tribes by
force ; and though directed by God not
to make war, he did not long delay hos
tilities, and these continued during his
whole reign. The people also fell into
idolatry, and were punished in the fifth
year of Rehoboam by an Egyptian army,
which subjected them to a heavy tribute.
See SHISHAK. Scripture leads us to trace
the sins and misfortunes of Rehoboam
in part to the influence of his heathen
mother, 2 Chr. 12:13. The latter portion
of his reign seems to have passed more
quietly.

REHO'BOTH, L, a city of ancient As
syria, site unknown, Gen. 10:11.

II. A place in the wilderness south of
Gerar and Beersheba, so named by Isaac
on the occasion of his digging a well
there, Gen. 26:22.

III. A city on the Euphrates, thought
to be the modern Er-rahabeh, south of
Carchemish, Gen. 36:37 ; 1 Chr. 1:48.

RE'HUM, an officer of the king of Per
sia, in Samaria, during the rebuilding of
the temple ; by an insidious letter to the

REI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RES

king he procured an edict for the discon
tinuance of this work for a time, proba
bly two years or more preceding 520 B. c. ,
when it was resumed.

REINS, or KIDNEYS. The Hebrews
often make the reins the seat of the
affections, and ascribe to them know
ledge, joy, pain, pleasure ; hence in
Scripture it is said that God searches the
heart and tries the reins.

REM'PHAN, an idol, the same as Chi-
un. Compare Amos 5:26, and Acts
7:43. SeeCmuN.

REPENT' ANCE, a change of mind,
accompanied with regret and sorrow for
something done, and an earnest wish
that it was undone. Such was the re
pentance of Judas, Matt. 27 : 3 ; and so
it is said that Esau found ' ' no place of
repentance ' ' in his father Isaac, although
he sought it with tears, Heb. 12:17; that
is, Isaac would not change what he had
done, and revoke the blessing given
to Jacob, Gen. 27. God is sometimes
said to "repent" of something he had
done, Gen. 6:6; Jonah 3:9, 10; not that
he could wish it undone, but that in his
providence such a change of course took
place as among men would be ascribed
to a change of mind. But the true
gospel repentance, or "repentance unto
life," is sorrow for sin, grief for having
committed it, and a turning away from
it with abhorrence, accompanied with
sincere endeavors, in reliance on God's
grace and the influences of the Holy
Spirit, to live in humble and holy obe
dience to the commands and will of God.
This is that repentance which always
accompanies true faith, and to which is
promised the free forgiveness of sin
through the merits of Jesus Christ, Matt.
4:17; Acts 3:19; 11:18; 20:12.

REPETITIONS in prayers, which our
Saviour censures, Matt. 6 : 7, were short
forms or particular expressions in pray
er, which the Jews were accustomed to
repeat a certain number of times. So
Roman-catholics still repeat the Lord's
prayer, Ave Marias, etc., a great num
ber of times ; and think that the oftener
a prayer is repeated, the more meritori
ous and efficacious it is. The repeated
cry of a soul in earnest is indeed welcome
to God, Gen. 18 ; Matt. 26 : 44 ; Luke
18 : 1 ; but he regards the heart and not
the lips ; and the greater the number of
prayers one repeats as a task by which
to acquire merit, the greater his sin.
16*

REPH'AIM ; the Hebrew word is used
in two distinct significations.

I. KEPHAIM is used to comprehend all
the gigantic races of the Canaanites, of
whom there were several families. There
were Rephaim beyond Jordan, at Ashta-
roth Karnaim, in the time of Abraham,
Gen. 14: 5 ; also some in the time of Moses.
Og king of Bashan was of the Rephaim.
In the time of Joshua, some of their de
scendants dwelt in the land of Canaan,
Josh. 12:4 ; 17:15, and we hear of them
in David's time, in the city of Gath,
1 Chr. 20 : 4-6. The giant Goliath and
others were the remains of the Repha
im, or of the kindred family of Anakim.
Their magnitude and strength are often
spoken of in Scripture. They appear to
have excelled in violence and crime, and
hence are monuments of divine justice.

II. REPHAIM, the shades or spirits of
the departed, dwelling in Sheol or Ha
des, generally rendered in our version,
' ' the dead, ' ' (" dead things, ' ' Job 26 : 5 ;)
Psa. 88:10; Prov. 2:18; 21:16, etc.

TlIB VALLEY OF THE PvEPHAIM, Or GIANTS,

was famous in Joshua's time, Josh. 15:8 ;
17:15; 18:16, and in the time of David,
who here defeated the Philistines, 2 Sam.
5:18, 22; 1 Chr. 11:15; 14:9. It was a
broad and fertile valley, Isa. 17:5, begin
ning near the valley of Hinnom, and
extending several miles south-west from
Jerusalem, when it contracted to a nar
row passage leading off towards the Med
iterranean. It was in Judah, but near
the border of Benjamin.

REPH'IDIM, an encampment of the
Israelites between the wilderness of Sin
and mount Sinai, where the people mur
mured, and God gave them water from
the rock. Here also the Amalekites
attacked them, and were defeated, Ex.
17. It is thought to have been in the
valley now called esh-Sheikh, a day's
march north-west of Sinai, and near the
western border of the Horeb group of
mountains. See SINAI.

REP'ROBATE, rejected as not endur
ing the test of worthiness, Jer. 6 : 30.
Some men are spoken of as reprobate
.even in this life, being hardened in sin
and unbelief, Rom. 1 : 28 ; 2 Tim. 3:8;
Tit. 1:16.

RE'SEN, an ancient Assyrian city, be-
frvveen Nineveh and Calah, Gen. 10 : 12.
Its exact position cannot now be deter
mined.

RESPECT' OF PERSONS. The judges
369

RES

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RES

of the Hebrews were directed to give
sentence strictly according to truth and
justice, without regard to the compara
tive wealth, influence, or other advan
tage of one party over the other, Lev.
19 : 15 ; Deut. 16 : 17, 19 ; Prov. 24 : 23.
Thus God judges, not according to out
ward appearance or station, but accord
ing to the heart, Acts 10:34 ; Rom. 2:6-
11. Thus ought men to estimate and
treat their fellow-men; and to court the
favor of the rich and influential is sharp
ly censured in Scripture, Prov. 28 : 21 ;
Jas. 2:1-9; Jude 16.

REST, in Acts 9 : 31, refers to the res
pite from persecution enjoyed by the
Christians in Palestine, after the conver
sion of Saul of Tarsus, during the last
two years of Caligula's short reign, A. D.
39 and 40, when the Jews were so har
assed by the attempts of the emperor
to force them to worship him as a god,
that they forbore to afflict the followers
of Christ.

RESTITUTION, Job 20 : 10, 18. The
repairing of wrongs done, and the restor
ing of what one has wrongfully taken
from another, are strictly enjoined in
Scripture, and are a necessary evidence
of true repentance, Ex. 22 : 1-15 ; Neh.
6:1-13 ; Luke 19 : 8. Restoration should
be perfect and just ; replacing, so far as
possible, all that has been taken, with
interest, Lev. 6 : 1-6 ; 24 : 21. In Acts
3:21, the time of the "restitution of all
things," is the time when Christ shall
appear in his glory, arid establish his
kingdom as foretold in the Scriptures.

RESURRECTION of CHRIST. This is
of fundamental importance in Christi
anity, both historically and doctrinally.
As a fact indisputably proved, it was the
crowning demonstration of the truth of
all Christ's claims, 1 Cor. 15: 14-18. He
had repeatedly foretold it ; and his ene
mies were careful to ascertain that he
was actually dead, and to guard his tomb
for additional security. Yet he rose from
the dead on the third day, and appeared
on eleven different occasions to numer
ous witnesses, convincing even those who
were the most doubtful, and after forty,
days ascended to heaven from the mount
of Olives. To this all-important fact the
apostles gave great prominence in their
preaching, Acts 1 :22 ; 2 : 24-32 ; 4 : 33 ;
10 : 40, 41. In its relation to Christian
doctrine it stands as a rock of strength,
assuring us of God's acceptance of the
370

expiatory Sacrifice, of Christ's trium
phant accomplishment of the work of
redemption, and of his raising to immor
tal life the souls and bodies of his peo
ple. He was buried under the load of our
offences ; but he rose again, almighty to
justify and save us. His dying proved
the greatness of his love ; his rising
again shows that his love had secured
its object.

RESURRECTION OF THE DEAD. It is the
peculiar glory of the New Testament that
it makes a full revelation of this great
doctrine, which was questioned or derided
by the wisest of the heathen, Acts 17 :32.
In the Old Testament also we find,
though less frequently, the doctrine as
serted ; as for example, Isa. 26: 19 ; Dan.
12 : 2. When our Saviour appeared in Ju-
dea, the doctrine of the resurrection of the
dead was received as a principal article
of religion by the whole Jewish nation
except the Sadducees. Their denial of
it rested on the assumption that at death
the whole man, soul and body, perishes.
"The Sadducees say that there is no
resurrection, neither angel, nor spirit,"
Acts 23:8. Hence the refutation of this
unscriptural assumption was a complete
overthrow of the ground on which their
denial of a future resurrection rested ;
for if the soul can survive the body, it is
plain that God can give it another body.
In this way our Lord met and effectually
refuted them, Matt. 22 : 31, 32 ; Mark
12:26, 27.

The resurrection of Christ is every
where represented in the New Testa
ment as a pledge and an earnest of the
resurrection of all the just, who are
united to him by faith, 1 Cor. 15 : 49 ;
1 Thess. 3 : 14, in virtue of their union
with him as their Head. He is "the
resurrection and the life," John 11 : 25 ;
they "sleep in Jesus," and shall be
brought to glory "with him," 1 Thess.
4 : 13-17 ; 5 : 10 ; their " life is hid with
Christ in God," Col. 3:3; and because
he lives, they shall live also, John 14:19.
The Scriptures also teach that there will
be a resurrection of the unjust. But
they shall be raised, not to be glorified
with Christ, but to be judged by him,
and sentenced to eternal punishment,
Dan. 12:2 ; John 5:28, 29 compared with
Matt. 35:31-46; Acts 24: 15.

To cavillers against this doctrine in
his own day, Christ replied, "Ye do
err, not knowing the Scriptures, nor the

REU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RHO

power of God." The work is miracu
lous ; and He who is omniscient and om
nipotent will permit nothing to frustrate
his designs. He has not revealed to us
the precise nature of the spiritual body,
nor in what its identity with the earthly
body consists ; but it will be incorrupt
ible, fashioned like Christ's glorious
body, Phil. 3:21, and a meet companion
of the soul made perfect in his likeness.

REU'BEN, behold, a son ! the eldest son
of Jacob and Leah, so called in reference
to the sentiment of his mother, "The
Lord hath looked on my affliction,"
Gen. 29:32. Reuben, having defiled his
father's concubine Bilhah, lost his birth
right and all the privileges of primo
geniture, the preeminence in the family
being given to Judah, and the double
portion to the two sons of Joseph, Gen.
35 : 22 ; 48 : 5 ; 49 : 3, 4, 8, 10 ; 1 Chron.
6:1, 2. He shared in his brothers' jeal
ousy of Joseph, and yet interposed to
save his life at Dothan with the design
of restoring him privately to his father,
Gen. 37 : 18-30. See also his well-meant
proposal in Gen. 42 : 37. His tribe was
never numerous or powerful in Israel.
Dathan, Abiram, and On were members
of it. It was the ninth of the tribes in
the order of population when they en
tered Canaan, Num. 1:21 ; 26:7. Their
inheritance was the fine pasture-land
east of the Jordan, between the Arnon
on the south and Gilead on the north ;
it is now called Belka, Num. 32 ; Josh.
22. We afterwards find them reproved
by Deborah for remissness, Judg. 5 : 15,
16. Their position on the frontier ex
posed them to many assaults from the
east, 2 Kin. 10:33 ; and they were among
the first captives to Assyria, 1 Chr. 5:26,
B. c. 740.

REVELATION, an extraordinary and
supernatural disclosure made by God,
whether by dream, vision, ecstasy, or oth
erwise, of truths beyond man's unaided
power to discover. Paul, alluding to his
visions and revelations, 2 Cor. 12 : 1, 7,
speaks of them in the third person, out
of modesty ; and declares that he could
not tell whether he was in the body or
out of the body. Elsewhere he says that
he had received his gospel by a particu
lar revelation, Gal. 1:12.

For the BOOK OF REVELATION, see APOC
ALYPSE.

REVEN'GER, or AVENGER OP BLOOD,
is a name given in Scripture to the man

who had the right, according to the Jew
ish polity, of taking revenge on him who
had killed one of his relations. If a man
had been guilty of manslaughter invol
untarily and without design, he fled to
a city of refuge. See REFUGE.

RE'ZEPH, a city conquered by the
Assyrians, 2 Kin. 19:12; Isa. 37:12. It
is thought to have been afterwards call
ed Rasapha. and to have stood some
twenty-live miles west of the Euphrates
towards Palmyra.

RE'ZIN, a king of Damascene Syria,
who united with Pekah king of Israel to
invade Judah, B. c. 742, 2 Kin. 15 : 37 ;
16:5-10; Isa. 7:1. Turning away from
before Jerusalem, Rezin extended his
conquests to the south as far as Elath ;
but was erelong conquered and slain by
Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, whose
aid had been procured by king Ahaz.
His people also were carried captive be
yond the Tigris, Isa. 8:6; 9:11.

RE'ZON, the founder of a dynasty in
Syria-Damascus in the time of David,
and a great annoyance to Solomon, 1 Kin.
11:23-25. He had been an officer under
Hadadezer king of Zobah.

RHE'GIUM, now Reggio, capital of
the province of Calabria Ultra, in the
kingdom of Naples, on the coast near
the south-west extremity of Italy, eight
miles south-east of Messina in Sicily.
The ship in which Paul was on his way
to Rome touched here, Acts 28 : 13, 14.
Rhegium was a city of considerable note
in ancient times. The modern city was
nearly destroyed by an earthquake in
1783, and now contains about eighteen
thousand inhabitants.

RHO'DA, rose, a young damsel in the
household of Mary mother of John Mark,
when Peter was miraculously released
from prison, Acts 12:13.

RHODES, an island and a famous city in
the Levant, the ancient name of which
was Ophiusa. Its modern name alludes
to the great quantity and beauty of the
roses that grew there. The island is
about forty miles long and fifteen wide ;
its mountains are well wooded, and its
valleys highly fertile. The city of
Rhodes, at the north-east extremity of
the island, was one of the most cele
brated of the Greek cities. It was fa
mous for its brazen Colossus, which was
one hundred and five feet high, made by
Chares of Lyndus : it stood at the mouth
of the harbor of the city, on sixty mar-
371

IUB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

KIN

ble columns, and continued perfect only
^ifty-six years, being thrown down by an
earthquake, under the reign of Ptolemy
Euergetes king of Egypt, who began to
reign B. c. 244. When Paul went to
Jerusalem, A. D. 58, he visited Khodes,
Acts 21 : 1. Modern Rhodes is a Turkish
walled town of 15,000 inhabitants, and
considerable commerce. The air of
Rhodes is proverbially pure, and its cli
mate serene.

RIB'LAH, a city of Syria, in the coun
try of Hamath, at the north-east extrem
ity of Canaan, Num. 34 : 11. Its site is
probably found in the modern village
Ribleh, on the river Orontes, at the
northern end of the great vallev of Leb-
anon, El-Bukaa. Through this valley,
by way of Hamath and Riblah, was the
readiest access to Palestine from the
north. At Riblah king Jehoahaz was
taken and deposed by Pharaoh - necho ;
here also Nebuchadnezzar established his
head-quarters when warring against Ju-
dah, 2 Kin. 23 : 33 ; 25 : 6, 20, 21 ; Jer.
39:5; 52:10.

RIGHT'EOUSNESS, rectitude, justice,
holiness ; an essential perfection of God's
character, Job 36 : 3, Isa. 51:5-8, John

17 : 25, and of his administration, Gen.
18:25 ; Rom. 3:21, 22 ; 10:3. It is the
wonder of grace that, as the righteous
guardian of the law, he can acquit the
unrighteous. "The righteousness of
Christ" includes his spotless holiness,
his perfect obedience to the law while
on earth, and his suffering its penalty in
our stead. It is called "the righteous
ness of God," because accepted by him,
Rom. 3:25. "The righteousness of the
law" is that perfect obedience the law
demands ; and ' ' the righteousness of
faith ' ' is that imputed to the sinner
who believes in Christ. With reference
to personal character, righteousness is
used both for uprightness between man
and man, and for true religion, Gen.

18 : 23 ; Lev. 19 : 15 ; Isa. 60 : 17 ; Rom.
14:17; Eph. 5:9.

RIGHT-HAND, the most efficient
member of the body, Matt. 5 : 30, and
the ready executor of the behests of the
will. Hence its use as a symbol of many
of the strongest emotions of the inner
man. The right-hand is significant of
power, especially the almighty power of j
God, Ex. 15:6; Psa. 21 : 8 : 77 : 10 ; of !
honor, Psa. 45 : 9 ; Matt. 25 : 34 ; Acts '
7:55 ; of special benediction, Gen. 48:14 ;
372

of fraternal love, Gal. 2:9; of hostility,
Psa. 109:6 ; Zech. 3: 1 ; and of allegiance,
1 Chr. 29 : 24. It was raised in the act

of prayer, and also in taking an oath,
Gen. 14 : 22 ; hence the right-hand of a
perjured man was "a right-hand of false
hood," Psa. 144 : 8. In regard to the
points of the compass, the right-hand in
Hebrew denotes the south, 1 8am. 23 : 19 ;
24, as the left-hand means the north,
Gen. 14:15. See EAST.

RIM'MON, pomegranate, I., a town of
Palestine, near the frontier of Edom,
Josh. 15 : 21, 32, Zech. 14 : 10, in the
region assigned to the tribe of Simeon,
Josh. 19:7 ; 1 Chr. 4:32; Neh. 11:29.

II. A town on a high chalky hill, a
few miles east of Bethel, Judg. 20 : 45-
47 ; 21 : 13. A village called Rummon
still exists there.

III. A city of Zebulun, assigned to the
Levites, Josh. 19 : 13 ; perhaps the same
as Rimmono, 1 Chr. 6:77, which may be
traced in the modern village Rimmaneh,
north-west of mount Tabor.

IV. An unknown encampment of the
Israelites in the desert, Num. 33:19.

V. An idol of the Syrians, 2 Kin. 5:18.
See NAMAAN.

RINGS, ornaments for the ears, nose,
legs, arms, or fingers. The antiquity of

RIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RIZ

rings appears from Scripture and from
profane authors. Judah left his ring
with Tamar, Gen. 38 : 18. When Pha
raoh committed the government of
Egypt to Joseph, he gave him his ring
from his finger, Gen. 41 : 42. After -the
victory of the Israelites over the Midian-
ites, they offered to the Lord the rings,
the bracelets, and the golden necklaces
taken from the enemy, Num. 31 : 50.

The Israelitish women wore rings, not
only on their fingers, but also in their

nostrils and their ears, and on their
ankles. See BRACELETS. James distin
guishes a man of wealth and dignity by
the ring of gold on his finger, Jag. 2 : 2.
At the return of the prodigal son, his
father ordered a handsome apparel for

his dress, and that a ring should be put
on his finger, Luke 15:22.

The ring was used chiefly as a signet
to seal with, and Scripture generally
assigns it to princes and great persons ;
as the king of Egypt, Joseph, Ahaz, Jez
ebel, king Ahasuerus, his favorite Ha-
man, Mordecai, king Darius, etc., 1 Kin.
21:8; Esth. 3:10; Jer. 22:24; Dan. 6:17.
The patents and orders of these princes
were sealed with their rings or signets,
an impression from which was their con
firmation. See SEAL.

RING-STREAKED, marked with cir
cular streaks of various colors, Gen.
39 : 35.

RI'PHATH, a northern nation de
scended from a grandson of Japheth,
Gen. 10:3, called Diphath in 1 Chr. 1:6.
The name is traced in that of the Ri-
phcean mountains, in Russia.

RIV'ER. This word answers in our
Bible to various Hebrew terms, of which
the principal are the following :

1. Yeor, an Egyptian word signifying
river. It is always applied to the Nile
and its various canals, except in Job
28:10; Dan. 12:5, 6, 7.

2. Nahar, applied, like our word river,
to constantly flowing streams, such as
the Euphrates. In our version this word
is sometimes rendered "flood," Josh.
24:2, 3, etc.

3. Nahal, a torrent -bed, or valley
through which water flows in the rainy
season only, Num. 34:5, etc. ; frequent
ly rendered "brook," Num. 13:28; Job
6 : 15, etc. Such streams are to the ori
entals striking emblems of inconstancy
and faithlessness. Flowing only in the
rainy season, and drying up when the
summer heat sets in — and some of them
in desert places failing prematurely —
they sadly disappoint the thirsty and per
haps perishing traveller who has looked
forward to them with longing and with
hope, Job 6 : 15-20; Jer. 15:18.

In some passages in our Bible the word
' ' rivers ' ' seems to denote rivulets or ca
nals, to conduct hither and thither small
streams of water from a tank or foun
tain, Ezek. 31 : 4. Such conduits were
easily turned by moulding the soil with
the foot ; and some think this is the idea
in Deut. 11 : 10 ; "where thou sowedst
thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot,
as a garden of herbs." See also Prov.
21:1.

RIZ'PAH, a concubine of Saul, taken
373

ROB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ROM

after his death by the ambitious Abner.
Her two sons were afterwards hung, with
five other sons of J3aul, to avenge the
wrongs he had inflicted on the Gibeon-
ites. With the most devoted maternal
affection, RizpahVatched over their re
mains day and night, apparently from
May to October ; and David, being in
formed of her painful watchings, gath
ered the bones of all the family of Saul
and gave them an honorable burial,
2 Sam. 3:7-11; 21:1-14.

ROBES. See GARMENTS.

ROD, an offshoot from the trunk of a
tree, Gen. 30:37 ; Isa. 11:1 ; Ezek. 87:15-
22. It also denotes a staff, used by one
walking, Isa. 3:1 ; Ezek. 29:6 ; by a di
viner, Hosea 4 : 12 ; by a surveyor, Psa.
74:2 ; by a shepherd, Lev. 27:32 ; Zech.
11 : 10-14; as an instrument of correc
tion, Prov. 23 : 13 ; 29 : 15 ; as a sceptre,
Esth. 8:4; Isa. 14 : 5 ; and as a symbol
of power, Psa. 2 : 9, support and direc
tion, Psa. 23:4.

ROE and ROEBUCK, not the animal
still found in Scotland and Germany, but
the oriental antelope or gazelle, the Anti-
lopa Cervicapra, or Dorcas, of Linnaeus.
It is often referred to in the Bible, Deut.
12 : 15, 22 ; 14 : 5 ; 1 Kin. 4 : 23 ; Prov.
6:5; Song 2:7, 9, 17; 8:14: Isa. 13:14.
It is about two and a half feet in height,
of a reddish-brown color, with the belly
and feet white, has long naked ears, and
a short, erect tail. The horns are black,
about twelve inches long, and bent like
a lyre. It inhabits Barbary, Egypt, Ara
bia, and Syria, and is about half the size
of a fallow-deer. It goes in large flocks,
is easily tamed, though naturally very
timid ; and its flesh is reckoned excel
lent food.

374

There are no less than twenty -nine
species of antelopes in all. This animal
constitutes a genus between the deer and
the goat. They are mostly confined to
Asia and Africa, inhabiting the hottest
regions of the old world, or the temper
ate zones near the tropics. None of
them, except the chamois and the saiga,
are found in Europe. In America only
one species has yet been found, namely,
the Missouri antelope, which inhabits
the country west of the Mississippi. An
telopes chiefly inhabit hilly countries,
though some reside in the plains ; and
some species form herds of two or three
thousand, while others keep in small
troops of five or six. These animals are
elegantly formed, active, restless, timid,
shy, and astonishingly swift, running
with vast bounds, and springing or leap
ing with surprising agility ; they fre
quently stop for a moment in the midst
of their course to gaze at their pursuers,
and then resume their flight. The grey
hound, the fleetest of dogs, is usually
outrun by them; and the sportsman is
obliged to have recourse to the aid of
the falcon, which is trained to the work,
for seizing on the animal and impeding
its motion, that the dogs may thus have
an opportunity of overtaking'it. In In-

i dia and Persia a sort of leopard is made
use of in the chase ; and this animal takes

| its prey, not by swiftness of foot, but by
its astonishing springs, which are similar

I to those of the antelope ; and yet, if the
leopard should fail in its first attemptf
the game escapes.

The fleetness of this animal has been
proverbial in the countries which it in
habits, from the earliest time, 2 Sam.
2:18 ; 1 Chr. 12:8 ; as also the beauty of
its eyes ; so that to say, ' ' You have the
eyes of a gazelle," is to pay a high com
pliment.

ROLL. See BOOK.

ROME, ROMANS. The city of Rome
is in some respects the most celebrated
on earth ; as it was long the mistress of
the heathen world, and has since been
for many centuries the chief ecclesiasti
cal capital of the nominal Christian
world. It was situated on the river
Tiber about fifteen miles from the Med
iterranean, in the plain now called the
Qampagna di Roma. At the period of
its greatest glory its walls were nearly
twenty miles in circumference, and en
closed the famous seven hills of which

ROM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ROM

their poets speak, Rev. 17 : 9. It sur
passed all other cities in the magnificence
of its structures, filled with paintings and
sculptures ; and contained, it is thought,
two millions of inhabitants. Famous
for its progress in the arts and in luxury,
it was still more renowned for its con
quests ; and there was scarcely a nation
then known whose spoils and captive
princes had not contributed to swell the
pomp and pride of the imperial city.
The idols of all conquered nations were
admitted among the thousands there
worshipped ; and the people were full of
superstition, and in morals exceedingly
corrupt. The painful representation of
the sins of heathenism given by Paul in
his letter to the Romans, 1 : 21-32, has
been fully confirmed by their own writ
ers.

Rome was founded by Romulus 752
B. c., and governed for a time by kings.
After the expulsion of Tarquin, B. c. 509,
it was governed by two consuls, elected
annually ; and this form of government
continued several centuries, and indeed
after the real power had passed into the
hands of a sovereign. Julius Caasar first
acquired the sovereign power, though he
refused the name of emperor. His neph
ew Octavius, afterwards Augustus, took
the name of emperor about 30 B. c. In
his reign our Saviour was born. The suc
ceeding Roman emperors, who ruled over
the larger part of the then known world,
were mostly distinguished for their cru
elties, debaucheries, and licentiousness ;
until Constantino embraced Christianity
and made it the religion of his empire.
By transferring the seat of his empire to
Constantinople, A. D. 328, he gave a fatal
blow to the power and influence of Rome ;
which thenceforth continued to be only
the ecclesiastical metropolis of the west
ern church. But as such she acquired
afterwards, under the popes, an immense
power, which still continues in Catholic
countries ; but which has received its
death-wound through Protestantism, and
the consequent enlightening of the pop
ular mind. At the present day, Rome
is rendered especially interesting by the
magnificent ruins of its former greatness,
temples, pillars, public baths, aqueducts,
triumphal arches, and amphitheatres.
It retains also its preeminence as a treas
ure-house of the fine arts. It has three
hundred and sixty churches, among
which is St. Peters, the largest in the

world, and many others truly gorgeous.
It conta-ins also large libraries, including
that of the Vatican ; numerous galleries
and museums full of the choicest paint
ings and sculptures, besides palaces, vil
las, schools, and hospitals. Yet it groans
under priestly tyranny, and perpetuates
the superstition, immorality, and misery
of pagan Rome.

In the books of the Old Testament no
direct allusion is apparently made to
Rome, or to the Roman power, except in
the prophetic visions of Daniel, 2:33, 40 ;
7:7, 19. Up to the time when the can
on of the Old Testament was closed, be
fore B. c. 400, the Romans had not so
far extended. their conquests as to bring
them in contact with the Jews. But in
the books of the Maccabees and in the
New Testament they are often mention
ed. See 1 Mac. 8. The first alliance
between the Jews and Romans was made
by Judas Maccabeus, B. c. 162. This
was renewed by his brother Jonathan,
B. c. 144. After this time, the Romans
had much to do with Judea, not only
under the Herods, but also when reduced
to the form of a Roman province ; until at
last they utterly exterminated the Jews
from the country. They took the city of
Jerusalem not less than three times : first
under Pompey, B. c. 63 ; again under So-
sius, B. c. 33 ; and lastly under Titus,
A. D. 70, when both the city and temple
were destroyed. See JUDEA.

There were thousands of Jews resident
at Rome, where a part of the city was
anciently, as now, appropriated to them,
and where they were usually allowed
the free exercise of their national relig
ion. Among these, and among the Ro
mans themselves, the gospel was early
introduced, perhaps by those who were
at Jerusalem at the Pentecost, Acts 2 : 10.
Under Claudius, about A. D. 50, both Jews
and Christians were expelled from Rome ;
and among them apparently Aquila and
Priscilla, Acts 18: 2; Rom. 16:3. At the
time of Paul's epistle, A. D. 58, the faith
of the Christian church at Rome was
everywhere celebrated, Rom. 1:8; 16 : 91.
In A. D. 64, another fierce persecution
against Christians in that city was insti
tuted by Nero. These persecutions were
followed by others more or less severe,
with intervals of repose, making ten in
all before the time of Constantino. At
this period the corruption of doctrine
and of practice, which had previously
375

ROM BIBLE DICTIONARY. ROM

RUINS OF THE COLISEUM. AT ROME.

appeared in the church, began to spread
more rapidly ; and by degrees the papal
apostasy, with its fatal perversions of the
truth as it is in Christ, became enthron
ed at Rome according to the predictions
of Paul, Peter, and John.

The arena of the Coliseum, whose ma
jestic ruins are now the most impressive
monument of the ancient mistress of the
world, was the theatre of many a conflict
of Christian martyrs with wild beasts ;
and its sands drank the blood of thou
sands of unresisting victims, men, wom
en, and children, who met a violent
death — some tremblingly, some trium
phantly, but all resolutely — rather than
deny the Lord Jesus Christ. The Col
iseum was erected for gladiatorial shows,
by the labors of fifteen thousand men for
ten years. . It was an elliptical struc
ture, 620 feet long and 513 broad ; with
an arena 290 feet by 180, surrounded by
tiers on tiers of seats, the upper and
outer circle being 160 feet from the
ground. The vast amphitheatre is said
to have contained seats for eighty thou
sand spectators ; and its ruins will long
stand, a melancholy proof of the cruelty
of heathenism.

THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS was writ
ten by Paul during the three months he
376

remained at Corinth, A. D. 58, before
going to Jerusalem, Rom. 15:25. Com
pare Acts 20 : 2, 3, 16 ; Rom. 16 : 23 ;
1 Cor. 1 : 14 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 20. It is the
most important, systematic, and argu
mentative of the epistles of Paul. Its
immediate occasion seems to have been
the misunderstanding which existed be
tween Jewish and Gentile converts, not
only at Rome, but everywhere. The
Jew felt himself in privilege superior to
the Gentile ; who, on the other hand,
did not allow this superiority, and was
vexed by the assertion of it. In refer
ence to this, in the first five chapters,
the apostle proves that the entire human
race is depraved and under condemna
tion — that neither Gentile nor Jew has
any privilege of birth or personal merit,
but that each receives all benefits through
the mere sovereign grace of God, Christ
alone being our justification. He then
proceeds to exhibit Christ as our sanctifi-
cation; and answers the objections made
to the doctrine of gratuitous justification,
that it tends to encourage sin, and that
God has no right to treat mankind in
this way. In chaps. 10, 11, he applies
all this to the Jews. In the remainder
of the epistle, which is hortatory, the
apostle lays down many practical rules

ROO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAB

of conduct, which are of the highest mo
ment to all Christians.

KOOF. See HOUSE.

ROOM is sometimes synonymous with
seat or place, as in Luke 14:8-10 ; 20:46.

ROSE, the queen of flowers, highly
esteemed in its native East for its fra
grance, and the beauty of its form and
colors. Several varieties of wild rose
are still found in Palestine. The "rose
of Sharon," sacredly associated with the
heavenly Bridegroom, Song 2:1, Isa.
35 : 1, appears from the derivation of its
Hebrew name to have been a bulbous
plant; and is generally believed, in ac
cordance with the ancient versions, to
denote a plant of the Narcissus family,
perhaps the meadow-saffron, which grows
in rich profusion on the plain of Sharon.

RUBY. The oriental ruby is next in
value, as a gem, to the diamond. In
deed, a ruby of this kind, above a cer
tain size, is more valuable than a dia
mond of the same weight. The oriental
ruby is a red variety of the sapphire ; its
color is usually between a vivid cochi
neal and crimson. The word "rubies"
occurs several times in the English Bible,
as Job 28 : 18 ; Prov. 3 : 15 ; 8:11; but
the corresponding word in Hebrew is
thought, to denote red coral, or perhaps
pearls ; while the true ruby is more nat
urally designated by the ' ' agate ' ' or
"carbuncle" of Isa. 54:12; Ezek. 27:16.

RUDE, 2 Cor. 11 : 6, artless and un
polished.

RUE, a well-known garden herb, hav
ing a strong odor and a bitter taste. Our
Saviour reproaches the Pharisees with
their superstitious affectation of paying
the tithe of rue, which was not in real
ity subject to the law of tithe, while
they neglected the more essential parts
of the law* Luke 11:42.

RU'FUS, son of Simon the Cyrenian
who was constrained to carry the cross
on which the Saviour was to be crucified,
Mark 15 : 21. If he is the same person
whom Paul salutes in Rom. 16:13, as is
probable, we may see in this instance the
divine blessing abiding on the household
of one who befriended Christ and bore
his cross.

RUSH, translated bulrush in Isa. 58:5,
flag in Job 40:21, and hook in Job 41 :2 ;
a plant growing in marshy ground or by
water-courses, and used for chair-bot
toms, baskets, mats, ropes, etc. The
pith of a similar plant in Europe is used

as the wick of a candle or rush-light.
In Isa. 9:14 ; 19:15, a rush is put for the
lowest of the people.

RUTH, a Moabitess, who, having re
turned with her mother-in-law Naomi to
Judea, probably about the time of Gide
on, soon afterwards married Boaz, a
kinsman of Naomi. From this marriage
descended David, and through him our
Saviour Jesus Christ, Matt. 1:5.

THE BOOK OF RUTH contains this his
tory, told in a most simple and affecting
manner. The object of the writer, no
doubt, was to trace the genealogy of king
David. At the outset, he says that these
events took place when the judges ruled
in Israel — an intimation that in the time
of the writer they had ceased to rule. At
the close of the book the name of David
is introduced; which shows that it was
not written before his day, B. c. 1060.
This book is inserted in our Bibles after
the book of Judges, as a sort of sequel to
it. Many of the ancient fathers made
but one book of Judges and Ruth. The
story of Ruth exhibits the frank and
simple manners of the times, and the
courtesy and charity of the Hebrew laws ;
gives an intimation of the future exten
sion of the gospel to the Gentiles; and
illustrates God's providential care of
families, and the blessings which flow
from filial piety and faith in God.

S.

SABACTHA'NI, hast thou forsaken me, a
Syro-Chaldaic word, a part of our Sav
iour's exclamation on the cross, Matt.
27 : 46 ; the whole is taken from Psa.
22:1, where it is used prophetically.

SAB'AOTH, or rather Tsabaoth, hosts
or armies. JEHO\TAH SABAOTII is the Lord
of Hosts ; and we are to understand the
word hosts in the most comprehensive
sense, as including the host of heaven,
the angels and ministers of the Lord ;
the stars and planets, which, as an army
ranged in battle array, perform the will
of God ; the armies of earth, whose con
flicts his providence overrules to the ac
complishment of his own wise designs;
the hordes of inferior creatures, as the
locusts that plagued Egypt, the quails
that fed Israel, and "the canker-worm
and the palmer-worm, his great army,"
Joel 2:15 ; and lastly, the people of the
Lord, both of the old and new cover
377

SAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAB

nants, a truly great army, of which God
is the general and commander, 2 Sam.
6:2; Psa. 24:10; Rom. 9:29; Jas. 5:4.

SAB'BATH, rest. God, having created
the world in six days, ' ' rested ' ' on the
seventh, Gen. 2 : 2, 3 ; that is, he ceased
from producing new beings in this crea
tion ; and because he had rested on it,
he "blessed" or sanctified it, and ap
pointed it hi a peculiar manner for his
worship.

We here have an account of the ORIGI
NAL INSTITUTION of the day of rest. Like
the institution of marriage, it was given
to man for the whole race. Those who
worshipped God seem to have kept the
Sabbath from the first, and there are
tokens of this in the brief sketch the Bi
ble contains of the ages before the giving
of the law at mount Sinai. Noah sent
forth the raven from the ark, and the
dove thrice, at intervals of seven days,
Gen. 8. The account of the sending of
manna in the desert proves that the Sab
bath was already known and observed,
Ex. 16 : 22-30. The week was an estab
lished division of time in Mesopotamia
and Arabia, Gen. 29 : 27 ; and traces of
it have been found in many nations of
antiquity, so remote from each other and
of such diverse origin as to forbid the
idea of their having received it from
Sinai and the Hebrews.

The REENACTMENT of the Sabbath on
mount Sinai, among the Commandments
of the Moral Law, was also designed not
for the Jews alone, but for all who should
receive the word of God, and ultimately
for all mankind. Christ and his apostles
never speak of the decalogue but as of
permanent and universal obligation.
' ' The Sabbath was made for man. ' ' The
fourth commandment is as binding as
the third and the fifth. Certain addi
tions to it, with specifications and penal
ties, were a part of the Mosaic civil law,
and are not now in force, Ex. 31 : 14 ;
Num. 15 : 32-36. On the Sabbath-day,
the priests and Levites, ministers of the
temple, entered on their week ; arid
those who had attended the foregoing
week, went out. They placed on the
golden table new loaves of show-bread,
and took away the old ones, Lev. 24 : 8.
Also on this day were offered particular
sacrifices of two lambs for a burnt-offer
ing, with wine and meal. The Sabbath
was celebrated like the other festivals,
from evening to evening, Num. 28:9, 10.
378

The chief obligation of the Sabbath ex-
pressed in the law, is to sanctify it, Ex.
20:8; Deut. 5:12 : "Remember the Sab
bath-day to sanctify it. " It is sanctified
by necessary works of charity, by pray
ers, praises, and thanksgivings, by the
public and private worship of God, by
the study of his word, by tranquillity of
mind, and by meditation on moral and
religious truth in its bearing on the duties
of life and the hope of immortality. The
other requirement of the law is rest;
"Thou shalt not do any work." The
ordinary business of life is to be wholly
laid aside, both for the sake of bodily
and mental health, and chiefly to secure
the quiet and uninterrupted employment
of the sacred hours for religious purposes.
The spirit of the law clearly forbids all
uses of the day which are worldly, such
as amusements, journeys, etc., whereby
one fails to keep the day holy himself,
or hinders others in doing so.

The CHRISTIAN SABBATH is the original
day of rest established in the garden of
Eden and reenacted on Sinai, without
those requirements which were peculiar
to Judaism, but with all its original
moral force and with the new sanctions
of Christianity. It commemorates not
only the creation of the world* but a
still greater event — the completion of
the work of atonement by the resurrec
tion of Christ; and as he rose from the
dead on the day after the Jewish Sab
bath, that day of his resurrection has
been observed by Christians ever since.
The change appears to have been made
at once, and as is generally believed
under the direction of the ' ' Lord of the
Sabbath." On the same day, the first
day of the week, he appeared among his
assembled disciples ; and on the next
recurrence of the day he was again with
them, and revealed himself to Thomas.
From 1 Cor. 11:20 ; 14:23, 40, it appears
that the disciples in all places were ac
customed to meet statedly to worship
and to celebrate the Lord's supper ; and
from 1 Cor. 16:1, 2, we learn that these
meetings were on the first day of the
week. Thus in Acts 20 : 6-11, we find
the Christians at Troas assembled on the
first day, to partake of the supper and to
receive religious instruction. John ob
served the day with peculiar solemnity,
Rev. 1:10; and it had then received the
name of "The Lord's day," which it
has ever since retained. For a time,

SAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAB

such of the disciples as were Jews observ
ed the Jewish Sabbath also; but they
did not require this nor the observance
of any festival of the Mosaic dispensation,
of Gentile converts, nor even of Jews,
Col. 2 : 16. The early Christian fathers
refer to the first day of the week as the
time set apart for worship, and to the
transfer of the day on account of the
resurrection of the Saviour. Pliny the
younger, proconsul of Pontus near the
close of the first century, in a letter to
the emperor Trajan, remarks that the
Christians were " accustomed on a stated
day to meet together before daylight,
and to repeat a hymn to Christ as God,
and to bind themselves by a solemn
bond not to commit any wickedness,"
etc. So well known was their custom,
that the ordinary test question put by
persecutors to those suspected of Chris
tianity was, "Hast thou kept the Lord's
day?" To which the reply was, "I am
a Christian ; I cannot omit it. ' ' Justin
Martyr observes that "on the Lord's
day all Christians in the city or country
meet together, because that is the day of
our Lord's resurrection, and then we
read the writings of the apostles and
prophets; this being done, the person
presiding makes an oration to the assem
bly., to exhort them to imitate and to
practise the things they have heard ;
then we all join in prayer, and after that
we celebrate the sacrament. Then they
who are able and willing give what they
think proper, and what is collected is
laid up in the hands of the chief officer,
who distributes it to orphans and wid
ows, and other necessitous Christians, as
their wants require." See 1 Cor. 16 : 2.
A very honorable conduct and worship.
Would that it were more prevalent
among us, with the spirit and piety of
primitive Christianity !

The commandment to observe the
Sabbath is worthy of its place in the
decalogue ; and its observance is of fun
damental importance to society, which
without it would fast relapse into igno
rance, vice, and ungodliness. Its very
existence on earth, by the ordinance of
God, proves that there remains an eter
nal Sabbath in heaven, of which the
"blest repose" of the day of God is an
earnest to those who rightly observe it,
Heb. 4:9.

"The second Sabbath after the first,"
Luke 6:1, should rather read, "The first

Sabbath after the second day of the pass-
over." Of the seven days of the pass-
over, the first was a Sabbath, and on the
second was a festival in which the fruits
of the harvest were offered to God, Lev.
23 : 5, 9, etc. From this second day the
Jews reckoned seven weeks or Sabbaths
to the feast of Pentecost, Lev. 23:15, etc.
Hence the first week or the first Sabbath
which occurred after this second day>
was called the first week or Sabbath
after the second day.

The ' ' preparation of the Sabbath ' ' was
the Friday before ; for as it was forbid
den to make a fire, to bake bread, or to
dress victuals, on the Sabbath-day, they
provided on the Friday every thing need
ful for their sustenance on the Sabbath,
Mark 15:42; Matt. 27:62; John 19:14,
31, 42.

For "a Sabbath-day's journey," see
JOURNEY.

SABBAT'ICAL YEAE was to be cele
brated among the Jews once every seven
years ; the land was to rest, and be left
without culture, Exod. 23 : 10, 11 ; Lev.
25 : 1-7. God appointed the observance
of the Sabbatical year, to preserve the
remembrance of the creation of the
world ; to enforce the acknowledgment
of his sovereign authority over all
things, particularly ovgr the land of Ca
naan, which he had given to the He
brews ; and to inculcate humanity on
his people, by commanding that they
should resign to servants, to the poor,
to strangers and to brutes, the produce
of their fields, of their vineyards, and
of their gardens. Josephus and Tacitus
both mention the Sabbatical year as ex
isting in their day. See JUBILEE.

SABEANS. This word represents two
distinct people, who, in accordance with
the original Hebrew, might have been
more properly called Seboeans and She-
Damans.

I. The first denotes the inhabitants of
the country called SEBA. This appears
to have been the great island, or rather
peninsula of Meroe, in northern Ethio
pia, or Nubia, formed between the Nile
and the Astaboras, now Atbara. Upon
this peninsula lay a city of the like name,
the ruins of which are still visible a few
miles north of the modern Shendy. Me
roe was a city of priests, whose origin is
lost in the highest antiquity. The mon
arch was chosen by the priests from
among themselves ; and the government
379

SAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAC

was entirely theocratic, being managed
by the priests according to the oracle
of Jupiter Ammon. This was the Seba
of the Hebrews, according to Josephus,
who mentions at the same time that it
was conquered by Cambyses, and receiv
ed from him the name Meroe, after his
sister. With this representation accord
the notices of Seba and its inhabitants
in Scripture. In Gen. 10:7, their ances
tor is said to be a son of Cush, the pro
genitor of the Ethiopians. In Isa. 43:3,
and Psa. 72 : 10, Seba is mentioned as a
distant and wealthy country ; in the for
mer passage, it is connected with Egypt
and Ethiopia ; and Meroe was one of the
most important commercial cities of in
terior Africa. These Sabeans are describ
ed by Herodotus as men of uncommon
size. Compare Isa. 45:14. A branch of
this family, it is thought, located them
selves near the head of the Persian gulf ;
and the Sabeans mentioned in Job 1 : 15
were probably Cushites. See CUSH and
RAAMAH.

II. The inhabitants of the country
called SIIEBA. The Sheba of Scripture
appears to be the Saba of Strabo, situ
ated towards the southern part of Ara
bia, at a short distance from the coast
of the Ked sea, the capital of which was
Mariaba, or Marejb. This region, called
also Yemen, was probably settled by
Sheba the son of Joktan, of the race of
Shem, Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22.

The queen of Sheba, who visited Solo
mon, 1 Kin. 10; 2 Chr. 9; Matt. 12:42,
and made him presents of gojd, ivory,
and costly spices, was probably the mis
tress of this region ; indeed, the Sabeans
were celebrated/ on account of their im
portant commerce in these very prod
ucts, among the Greeks also, Job 6 : 19 ;
Isa. 60 : 6 ; Jer. 6 : 20 : Ezek. 27 : 22 ;
38 : 13 ; Psa. 72 : 10, 15 ; Joel 3:8. The
tradition of this visit of the queen of
Sheba to Solomon has maintained itself
among the Arabs, who call her Balkis,
and affirm that she became the wife of
Solomon.

Besides the Joktanite Sabasans, two
others of the same name are mentioned
in the Bible. 1. A son of Jokshan, and
grandson of Abraham and Keturah, Gen.
10 : 28. 2. A grandson of Cush. It is
possible that these descendants of the
Ethiopian Sheba may have had their
residence in Africa ; but the question of
these two Shebas is obscure and difficult
380

to determine. The Sebagans and She
bagans are both mentioned in the same
prophecy, Psa. 72 : 10, as coming to lay
their offerings at the feet of Christ.

SAB'TAH and SAB'TECHA, sons ol
Cush, Gen. 10 : 7. It cannot be decided
whether they settled in Africa, Arabia,
or south-eastern Asia.

SACK, SACK'CLOTH. SACK is a pure
Hebrew word, and has spread into many
modern languages. Sackcloth is a xery
coarse stuff, often of hair, Rev. 6:12. In
great calamities, in penitence, in trouble,
the Jews, etc., wore sackcloth about their
bodies, Gen. 37:34 ; 2 Sam. 3:31 ; 1 Kin.
20 : 32 ; Matt. 11 : 21. The prophets were
often clothed in sackcloth, and generally
in coarse clothing, Matt. 3 : 4. The Lord
bids Isaiah put off the sackcloth from
about his body, and go naked,. Isa. 20:2.
Zechariah says, 13:4, that false prophets
should no longer prophesy in sackcloth,
(English translation, a rough garment,)
to deceive the simple.

In times of joy, or on hearing good
news, those who were clad in sackcloth
cast it from them, and resumed their
usual clothing, Psa. 30:11.

SACK'BUT. See Music.

SACRIFICE, an offering made to God
on his altar, by the hand of a lawful
minister. A sacrifice differed from an
oblation : it was properly the offering
up of a life ; whereas an oblation was
but a simple offering or gift. There is
every reason to believe that sacrifices
were from the first of divine appoint
ment ; otherwise they would have bee)

SAC

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAC

a superstitious will-worship, which God
could not have accepted as he did. See
ABEL. Adam and his sons, Noah and
his descendants, Abraham and his pos
terity, Job and Melchizedek, before the
Mosaic law, offered to God real sacrifices.
That law did but settle the quality, the
number, and other circumstances of sac
rifices. Every one was priest and min
ister of his own sacrifice ; at least, he
was at liberty to choose what priest he
pleased in offering his victim. Gener
ally, this honor belonged to the head of
a family ; hence it was the prerogative
of the first-born. But after Moses this
was, among the Jews, confined to the
family of Aaron.

There was but one place appointed in
the law for the offering of sacrifices by
the Jews. It was around the one altar
of the only true God in the tabernacle,
and afterwards in the temple, that all
his people were to unite in his worship,
Lev. 17:4, 9; Deut. 12:5-18. On some
special occasions, however, kings, proph
ets, and judges sacrificed elsewhere, Judg.
2:5; 6:26; 13:19; 1 Sam. 7:17; 1 Kin.
3 : 2, 3 ; 18 : 33. The Jews were taught
to cherish the greatest horror of human
sacrifices, as heathenish and revolting,
Lev. 20 : 2 ; Deut. 12 : 31 ; Psa. 106 : 37 ;
Isa. 66:3; Ezek. 20:31.

The Hebrews had three kinds of sac
rifices :

1. The burnt-offering or holocaust, in

which the whole victim was consumed,
without any reserve to the person who
gave the victim, or to the priest who
killed and sacrificed it, except that the
priest had the skin ; for before the vic
tims were offered to the Lord, their skins
were flayed off, and their feet and en
trails were washed, Lev. 1 : 1-17 ; 7 : 8.
Every burnt-offering contained an ac
knowledgment of general guilt, and a
typical expiation of it. The burning of
the whole victim on the altar signified,
on the part of the offerer, the entireness
of his devotion of himself and all his
substance to God ; and, on the part of
the victim, the completeness of the ex
piation.

2. The sin-offering, of which the tres
pass-offering may be regarded as a varie
ty. This differed from the burnt-offer
ing in that it always had respect to par
ticular offences against law either moral
or ceremonial, which were committed
through ignorance, or at least not in a
presumptuous spirit. No part of it re
turned to him who had given it, but the
sacrificing priest had a share of it, Lev.
4-6; 7:1-10.

3. Peace-offerings: these were offered in
the fulfilment of vows, to return thanks
to God for benefits, (thank-offerings,) or
to satisfy private devotion, (freewill-offer
ings.) The Israelites accordingly offered
these when they chose, no law obliging
them to it, and they were free to choose

381

3AC

BIBLE DICTIONARY,,

SAO

among such animals as were allowed in
sacrifice, Lev. 3 ; 7 : 11-34. The law only
required that the victim should be with
out blemish. He who presented it came
to the door of the tabernacle, put his
hand on the head of the victim, and
killed it. The priest poured out the
blood about the altar of burnt-sacrifices :
he burnt on the lire of the altar the fat
of the lower belly, that which covers the
kidneys, the liver, and the bowels. And
if it were a lamb, or a ram, he added to
it the rump of the animal, which in that
country is very fat. Before these things
were committed to the fire of the altar,
the priest put them into the hands of
the offerer, then made him lift them up
on high, and wave them toward the four
quarters of the world, the priest support
ing and directing his hands. The breast
and the right shoulder of the sacrifice
belonged to the priest that performed
the service ; and it appears that both of
them were put into the hands of him
who offered them, though Moses men
tions only the breast of the animal.
After this, all the rest of the sacrifice
belonged to him who presented it, and
he might eat it with his family and
friends at his pleasure, Lev. 8 : 31. The
peace-offering signified expiation of sin,
wad thus reconciliation with God, and
382

holy communion with him and with his
people.

The sacrifices or offerings of meal or
liquors, which were offered for sin, were
in favor oi the poorer sort, who could
not afford to sacrifice an ox or goat or
sheep, Lev. 5 : 10-13. They contented
themselves with offering meal or flour,
sprinkled with oil, with spice (or frank
incense) over it. And the priest, taking
a handful of this flour, with all the frank
incense, sprinkled them on the fire of the
altar ; and all the rest of the flour was
his own : he was to eat it without leaven
in the tabernacle, and none but priests
were to partake of it. As to other offer
ings, fruits, wine, meal, wafers or cakes,
or any thing else, the priest always cast
a part on the altar ; the rest belonged to
him and the other priests. These offer
ings were always accompanied with salt
and wine, but were without leaven,
Lev. 2.

Offerings in which they set at liberty
a bird or a goat, were not strictly sac
rifices, because there was no shedding of
blood, and the victim remained alive.

Sacrifices of birds were offered on tkree
occasions : 1. For sin, when the person
offering was not rich enough to provide
an animal for a victim, Lev. 5:7, 8.
2. For purification of a woman after

SAC

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAD

childbirth, Lev. 12:6, 7. When she
could offer a lamb and a young pigeon,
she gave both ; the lamb for a burnt-
offering, the pigeon for a sin-offering.
But if she were not able to offer a lamb,
she gave a pair of turtles, or a pair of
young pigeons ; one for a burnt-offering,
the other for a sin-offering. 3. They
offered two sparrows for those who were
purified from the leprosy ; one. was a
burnt-offering, the other was a scape-
sparrow, as above, Lev. 14:4, etc., 49-51.

For the sacrifice of the paschal lamb,
see PASSOVER.

The perpetual sacrifice of the taberna
cle and temple, Ex. 29 : 38-40, Num.
28 : 3, was a daily offering of two lambs
on the altar of burnt-offerings ; one in
the morning, the other in the evening.
They were burnt as holocausts, but by a
small fire, that they might continue
burning the longer. The lamb of the
morning was offered about sunrise, after
the incense was burnt on the golden
altar, and before any other sacrifice.
That in the evening was offered between
the two evenings, that is, at the decline
of day, and before night. With each of
these victims was offered half a pint of
wine, half a pint of the purest oil, and
an assaron, or about five pints, of the
finest flour.

Such were the sacrifices of the He
brews — sacrifices of divine appointment,
and yet altogether incapable in them
selves of purifying the soul or atoning for
its sins. Paul has described these and
other ceremonies of the law "as weak
and beggarly elements, ' ' Gal. 4:9. They
represented grace and purity, but they
did not communicate it. They convinced
the sinner of his necessity of purification
and sanctification to God ; but they did
not impart holiness or justification to
him. Sacrifices were only prophecies
and figures of the true sacrifice, the Lamb
of God, which eminently includes all
their virtues and qualities ; being at the
same time a holocaust, a sacrifice for sin,
and a sacrifice of thanksgiving ; contain
ing the whole substance and efficacy, of
which the ancient sacrifices were only
representations. The paschal lamb, the
daily burnt-offerings, the offerings of
flour and wine, and all other oblations,
of whatever nature, promised and repre
sented the death of Jesus Christ, Heb.
9 : 9-15 ; 10:1. Accordingly, by his death
he abolished them all, 1 Cor. 5:7 ; Heb.

10 : 8-10. By his offering of himself once
for all, Heb. 10:3, he has superseded all
other sacrifices, and saves for ever all
who believe, Eph. 5:2; Heb. 9 : 11-26 ;
while without this expiatory sacrifice,
divine justice could never have relaxed
its hold on a single human soul.

The idea of a substitution of the vic
tim in the place of the sinner is a famil
iar one in the Old Testament, Lev. 16:21 ;
Deut. 21 : 1-8 ; Isa. 53 : 4 • Dan. 9 : 26 ;
and is found attending all the sacrifices
of animals, Lev. 4:20, 26; 6:10; 14:18;
16:21. This is the reason assigned why
the blood especially, as being the very
life and soul of the victim, was sprinkled
on the altar and poured out before the
Lord to signify its utter destruction in
the sinner's stead, Lev. 17:11. Yet the
Jews were carefully directed not to rely
on these sacrifices as works of merit.
They were taught that without repent
ance, faith, and reformation, all sacrifi
ces were an abomination to God, Prov.
21:27 ; Jer. 6:20; Amos 5: 22; Mic. 6:6-
8 ; that He desires mercy and not sacri
fice, Hos. 6:6 ; Matt. 9:13, and supreme
love to him, Mark 12:33. "To obey
is better than sacrifice, and to hearken
than the fat of rams," 1 Sam. 15: 22;
Prov. 21 : 3 ; Matt. 5 : 23. See also the
fiftieth Psalm. Then, as truly as under
the Christian dispensation, it could be
said, "The sacrifices of God are a bro
ken spirit ; a broken and a contrite heart,
0 God, thou wilt not despise," Psa.
51 : 17. The Jews, without these dispo
sitions, could not present any offering
agreeable to God ; and he often explains
himself on this matter in the prophets,
Psa. 40:6; Isa. 1:11-14; Hos. 6:6; Joel
2:12-18; Amos 5:21, 22, etc.

The term sacrifices is sometimes used
metaphorically with respect to the servi
ces of Christians ; implying a giving up
of something that was their own, and a
dedication of it to the Lord, Rom. 12:1 ;
Phil. 4:18; Heb. 13:15, 16; 1 Pet. 2:5.

SAC'RILEGE, any profanation or abuse
of things peculiarly sacred to God ; such
as robbing the house of God, or making
it a den of thieves, Matt. 21 : 12, 13 ;
Rom. 2:2.

SAD'DUCEES. This name was ap
plied in the time of Jesus to a portion
or sect of the- Jews, who were usually at
variance with the other leading sect,
namely, the Pharisees, but united with
them in opposing Jesus and accomplish-
383

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

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ing his death, Matt. 16 : 1-12 ; Luke
20 : 27. The name would seem to be
derived from a Hebrew word signifying
the just; but the Talmudists affirm that
it comes from a certain Sadoc, or Sad-
ducus, who was the founder of the sect,
and lived about three centuries before
the Christian era. The Sadducees disre
garded all the traditions and unwritten
laws which the Pharisees prized so high
ly, and professed to consider the Scrip
tures as the only source and rule of the
Jewish religion. They rejected the de-
monology of the Pharisees ; denied the
existence of angels •and spirits ; consid
ered the soul as dying with the body,
and of course admitted no future state
of rewards and punishments, Matt. 22 :23.
While, moreover, the Pharisees believed
that all events and actions were directed
by an overruling providence or fate, the
Sadducees considered them all as depend
ing on the will and agency of man. The
tenets of these free-thinking philoso
phers were not, in general, so acceptable
to the people as those of the Pharisees ;
yet many of the highest rank adopted
them, and practised great severity, of
manners and of life. Many members of
the Sanhedrim were Sadducees, Acts
23 : 6-9 ; and so was the high-priest in
the time of the apostles. The resurrec
tion of Christ seems to have added bit
terness to their hatred of Christianity,
Acts 4:1; 5:17.

SAF'FRON, the common Crocus Sati-
vus, a small bluish flower, whose yellow,
thread-like stigmata yield an agreeable
aromatic odor ; and also the Indian saf
fron, Song 4:14. In the East these were
used in making a highly valued perfume,
and also as a condiment and a stimulat
ing medicine.

SAINT, a holy person, a friend of God,
either on earth or in heaven, Deut. 33:2.
It is sometimes used of the pious Israel
ites, as Psa. 16 : 3 ; 34 : 9. Nothing is
more frequent in Paul than the name of
saints given to all Christians, Rom. 1:7 ;
8:27; 12:13; 15:25, 31; 16:2. In this
acceptation it continued during the early
ages of Christianity ; nor was it applied
to individuals declared to be saints by
any other act of the church than admis
sion to its membership, till various cor
ruptions had depraved the primitive
principles. The church of Rome assumes
the power of making saints ; that is, of
announcing certain departed spirits as
384

objects of worship, from whom the faitb
ful may solicit favors — a notion worthy
of the dark ages in which it originated.

SAL' AMIS, the chief city of the isle of
Cyprus, visited by Paul and Barnabas,
A. D. 48. This was the native isle of Bar
nabas, and many Jews resided there to
whom the gospel had already been car
ried, Acts 4:36 ; 11:19, 20; 21:16. Paul's
visit was signalized by the miracle
wrought on Elymas, and by the conver
sion of the governor, Sergius Paulus,
Acts 13:5-12. Salamis was a large city,
situated on the east side of the island,
and was afterwards called Constantia.

SALA'THIEL, 1 Chr. 3:17, or SHEAL'-
TIEL, father of Zerubbabel, Ezra 3:2;
Neh. 12:1; Hag. 1:1; one of the ances
tors of Christ, named in both the gospel
genealogies, Matt. 1:14 : Luke 3:27. See
GENEALOGY.

SAL'CHAH, a city of Bashan, con
quered by the Jews and assigned to Ma-
nasseh, Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11.
It was near the border of Gad, 1 Chr.
5 : 11, and where the boundary line be
tween the two tribes ran out farthest
into the desert. A town called Salchat
still exists there, on the south-east bor
der of the modern Hauran.

SA'LEM, peace, I. , an ancient name of
Jerusalem, Gen. 14 : 18, Heb. 7:1, 3,
afterwards applied to it poetically, Psa.
76:2.

II. A city of the Shechemites, east of
Sychar, Gen. 33:18.

SA'LIM, a town near ^Enon and the
Jordan, south of Bethshean, John 3:23.

SAL'MON, or SAL'MAH, 1 Chr. 2:11, a
chief man of the tribe of Judah, husband
of Rahab, and father of Boaz, Ruth 4:20 ;
Matt. 1:4, 5 ; Luke 3 : 32. See ZALMON.

SALMO'NE, a promontory at the north
east extremity of the island of Crete, now
cape Sidero, Acts 27:7.

SALO'ME, wife of Zebcdee, mother of
James the elder and John the evange
list, one of those holy women of Galilee
who attended our Saviour in his jour
neys and ministered to him, Matt. 27: 56.
She requested of Jesus that her two sons
James and John might sit one on his
right hand and the other on his left
hand in his kingdom, Matt. 20 : 20-23.
Her conceptions as to the true nature of
Christ's kingdom were no doubt changed
by his crucifixion, which she witnessed
"afar off," and by his resurrection, of
which she was early apprized by the an-

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAL

gels at the tomb, Mark 15:40; 16:1.
Some infer, from comparing Matt. 27:56
and John 19:25, that she was a sister of
Mary the mother of Jesus.

Salome was also the name of the
daughter of Herodias.

SALT was procured by the Jews from
the Dead sea, either from the immense
hill or ridge of pure rock salt at its
south-west extremity, or from that de
posited on the shore by the natural
evaporation. The Arabs obtain it in
large cakes, two or three inches thick,
and sell it in considerable quantities
throughout Syria. Its well-known pre
servative qualities, and its importance
as a seasoning for food, Job 6:6, are im
plied in most of the passages where it is
mentioned in Scripture : as in the mirac
ulous healing of a fountain, 2 Kin. 2*21 ;
in the sprinkling of salt over the sacri
fices consumed on God's altar, Lev.
2:13; Ezek. 43:24; Mark 9: 49; and its
use in the sacred incense, Ex. 30 : 35.
So also good men are ' ' the salt of the
earth," Matt. 5 : 13 ; and grace, or true
wisdom, is the salt of language, Mark
9 : 50 ; Col. 4:6. See also Ezek. 16 : 4.
To sow a land with salt, signifies its
utter barrenness and desolation ; a con
dition often illustrated in the Bible by
allusions to the region of Sodom and
Gomorrah, with its soil impregnated
with salt, or covered with acrid and
slimy pools, Deut. 29 : 33 ; Job 39 : 9 ;
Szek. 47:11; Zeph. 2:9.

Salt is also the symbol of perpetuity
and incorruption. Thus they said of a
covenant, "It is a covenant of salt for
ever before the Lord," Num. 18:19;
2 Chr. 13 : 5. It is also the symbol of
hospitality ; and of the fidelity due
from servants, friends, guests, and offi
cers, to those who maintain them or
who receive them at their tables. The
governors of the provinces beyond the
Euphrates, writing to king Artaxerxes,
tell him, ' ' Because we have maintenance
from the king's palace," etc., which in
the Chaldee is, "Because we are salted
with the salt of the palace," Ezra 4:14.

VALLEY OF SALT. This place is memo
rable for the victories of David, 2 Sam.
8 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 12 ; Psa. §0,. and of
Amaziah, 2 Km. 14 : 7, over the Edom-
ites. There can be little doubt that the
name designates the broad deep valley
El-Ghor, prolonged some eight miles
south of the Dead sea to the chalky cliffs
17

called Akrabbim. Like all this region,
it bears the marks of volcanic action,
and has an air of extreme desolation.
It is occasionally overflowed by the bit
ter waters of that sea, which rise to the
height of fifteen feet. The drift-wood on
the margin of the valley, which indicates
this rise of the water, is so impregnated
with salt that it will not burn ; and on
the north-west side of the valley lies a
mountain of salt. Parts of this plain are
white with salt ; others are swampy, or
marked by sluggish streams or standing
pools of brackish water. The southern
part is covered in part with tamarisks
and coarse shrubbery. Some travellers
have found here quicksand pits in which
camels and horses have been swallowed
up and lost, Gen. 14:10; Zeph. 2:9.
See JORDAN and SEA III.

SALUTATION. The usual formula of
salutation among the Hebrews was Sha
lom lekha, that is, Peace be with thee.
The same expression is the common one
among the Arabs to the present day :
they say. Salam lekha, to which the
person saluted, replies, "With thee be
peace," Gen. 29 : 6 ; Judg. 18 : 15, mar
gin,. Hence we hear of the Arab and
Turkish Salams, that is, salutations
Other phrases of salutation are found in
Scripture, most of them invoking a bless
ing: as, "The Lord be with thee;"
"All hail," or, Joy to thee ; " Blessed be
thou of the Lord." These and similar
phrases the orientals still use on all oc
casions with the most profuse and punc
tilious politeness. The letter of an Arab
will be nearly filled with salutations;
and should he coaie in to tell you your
385

SAL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAM

house was on fire, he would first give
and receive the compliments of the day,
and then say perhaps, "If God will, all
is well; hut your house is on fire."
Their more formal salutations they ac
company with various ceremonies or ges
tures ; sometimes they embrace and kiss
each other ; sometimes an inferior kisses
the hand or the beard of a superior, or
bows low, with the hand upon the
breast, and afterwards raises it to his
lips or forehead. See Jacob's salutation
of Esau, Gen. 43 ; and compare Gen.
19:1 ; 23:7 ; 42:6 ; 1 Sam. 25:53 ; 2 Sam.
1:2; John 20 : 26. The due and digni
fied performance of some of these cere
monious courtesies, especially when fre
quently recurring, requires- much time ;
and hence, when the prophet sent his
servant in great haste to lay his staff
upon the dead child, he forbade him to
salute any one, or answer any salutation
by the way, 2 Kin. 4:29. For a similar
reason, our Saviour forbade the seventy
disciples to salute any one by the way,
Luke 10 : 4, that is, in this formal and
tedious manner, wasting precious time.
Much of the oriental courtesy was super
ficial and heartless ; but the benediction
of Christ was from the heart, and car
ried with it what was " better than life."
" My peace I give unto you ; not as the
world giveth, give I unto you " John
14:27.

SALVATION means, strictly, deliver
ance ; and so it is used of temporal deliv
erance, victory, in Gen. 14 : 13 ; 1 Sam.
14:45. But as the spiritual deliverance
from sin and death, through the Ke-
deemer, Matt. 1 : 21, is a far greater sal
vation, so this word has come to be used
mostly only in this moral and spiritual
sense ; and implies not only this deliv
erance, but also the consequences of it,
namely, eternal life and happiness in the
kingdom of our Lord, 2 Cor. 7:10; Eph.
1 : 13. It is most justly described as a
"great salvation," Heb. 2:3.

The Hebrews rarely use concrete terms,
as they are called, but often abstract
terms. Thus, instead of saying, God
saves them and protects them, they say,
God is their salvation. So, a voice of
salvation, tidings of salvation, the rock
of salvation, the shield of salvation, a
horn of salvation, a word of salvation,
etc., are equivalent to a voice declaring
deliverance ; the joy that attends escape
from a great danger ; a rock where any
386

one takes refuge, and is in safety ; a
buckler that secures from the attack of
an enemy ; a horn or ray of glory, of
happiness and salvation, etc. Thus, to
work great salvation in Israel, signifies
to deliver Israel from some imminent
danger, to obtain a great victory over
enemies.

The "garments of salvation," Isa.
61 : 10, refer to the splendid robes worn
on festival days. The expression is used
figuratively to denote the reception of a
signal favor from God, guch as deliver
ance from great danger.

SAMA'PJA, I., one of the three divis
ions of the Holy Land in the time of our
Saviour, having Galilee on the 'north
and Judea on the south, the Jordan on
the east and the Mediterranean on the
we«t, and occupying parts of the terri
tory assigned at first to Ephraim, Ma-
nasseh, and Issachar, Luke 17:11 ; John
4:4. It is described as having its hills
less bare than those of Judea, and its
valleys and plains more cultivated and
fruitful. See CANAAN. Many gospel
churches were early planted here, Acts
8:1, 25; 9:31; 15:3.

II. A city situated near the middle of
Palestine, some six miles north-west of
Shechem. It was built by Omri king of
Israel, about 920 B. c., and named after
Shemer the previous owner of the moun
tain or hill on which the city stood,
1 Kin. 16 : 23, 24. It became the favor
ite residence of the kings of Israel, in
stead of Shechem and Thirzah the former
capitals. It was highly adorned with
public buildings. Ahab built there a
palace of ivory, 1 Kings 22 : 39, and
also a temple of Baal, 1 Kin. 16 : 32, 33,
which Jehu destroyed, 2 Kin. 10:18-28.
The prophets often denounced it for its
idolatry, Isa. 9:9; Ezek. 16 : 46-65. It
was twice besieged by the Syrians, 1 Kin.
20 ; 2 Kin. 6 : 24 ; 7 : 1-20." At length
Shalmanezcr king of Assyria captured
and destroyed the city, and removed the
people of the land, B. c. 720, 2 Kings
17:3-6; Hos. 10:5-7; Mic. 1:1-6. See
OMRI. The city was in part rebuilt by
Cuthites imported from beyond the Ti
gris, but was again nearly destroyed by
John Hyrcanus. The Ptoman proconsul
Gabinius once more restored it, and call-
.ecl it Gabinia ; and it was afterwards
given by Augustus to Herod the Great,
who enlarged and adorned it, and gave
it the name of Sebaste, the Greek trans-

SAM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAM

lation of the Latin word Augusta, in
honor of the emperor. He placed in it
a colony of six thousand persons, siu*-
rounded it with a strong wall, and built
a magnificent temple in honor of Augus
tus. Early in the apostolic age it was
favored hy the successful labors of Philip
and others, Acts 8:5-25 ; and the church
then formed continued in existence sev
eral centuries, till the city of Herod was
destroyed. Sebaste was afterwards re
vived, and is mentioned in the histories
of the Crusades. It is now an inconsid
erable village, called Sebustieh, with a
few cottages built of stones from the
ancient ruins.

The following is the account of the
modern city, as given by Richardson :
"Its situation is extremely beautiful,
and strong by nature ; more so, I think,
than Jerusalem. It stands on a line,
large insulated hill, compassed all round
by a broad, deep valley; and when for
tified, as it is stated to have been by
Herod, one would imagine that in the
ancient system of warfare nothing but
famine would have reduced such a place.
The valley is surrounded by four hills,
'one on each side, which are cultivated
in terraces to the top, sown with grain
and planted with fig and olive trees, as
is alsj the valley. The hill of Samaria
rises in terraces to a height equal to any
of the adjoining mountains.

"The present village is small and
poor, and after passing the valley, the
ascent to it is very steep; but viewed
from the station of our tents, it is ex
tremely interesting, both from its natu
ral situation and from the picturesque
remains of a ruined convent of good
Gothic architecture.

"Hiving passed the village, towards
the middle of the lirst terrace there'is a
number of columns still standing. I
counted twelve in one row, besides sev
eral that stood apart, the brotherless
remains of other rows. The situation is
extremely delightful, and my guide in
formed me that they belonged to the
serai or palace. On the next terrace there
are no remains of solid building, but
heaps of stone and lime, and rubbish
mixed with the soil in great profusion.
Ascending to the third or. highest ter
race, the traces of former buildings were
not so numerous, but we enjoyed a de
lightful view of the surrounding coun
try. The eye passed over the deep val

ley that compasses the hill of Sebaste,
and rested on the mountains beyond,
that retreated as they rose with a gentle
slope, and met the view in every direc
tion, like a book laid out for perusal on
a writing-desk."

SAMARITANS, the inhabitants of Sa
maria. But in the New Testament this
name is the appellation of a race of peo
ple who sprung originally from an inter
mixture of the ten tribes with gentile
nations. When the inhabitants of Sa
maria and of the adjacent country were
carried away by Shalmanezer king of As
syria, he sent in their place colonies from
Babylonia, Cuthah, Ava, Hamath, and
Sepharvaim, with which the Israelites
who remained in the land became inter
mingled, and were ultimately amalga
mated into one people, 2 Kin. 17:24-41.
An origin like this would of course ren
der the nation odious to the Jews. The
new and mixed race indeed sent to As
syria for an Israelitish priest to teach
them the law of Jehovah, and adopted
in part the forms of the true religion ;
but most of them were but half convert
ed from their native heathenism, Matt.
10:5; Luke 17:16-18 It was therefore
in vain that, when the Jews returned
from captivity and began to rebuild Je
rusalem and the temple, the Samaritans
requested to be acknowledged as Jewish
citizens, and to be permitted to assist in
their work, Ezra 4. In consequence of
this refusal, and the subsequent state of
enmity, the Samaritans not only took
occasion to calumniate the Jews before
the Persian kings, Ezra 4:4, Neh. 4, but
also, recurring to the directions of Mo
ses, Deut. 27:11-13, that, on entering the
promised land half of the people should
stand on mount Gerizim to respond Amen
to the blessings of the covenant pro
nounced by the Levites, they erected a
temple on that mountain, and instituted
sacrifices according to the prescriptions
of the Mosaic law, although the original
altar, according to the Hebrew Scrip
tures, stood on mount Ebal, Deut. 27:4 ;
Josh. 8:30-35. Moreover, they rejected
all the sacred books of the Jews except
the Pentateuch. See SANBALLAT. From
all these and other circumstances, the
national hatred between the Samaritans
and Jews, instead of being at all dimin
ished by time, was, on the contrary, fos
tered and augmented. 2 Mac. 6:2; Luke
9:52, 53. Hence the name of Samaritan
387

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAM

became among the Jews a term of re
proach and contempt, John 8 : 48, and
all intercourse with them was carefully
avoided, John 4 : 9. The temple on
mount Gerizim was destroyed by Hyr-
canus about the year 129 B. c. ; but the
Samaritans in the time of Christ contin
ued to esteem that mountain sacred, and
as the proper place of national worship,
John 4 : 20, 21, as is also the case with
the small remnant of that people who
exist at the present day. The Samari
tans, like the Jews, expected a Messiah,
John 4 : 25, and many of them became
the followers of Jesus, and embraced the
doctrines of his religion. See Acts 8:1,
etc.; 9:31; 15:3.

It is well known that a small remnant
of the Samaritans still exists at Nabulus,
the ancient Shechem. Great interest has
been taken in them by the learned of
Europe ; and a correspondence has sev
eral times been instituted with them,
which, however, has never led to results
of any great importance. They have a
copy of the Pentateuch, professedly made
by Abishua the son of Phinehas, 1400
years before Christ. Several copies of
this have been taken, the first in 1616,
and compared with the received Hebrew
text, with which it nearly coincides.
There are various classes of different
readings, but few or none in which the
Samaritan does not appear to be a cor
ruption of the original. Of late years
the remnant of Samaritans at Nabulus
have often been visited by travellers.
They number about one hundred and
fifty souls, and are devout observers of
the law. They keep the Jewish Sabbath
with great strictness, and meet thrice
during the day in their synagogue for
public prayers. Four times in each year,
at the Passover, the Pentecost, the feast
of Tabernacles, and the day of Expiation,
they all resort to the site of their ancient
temple on mount Gerizim to worship.
See GKRIZIM.

SA'MOS, an island of the Archipela
go, on the coast of Asia Minor, opposite
Lydia, from which it is separated by a
narrow strait. The island was devoted
to the worship of Juno, who had there a
magnificent temple, fragments of which
still exist. It was also celebrated for its
valuable potteries, and as the birthplace
of Pythagoras. The Romans wrote to the
governor in favor of the Jews in the time
of Simon Maccabaeus, 1 Mac. 15 : 23. Paul
388

landed here when going to Jerusalem,.
A. D. 58, Acts 20 : 15. It now contains
about fifty thousand inhabitants ; and
though ill-cultivated, is fruitful in or
anges, grapes, and olives, and exports
corn and wine.

SAMOTHRA'CIA, an island in the
North-^Egean sea, on the coast of Thrace,
nearly midway between Troas and Phi-
lippi. On his first visit to Europe, Paul
anchored for the night on the north of
the island, Acts 16:11. It was anciently
called Samos; and in order to distin
guish it from the other Samos, the epi
thet Thracian was added. Samothracia
contained a lofty mountain and a city of
the same name, and was celebrated" for
its devotion to the heathen mysteries,
particularly to those of Ceres and Pros
erpine. Hence the island received the
epithet of "sacred," and was regarded
as an inviolable asylum for all fugitives
and criminals. It is now called by the
Turks Semendrek.

SAM'SON, the son of Manoah, of the
tribe of Dan, a deliverer and judge of
the southern tribes of the Hebrews for
twenty years, Judg. 13-16. His birth
was miraculously foretold ; he was a Naz-
arite from infancy, and the strongest of
men ; and was equally celebrated for his
fearless and wonderful exploits, for his
moral infirmities, and for his tragical
end. His exploits were not wrought
without special divine aid ; ' ' the Spirit
of God came mightily upon him," Judg.
13:25; 14:6,19; 15:14; 16:20,28. The
providence of God was signally displayed
in overruling for good the hasty passions
of Samson, the cowardice of his friends,
and the malice of his enemies. The sins
of Samson brought him into great, dis
grace and misery ; but grace and faith
triumphed in the end, Heb. 11 : 32. His
story forcibly illustrates how treacherous
and merciless are sin and sinners, and
the watchful care of Christ over his peo
ple in every age. Compare Judg. 13:22
and Matt. 23:37.

SAM'UEL, God hath heard, 1 Sam. 1:20,
a child of prayer, the celebrated Hebrew
prophet and judge, Acts 3 : 24 ; 13 : 20.
He was a Levite by birth, 1 Chr. 6 : 22-
28, and the son of Elkanah and Hannah,
at Ramah in mount Ephraim, north-west
of Jerusalem. At a very tender age he
Was carried to Shiloh, and brought up
beside the tabernacle under the care of
Eli the high-priest. Having been conse-

SAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

RAN

erated to God from his birth, and devot
ed to Nazariteship, he began to receive
divine communications even in his child
hood, 1 Sam. 3 ; and after the death of
Eli, he became established as the judge
of Israel. He was the last and best of
the Hebrew judges. We contemplate
his character and administration with
peculiar pleasure and reverence. The
twelve tribes, when he assumed their
charge, were in a low condition both
morally and politically. He freed them
from all foreign yokes, administered jus
tice with vigor and impartiality, pro
moted education and true religion, unit
ed the tribes, and raised them higher in
the scale of civilization. Their demand
of a king, in view of the advanced age
of Samuel and the vile character of his
sons, showed a great want of faith in
God and of submission to his will. Yet
He granted them a king "in his wrath,"
Hos. 13 : 11. Samuel anointed Saul as
their first king ; and afterwards David,
who in due time was to take the place
of Saul already rejected by God. As long
as he lived, Samuel exerted a paramount
and most beneficial influence in Israel,
even over Saul himself. He instituted
the "schools of the prophets," which
were long continued and very useful.
He died at the age of ninety-eight, B. c.
1053, honored and lamented by all.
Even after his death the unhappy Saul,
forsaken by the God whom he had aban
doned, sought the prophet's counsel
through the agency of a pretended deal
er with.spirits. God was pleased to cause
Samuel to appear, with a prophetic mes
sage to the king. In Psa. 99 : 6 he is
ranked with Moses and Aaron. See also
Jer. 15:1; Heb. 11:32.

The two BOOKS OF SAMUEL could not
all have been written by him, because
his death is mentioned in 1 Sam. 25,
B. c. 1055. Thus far it is not improb
able that he was the author, while the
remaining chapters are commonly attrib
uted to Nathan and Gad, B. c. 1018.
Why Samuel's name is given to both
books cannot be known. In the Septu-
agint they are called the First and Sec
ond Books of Kings. See KINGS. The
two books comprise the history of Sam- j
uel. Saul, and David. They are quoted I
in the New Testament, Acts 13 : 22 ; Heb.
1:5, and alluded to in the Psalms, etc.

SANBAL'LAT, probably a native of
Horonaim in the land of Moab, and a

great enemy of the Jews. He may have
received from the Persian government
some authority over the Samaritans or
imported Cuthites, as one of the govern
ors west of the Euphrates. When Nehe-
miah came from Shushan to Jerusalem,
Neh. 2 : 10, 19, B. c. 454, and began to
rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, Sanbal-
lat, Tobiah, and Geshem taunted him,
and sent to inquire on what authority he
undertook this enterprise, and whether
it were not a revolt against the king.
Nehemiah nevertheless proceeded with
vigor in his undertaking, and completed
the walls of the city, Keh. 2:10 ; 4 ; 6.

Nehemiah being obliged to return to
king Artaxerxes at Shushan, Neh. 13:6,
B. c. 441, in his absence the high-priest
Eliashib married his grandson Manasseh
son of Joiada to a daughter of Sanballat,
and allowed Tobiah, a kinsman of San
ballat, an apartment in the temple. Ne
hemiah, en his return to Jerusalem, (the
exact year of which is not known,) drove
Tobiah out of the temple, and would not
suffer Manasseh the high-priest's grand
son to continue in the city, nor to per
form the functions of the priesthood.
Manasseh being thus expelled, retired
to his father-in-law Sanballat, who pro
vided him the means of exercising his
priestly office on mount Gerizim. See
GERIZIM and SAMABITAKS.

SANC'TIFY, to make holy, or to set
apart for God, Gen. 2:3 ; Ex. 19:23. In
the Old Testament, sanctification fre
quently denotes the ceremonial or ritual
consecration of any person or thing to
God: thus the Hebrews as a people were
holy unto the Lord, through the cove
nant with its rites and atoning sacrifices,
Ex. 31 : 13 ; and the Jewish tabernacle,
altar, priests, etc., were solemnly set
apart for the divine* service, Lev. 8 : 10-
12. In a similar sense, men "sanctified
themselves" who made special prepara
tion for the presence and worship of God,
Ex. 19:10, 11 ; Num. 11:18; a day was
sanctified when set apart for fasting and
prayer, Joel 1:14; and the Sabbath was
sanctified when regarded and treated as
holy unto the Lord, Deut. 5 : 12. All
such sanctifications were testimonials to
the holiness of God, and signified men's
need of moral sanctification, or the de
votion of purified and obedient souls to
his love and service.

In a doctrinal sense, sanctification is
the making truly and perfectly holy what
339

SAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAN

was before defiled and sinful. It is a
progressive work of divine grace upon
the soul justified by the love of Christ.
The believer is gradually cleansed from
the corruption of his nature, and is at
length presented ' ' unspotted before the
throne of God with exceeding joy. ' ' The
Holy Spirit performs this work in con
nection with the providence and word
of God, John 14 : 26 ; 17 : 17 ; 2 Thess.
2:13; 1 Pet. 1:2; and the highest mo
tives urge every Christian not to resist
the Spirit of God, but to cooperate with
him, and seek to be holy even as God is
holy. The ultimate sanctification of ev
ery believer in Christ is a covenant mercy
purchased on the cross. He who saves
us from the penalty of sin, also saves us
from its power ; and in promising to bring
a believer into heaven, engages also to
prepare him for heaven.

SANC'TUARY, a holy place, devoted
to God. It appears to be the name some
times of the entire temple, Psa. 73 : 17 ;
Heb. 9:1; sometimes of the "Holy
place," where the altar of incense, the
golden candlestick, and the show-bread
stood, 2 Chr. 26 : 18 ; Heb. 9:2; and
sometimes of the " Holy of Holies," the
most secret and retired part of the tem
ple, in which was the ark of the cove
nant, and where none but the high-
priest might enter, and he only once a
year on the day of solemn expiation.
The same name was also given to the
most sacred part of the tabernacle set up
in the wilderness, Lev. 4 : 6. See TAB
ERNACLE, and TEMPLE. The temple x>r
earthly sanctuary is an emblem of heav
en, Psa. 102:19 : Heb. 9:1, 24 ; and God
himself is called a sanctuary, Isa. 8 : 14,
Ezek. 11 : 16, in reference to the use of
temples as a place of refuge for fugitives,
because he is the only safe and sacred
asylum for sinners pursued by the sword
of divine justice.

SAN'DALS, Mark 6: 9. The ordinary
oriental sandal itf a mere sole, of leather
or wood, fastened to the bottom of the
foot by thongs, one passing around the
great toe and over the fore part of the
foot, and the other around the ankle.
The soie was sometimes plaited of some
vegetable fibre, or cut from a fresh un
dressed skin ; and the ' ' shoe-latchet ' ' or
thong, and indeed the whole sandal, was
often of very little value, Gen. 14 : 23 ;
Amos 2:6 ; 8:6. Sandals are usually in
tended where "shoes" are spoken of in
390

our version. Yet shoes are now worn in
the East, and probably were used to some
extent in Bible times. The Turks, Syr
ians, and Egyptians wear a light shoe,

resembling our slipper, and sometimes a
wooden shoe with a high heel. The
Bedaween wears only a sandal.

The sandals of females were frequently
much ornamented, Song 7 : 1, and prob
ably resembled the slippers or light shoes
of modern orientals, which cover the up
per part of the foot, and are often made
of morocco, or of embroidered work
wrought with silk, silver, and gold,
Ezek. 16:10. See BADGER'S SKINS.

It is not customary in the East to wear
shoes or sandals in the houses ; they are
always taken on0 on entering a house,

SAN BIBLE DICTIONARY.

and especially temples and all consecrat
ed places. Hence the phrase, "to loose
one's shoes from off one's feet," Ex. 3:5 ;
Deut. 25 : 9 ; Josh. 5:15. Visitors of the
highest rank leave their slippers at the
door; and on entering a Mohammedan
mosque each worshipper adds his slip
pers to the pile in charge of the door
keeper, unless attended by a servant.
On the summit of mount Gerizim, the
Samaritans who accompanied Dr. Rob
inson took off their shoes as they ap
proached the site of their ruined temple.
To bind on the sandals denoted prepara
tion for a journey, Ex. 12:11 ; Acts 12:8.
To bind on the sandals, to stoop down
and unloose them, or to carry them un
til again needed, was the business of the
lowest servants ; a slave, newly bought,
commenced his service by loosing the
sandals of his new master, and carrying
them a certain distance. Disciples some
times performed this office for their mas
ter, and accounted it an honor; hence
the expression of John the Baptist, that
he was not worthy to loose or to carry
the sandals of Jesus, Matt. 3 : 11 ; Mark

1 : 7. See also FOOT, with reference to
washing the feet. The poor of course
often went barefoot ; but this was not
customary among the rich, except as a
sign of mourning, 2 Sam. 15 : 30 ; Isa.
20 : 2-4 ; Ezek. 24:17, 23. In the prim
itive days of the Israelitish common
wealth the custom, in transferring real
estate, was, that the seller drew off his
shoe and gave it to the buyer before wit
nesses, in confirmation of the bargain,
Ruth 4:7-11. The loosing of a shoe of
one who refused to marry the widow of
his deceased brother, and spitting upon
the owner's face, was a ceremony pre
scribed in the Jewish law, Deut. 25:7-10.
SANHE'DRIM, or BETHDIN, house of
judgment, was a council of seventy sena
tors among the Jews, usually with the
addition of the high-priest as president,
who determined the most important af
fairs of the nation. It is first mentioned
by Josephus in connection with the reign
of John Hyrcanus II., B. c. 69, and is
supposed to have originated after the
second temple was built, during the
cessation of the prophetic office, and in
391

SAP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAR

imitation of Moses' council of seventy
elders, Num. 11 : 16-24. The room in
which they met, according to the rab
bins, was a rotunda, half of which was
built without the temple, that is, with
out the inner court of Israel, and half
within, the latter part being that in
which the judges sat. The Nasi, or pres
ident, who was generally the high-priest,
sat on a throne at the end of the hall ;
the vice-president, or chief counsellor,
called Ab-bethdin, at his right hand ;
and the sub-deputy, or»Hakam, at his
left ; the other senators being ranged in
order on each side. Most of the mem
bers of this council were priests or Le-
vites, though men in private stations of
life were not excluded. See SADDUCEES.

The authority of the Sanhedrim was
very extensive. It decided causes
brought before it by appeal from infe
rior courts ; and even the king, the high-
priest, and the prophets, were under its
jurisdiction. The general affairs of the
nation were also brought before this as
sembly, particularly whatever was in any
way connected with religion or worship,
Mark 14 : 55 ; 15 : 1 ; Acts 4:7; 5 : 41 ;
6 : 12. Jews in foreign cities appear to
have been amenable to this court in
matters of religion, Acts 9:2. The
right of judging in capital cases belong
ed to it, until this was taken away by
the Romans a few years before, the time
of Christ, John 18 : 31. The Sanhedrim
was probably the ' ' council ' ' referred
to by our Lord, Matt. 5 : 22. ^ There
appears also to have been an inferior tri
bunal of seven members, in every town,
for the adjudication of less important
matters. Probably it is this tribunal
that is called " the judgment " in Matt.
5:22.

SAPPHI'RA. See ANANIAS I.

SAPPHIRE, a gem next in hardness
and value to the diamond, and compris
ing, as varieties, all those precious stones
known by the name of oriental gems,
namely, the oriental ruby, oriental to
paz, and oriental emerald, Job 28:6. In
general the name of sapphire is given
to the blue variety, which is either of a
deep indigo, blue, or of various lighter
tints, Ex. 24 : 10, and sometimes gradu
ally passes into perfectly white or color
less, which, when cut, may almost pass
for a diamond, Ex. 28 : 18 ; 39:11 ; Rev.
21:19.

SA'RAH, or SARA, the wife of Abra-
392

ham, the daughter of his father by an
other mother, Gen. 20 : 12. Most Jew
ish writers, however, and many inter
preters, identify her with Iscah, the sis
ter of Lot, and Abraham's niece, Gen.
11:29 ; the word " daughter," according
to Hebrew usage, comprising any female
descendant, and "sister," any female
relation by blood. When God made a
covenant with Abraham, he changed
the name of Sarai, or my princess, into
that of Sarah, or princess ; and promised
Abraham a son by her, which was ful
filled in due time. The most prominent
points of her history as recorded in the
Bible are, her consenting to Abraham's
unbelieving dissimulation while near
Pharaoh and Abimelech ; her long-con
tinued barrenness ; her giving to Abra
ham her maid Hagar as a secondary wife ;
their mutual jealousy ; and her bearing
Isaac in her old age, "the child of prom
ise," Gen. 12-23. She appears to have
been a woman of uncommon beauty, and
a most exemplary and devoted wife. Her
docility is eulogized in 1 Pet. 3 : 6, and
her faith in Heb. 11 : 11. See also Isa.
51:2 ; Gal. 4:22-31. Sarah lived to the
age of one hundred and twenty-seven
years. She died in the valley of He
bron, and Abraham came to Beer-sheba
to mourn for her, after which he bought
a field of Ephron the Hittite, wherein
was a cave hewn in the rock, called
Machpelah, where Sarah was buried,
Gen. 23:9.

I -,

SAR'DIS, now called Sart, a city of
Asia Minor, formerly the capital of Croe
sus king of Lydia, proverbial for the im-

SAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SAU

mensity of his wealth. It was situated
at the foot of mount Tmolus on the
north, having a spacious and delight
ful plain before it, watered by several
streams that flow from the neighboring
hill and by the Pactolus. It lay upon
the route of Xerxes to Greece ; and its
inhabitants were noted for their profli
gacy, Rev. 3:4. It is now a pitiful vil
lage, but contains a large khan for the
accommodation of travellers, it being the
road for the caravans that come out of
Persia to Smyrna with silk. The inhab
itants are for the most part shepherds,
who have charge of the numerous flocks
and herds which feed in the plains.

To the southward of the town are very
considerable ruins still remaining, chief
ly those of a theatre, a stadium, and two
churches. The height on which the cit
adel was built is shattered by an earth
quake. There are two remarkable pil
lars, remnants, it is thought, of an an
cient temple of Cybele, built only three
hundred years after Solomon's temple.
These ruins, and the countless sepulchral
mounds in the vicinity, remind us of
what S.irdis was, before earthquake and
the sword had laid it desolate.

The Turks have a mosque here, for
merly a Christian church, at the en
trance of which are several curious pil
lars of polished marble. Some few nom
inal Christians still reside here, working
in gardens, or otherwise employed in
such like drudgery. The church in Sar-
dis was reproached by our Saviour for its
declension in vital religion. It had a
name to live, but was really dead, Rev.
3:1-6.

SARDIUS, or SAR'DINE, a species of
precious stone of a blood-red, or some
times of a flesh-color. It is more com
monly known by the name of carnelian,
Ex. 28:17; Rev. 4:3.

SARDONYX ; as if a sardius united
to an onyx ; a species of gem exhibiting
the reddish color of the carnelian and
the white of the chalcedony, intermin
gled either in shades or in alternate cir
cles. Rev. 21:20.

SAREP'TA. See ZAREPHATH.

S ARGON, Isa. 20 : 1-4, one of the later
Assyrian kings, who sent his general,
Tartan, with an army against Ashdod,
and took it. The north-west palace at
Nimroud in the ruins of Nineveh was
built by him. There is some doubt
whether he is or is not to be identified
17*

with one of the kings elsewhere men
tioned in Scripture ; and some regard
him as having reigned for about three
years between Shalmaneser and Sen
nacherib. Others think he was the same
as Shalmaneser, which see.

SA'RON. See SHARON.

SATAN signilies, properly, adversary,
enemy, 1 Kin. 11 : 14, Psa. 109:6, and is
so applied by Jesus to Peter, Matt. 16:23 ;
Mark 8 : 33. Hence it is used particularly
of the grand adversary of souls, the devil,
the prince of the fallen angels, the ac
cuser and calumniator' of men before God,
Job 1 : 7, 12 ; Zech. 3 : 1, 2 ; Rev. 12:10.
He seduces them to sin, 1 Chr. 21 : 1 ;
Luke 22 : 31 ; and is thus the author of
that evil, both physical and moral, by
which the human race is afflicted, espe
cially of those vicious propensities and
wicked actions which are productive of
so much misery, and also of death itself,
Luke 13 : 16 ; Heb. 2 : 14. Hence Satan
is represented both as soliciting men to
commit sin, and as the source, the effi
cient cause of impediments which are
thrown in the way of the Christian re
ligion, or which are designed to diminish
its efficacy in reforming the hearts and
lives of men, and inspiring them with
the hope of future bliss, Matt. 4 : 10 ;
John 13 : 27 ; Rom. 16 : 20 ; Eph. 2 : 2.
See DEVIL.

The "synagogue of Satan," Rev. 2:9,
13, probably denotes the unbelieving
Jews, the false zealots for the law of
Moses, who at the beginning were the
most eager persecutors of the Christians.
They were very numerous at Smyrna, to
which church John writes.

SAT'YRS, in Greek mythology, were
imaginary demons, half men and half
goats, believed by the superstitious to
haunt forests and groves. The Hebrew
word translated satyrs in Isa. 13 : 21 ;
34 : 14, means hairy, shaggy creatures,
such as wild goats, or perhaps monsters
of the ape family. It is translated
"goats" in Ley. 4:24, and "devils" in
Lev. 17 : 7. The gambols of these wild
animals on the ruins of Babylon mark
it as an uninhabited and lonely waste.
See APE.

SAUL, the son of Kish, of the tribe of
Benjamin, the first king of the Israel
ites, anointed by Samuel, B. c. 1091, and
after a reign of forty years filled with
various events, slain with his sons on
mount Crilboa. He was succeeded by
393

SAV

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SCA

David, who was his son-in-law, and
whom he had endeavored to put to
death. His history is contained in
1 Sain. 10 --:•)!. It is a sad and admoni
tory narrative. The morning of his
reign was bright with special divine fa
vors, both providential and spiritual,
1 Sam. 9 : 20 ; 10 : 1-11, 24, 25. But he
soon began to disobey God, and was re
jected as unworthy to found a line of
kings ; his sins and misfortunes multi
plied, and his sun went down in gloom.
In his first war with the Ammonites, God
was with him ; but then follow his pre
sumptuous sacrifice, in the absence of
Samuel ; his equally rash vow ; his vic
tories over the Philistines and the Ama-
le kites ; his sparing Agag and the spoil ;
his spirit of distracted and foreboding
melancholy ; his jealousy and persecu
tion of David ; his barbarous massacre
of the priests anol people at Nob, and of
the Gibeonites; his consulting the witch
of Endor ; the battle with the Philistines
in which his army was defeated and his
sons were slain ; and lastly, his despair
ing self-slaughter, his insignia of royalty
being conveyed to David by an Amalek-
ite, 1 Sam. 31 ; 2 Sam. 1 ; 1 Chr. 10:13,

14. The guilty course and the awful
end of this first king of the Hebrews
were a significant reproof of their sin in
desiring any king but Jehovah ; and also
show to what extremes of guilt and ruin
one may go who rebels against God, and
is ruled by his own ambitious and envi
ous passions.

SAUL was also the Hebrew name of the
apostle Paul.

SAVIOUR is a term applied preemi
nently to our Lord Jesus Christ, because,
as the angel expressed it, he came to
•'save his people from their sins," Matt.

1 : 21. He was therefore called JESUS,
which signifies Saciour, John 4:42; Acts
4:15; 5:31.

SA'VOR, an agreeable taste or odor,
or that quality of objects which appeals
to the sense of smell or of taste, Matt.
5:13. The sacrifice of Noah and that of
Christ were acceptable to God, like the
odor of a sweet incense to a man, Gen.
8:21 ; Eph. 5:2. The chief savor of the
apostles' teaching was Christ crucified ;
and this teaching was welcomed by some
to their eternal life, and rejected by oth
ers to their aggravated condemnation,

2 Cor. 2:15, 16.

SCAPE-GOAT. Hebrew AZAZEL, a word 1 Lev. 16 : 8. 10, 26, as to the derivation
used only in connection with the cere- and meaning of which there has been
monies, of the great Day of Atonement, | great diversity of opinion. The safest
394

SCA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SCO

and best interpretation is, that the goat
itself symbolically bore away the sins of
God's people from His presence and re
membrance, Psa. 103 : 12. See EXPIA
TION.

SCAR'LET, a color much prized by the
ancients, Ex. 25 : 4 ; 26 : 1, 31, 36. It
is assigned as a merit of Saul, that he
clothed the daughters of Israel in scar
let, 2 Sam. 1 : 24. So the diligent and
virtuous woman is said to clothe her
household in scarlet, Prov. 31:21. The
depth and strength of the color are al
luded to in Isa. 1 : 18 ; and it is used as
a symbol of profligacy in Rev. 17 : 3, 4.
This color was obtained from the Coccus
llicis of Linmeus, a small insect found
on the leaves of a species of oak, the
Quercus Cocciferus, in Spain and the
countries on the eastern part of the Med
iterranean, which was used by the an
cients for dyeing a beautiful crimson or
deep scarlet color, and was supposed by
them to be the berry of a plant or tree.
It is the Kermez of the Materia Medica.
As a dye it has been superseded in mod
ern times by the cochineal insect, Coc
cus Cactus, which gives a more brilliant
but less durable color. See PURPLE.

SCEP'TRE, a " rod " or decorated staff,
sometimes six feet long, borne by kings
and magistrates as a symbol of authori
ty, Gen. 49 : 10 ; Num. 24 : 17 ; Esth.
4:11; 5:2; Isa. 14:5; Zech. 10:11. See

ROD.

SCE'VA, a Jew at Ephesus, a leader
among the priests, perhaps the head of
one of the twenty-four courses. His
seven sons pretended to practise exor
cism, and presumed to call on evil spir
its to come out from persons possessed,
in the name of Jesus. Their ignomini
ous discomfiture by a man possessed by
an evil spirit, promoted the cause of the
gospel at Ephesus, Acts 19:14-16.

SCHISM, a rent or fissure ; generally
used in the New Testament to denote a
division within the Christian church, by
contentions and alienated affections,
without an outward separation into dis
tinct bodies, 1 Cor. 1:10-12; 12:25, 26.
The sin may lie on the side of the ma
jority, or of the minority, or both. It is
a sin against Christian love, and strikes
at the heart of Christianity, John 17:21 ;
Rom. 12:4-21.

SCHOOL-MASTER, 1 Cor. 4:15, Gal.
3:24, 25, in Greek Paidagogos ; a sort of
attendant who took the charge of young

children, taught them the rudiments of
knowledge, and at a suitable age con
ducted them to and from school. Thus
the law was the pedagogue of the Jews,
watching over the childhood of the na
tion, and at length conducting them
through its types and prophecies to
Christ. When a Jew came to a believ
ing knowledge of Christ, this office of
the law ceased.

Little is known respecting the schools
of the Jews, nor when and how far they
took the place of domestic instruction,
Dent. 6 : 7-9 ; 11 : 18-20. It is probable
that elementary edttcation was under the
charge of the ministers of religion, as
well as the instruction of those of riper
years. At the time of Christ, it would
appear that the Jews in general were
able at least to read and write.

SCOR'PION, Luke 10 : 19, one of the
largest and most malignant of all the
insect tribes. It somewhat resembles
the lobster in its general appearance,
but is much more hideous. Those found
in Southern Europe seldom exceed two
inches in length ; but in tropical cli
mates it is no uncommon thing to meet
with them five or six times as long.
They live upon other insects, but kill
and devour their own species also. Mau-
pertuis put about a hundred of them to
gether in the same glass, and in a few
days there remained but fourteen, which
had killed and devoured all the rest.
He inclosed a female scorpion in a glass
vessel, and she was seen to devour her
young as fast as they were born. There
was only one of the number that escaped
the general destruction by taking refuge
on the back of its parent ; and this soon
after revenged the cause of its brethren,
by killing the old one in its turn. Such
is the terrible nature of this insect ; and
it is even found that when placed in cir
cumstances of danger, from which it per-
395

SCO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SCR

ceives no way of escape, it will sting it
self to death. The passage most descrip
tive of the scorpion is Rev. 9 : 3-10, in
which it is to be observed that the sting
of these creatures was not to produce
death, but pain so intense that the
wretched sufferers should seek death,
ver. G, rather than submit to its endur
ance. Dr. Shaw states that the sting of
scorpions is not always fatal, the malig
nity of their venom being in proportion
to their size and complexion. The poi
son is injected by means of a sharp curv
ed sting at the end of the six-jointed tail.
It occasions great pain, inflammation,
and hardness, with alternate chills and
burning. These animals frequent dry
and hot places, and lie under stones and
in the crevices of old ruins. The Jews
encountered them in the wilderness,
Deut. 8 : 15, and a range of cliffs across
the hot valley south of the Dead sea,
called Acrabbim, or scorpions, appears
to have been much infested by them.
The scorpion of Judea, when curled up,
greatly resembled an egg in size and
shape ; hence the comparison and the
contrast in Luke 11:11, 12. The scorpi
ons which the haughty Rehoboam threat
ened to use instead of whips, 1 Kin.
12 : 11, were probably scourges armed
with knobs like the joints of a scorpion's
tail ; and like the sting of that animal,
occasioned extreme pain.

SCOURGE, or WHIP. The punish-
ment of scourging was very common
among the Jews. Our Saviour was sub
jected to this barbarous and ignominious
torture, which was at times so severe as
to end in death, John 19:1. Moses lim
its the number of stripes to forty, which
might never be exceeded, Deut. 25:1-3.
The Jews afterwards, in order to avoid in
any case exceeding forty, and thus break
ing the law, were accustomed to give
only thirty-nine stripes, or thirteen blows
with a scourge of three thongs. There
were two ways of giving the lash: one
with thongs or whips, made of rope-ends,
or straps of leather sometimes armed with
iron points ; the other with rods or twigs.
The offender was stripped from his shoul
ders to his middle, and tied by his arms
to a low pillar, that he might lean for
ward, and the executioner the more eas
ily strike his back ; or, according to the
modern custom in inflicting the bastina
do, was made to lie down with his face
to the ground, Deut. 25 : 2. Paul in
forms us, 2 Cor. 11 : 24, that at five dif
ferent times he received thirty -nine
stripes from the Jews ; and in the next
verse, shows that correction with rods
was different from that with a whip ; for
he says, ' ' Thrice was I beaten with
rods." The bastinado with rods was
sometimes given on the back, at others
on the soles of the feet.

SCRIBE, in the earlier Hebrew writ
ings, was one skilled in writing and ac
counts, Ex. 5:6 ; Judg. 5:14 ; Jer. 52:25 ;
the person who communicated to the
396

people the commands of the king, like
the modern Secretary of State, 2 Sam.
8:17 ; 20:25. In the later times of the
Old Testament, especially after the cap-

SCR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEA

tivity, and in the New Testament, a
scribe is a person skilled in the Jewish
law, a teacher or interpreter of the law.
So Ezra was ' ' a ready scribe in the law
of Moses," Ezra 7:6; 1 Chr. 27:32. The
scribes of the New Testament were a
class of men educated for the purpose of
preserving and expounding the sacred
books. They had the charge of tran
scribing them, of interpreting the more
difficult passages, and of deciding in
cases which grew out of the ceremonial
law, Matt. 2:4, and were especially skill
ed in those glosses and traditions by
which the Jews made void the law,
Matt. 15 : 1-6. Jewish writers speak of
them as the schoolmasters of the nation ;
and one mode in which they exercised
their office was, by meeting the people
from time to time, in every town, for
the purpose of holding familiar discus
sions, and raising questions of the law
for debate. Their inlluence was of course
great ; many of them were members of
the Sanhedrim, and we often find them
mentioned in connection with the elders
and chief priests, Matt. 5 : 20 ; 7 : 29 ;
12 : 38 ; 20: 18 ; 21 : 15. Like the Phari
sees, they were bitterly opposed to Christ,
and joined with the priests and counsel
lors in persecuting him and his follow
ers, having little knowledge of Him con
cerning whom Moses and the prophets
did write. The same persons who are
termed scribes, are in parallel passages
sometimes called lawyers and doctors of
the law, Matt. 22:35; Mark 12:28.
Hence ' ' scribe ' ' is also used for a per
son distinguished for learning and wis
dom, 1 Cor. 1:20.

SCRIP, a bag or wallet, in which trav
ellers carried a portion of food, or some
small articles of convenience, 1 Sam.
17:40; Matt. 10:10.

SCRIPTURE, or SCRIPTURES, the writ
ings, that is, by eminence ; the inspired
writings, comprising the Old aod New
Testaments. See BIBLE.

SC YTH'IANS, wandering tribes in the
immense regions north and north-east of
the Black and Caspian seas. They are
said by Herodotus to have made an in
cursion into South-western Asia and
Egypt, some seven hundred years before
Christ ; and it was perhaps a fragment of
this host, located at Bethshean, which
gave that city its classical name Scythop-
olis. In Col. 3:11, "Scythian" appears
to signify the rudest of barbarians.

SEA. The Hebrews give the name of
sea to any large collection of water, Job
14:11; as to the lakes of Tiberias and
Asphaltites, and also to the rivers Nile
and Euphrates, Isa. 11:15; 18:2; 21:1;
Jer. 51:36, 42. The principal seas men
tioned in Scripture are the following :

I. The GREAT SEA, the Mediterranean,
called also the hinder or Western sea.
Indeed, the Hebrew word for sea, mean
ing the Mediterranean, is often put for
the west. The Great sea is 2,200 miles
long, and in the widest part 1,200 miles
in width. In many places it is so deep
as to give no soundings. It is little af
fected by tides, but is often agitated by
violent winds. The prevailing direction
of the wind in spring is from the south
east and south-west, and from the north
east and north-west the rest of the year.

II. The RED SKA, Ex. 10 : 19 ; 13 : 18 ;
Psa. 106 : 7, 9, 22, derived its name from
Edom, which lay between it and Pales
tine ; or from the hue of the mountains
on its western coast, or of the animalcu-
ke which float in masses on its surface.
It lies between Arabia on the east and
north-east, and Abyssinia and Egypt on
the west and south-west, and extends
from the straits of Babelmandel to Suez,
a distance of about 1,400 miles, with an
average width of 150 miles, and a depth
of 1 ,800 feet. At the northern end it is
divided into the two gulfs of Suez and
Akaba, anciently called the gulf of He-
rob'polis and the Elanitic gulf. The first
of these is 190 miles in length, and the
second 100 miles. Between these gulfs
lies the celebrated peninsula of mount
Sinai. That of Akaba is connected with
the Dead sea by the great sand valley
El Arabah, described under the article
JORDAN. It is only these gulfs of the
Red sea that are mentioned in Scripture.
The Israelites, in their exodus out of
Egypt, miraculously crossed the west
ern gulf south of Suez, and then, after
many years of sojourning and wander
ing in the deserts of the peninsula and
north of it, they came to Ezion-gebe*, at
the extremity of the eastern gulf. See
EXODUS and WANDERINGS. In Zech.
10 : 11, both the Red sea and the Nile
appear to be mentioned.

III. The DEAD SEA, also called The
Salt sea, Gen. 14 : 3 ; The sea of the
Plain, Deut. 4:40; The Eastern sea,
Zech. 14:8 ; by the Greeks and Romans,
lake Asphaltites; and by the modern

397

SEA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEA

THE DEAD SEA ; AND THE CONVENT OF SANTA SABA, ON THE BROOK KIDRON.

Arabs, The sea of Lot. It lay at the
south-east corner of the Holy Land, and
receives the waters of the Jordan from
the north, and of the Arnon and several
smaller streams from the east. It is over
forty miles long, and eight or nine miles
wide, and lies as in a chaldron between
bare limestone cliffs, which rise on the
west side 1,200 or 1,500 feet above its
surface, and on the east side 2,000 feet
or more. At the south end is a broad
and low valley, overflowed after the an
nual rains. The general aspect of the
region is dreary, sterile, arid desolate ;
but at a few points there are brooks or
fountains of fresh water, which in their
way to the sea pass through spots of
luxuriant verdure, the abode of birds in
great numbers.

The waters of the Dead sea are clear
and limpid, but exceedingly salt and bit
ter. Their specific gravity exceeds that
of all other waters known, being one-
lifth or one-fourth greater than that of
pure water. They are found by repeat
ed analyses to contain one-fourth their
weight of various salts, chiefly the chlo
rides of magnesium and sodium. Salt
also is deposited by evaporation on the
shore, or on garments wet in the sea. In
the bed of the sea it is found in crystals,
and near the shore in incrustations de-
398

posited on the bottom. No fish can live
in these acrid waters, and those which
are brought down by the Jordan quick
ly die. Compare Ezek. 47 : 8-10, where
the healing of this deadly sea, and its
abounding in fish, as well as the new
fertility and beauty of the dreary wilder
ness between it and Jerusalem — by means
of the healing power of the Kidron. flow
ing from beside the altar of God — forci
bly illustrate the healing and renovat
ing power of gospel grace. A person
unacquainted with the art of swimming
floats at ease upon the surface of lake
Asphaltites, and it requires an effort to
submerge the body. The boats of Lieut.
Lynch met with a gale on entering it
from the Jordan ; and ' ' it seemed as if
the bows, so dense was the water, were
encountering the sledge-hammers of the
Titans, instead of the opposing waves of
an angry sea. ' '

At times, and especially after earth
quakes, quantities of asphaltum are dis
lodged from the bottom, rise and float
on the surface, and are driven to the
shores, where the Arabs collect them for
various uses. Sulphur is likewise found
on the shores, and a kind of stone or
coal, called Musca by the Arabs, which
on being rubbed exhales an intolerable
odor. This stone, which also comes from

SEA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEA

the neighboring mountains, is black, and
takes a line polish. Maundrell saw pieces
of it two feet square, in. the convent of
St. John in the Wilderness, carved in
bas-relief, and polished to as great a lus
tre as blick marble is capable of. The
inhabitants of the country employ it in
paving churches, mosques, courts, and
other places of public resort. In the
polishing its disagreeable odor is lost.
When placed by Mr. King upon hot
coals, a strong stench of sulphur issued
from it, and it soon began to blaze. The
blaze rose four or five inches high, arid
continued about two minutes.

An uncommon love of exaggeration is
observable in all the older narratives,
and in some of modern date, respecting
the nature and properties of the Dead
sea. Chateaubriand speaks of a "dis
mal sound proceeding from this lake of
death, like the stilled clamors of the peo
ple ingulfed in its waters," and says that
its shores produced a fruit beautiful to
the sight, but containing nothing but
ashes ; and that the heavy metals float
on the surface of the sea. Others allege
that black and sulphureous exhalations
are constantly issuing from the water,
and that birds attempting to fly across it
are struck dead by its pestiferous fumes.
These legends are corrected by more reli
able accounts, which show that the birds
fly over or float upon the sea uninjured ;
that no vapor is exhaled from its surface,
except that caused by the rapid evapora
tion of its waters under the hot sun ; and
that the low level and excessive heat of
the valley of the Jordan and the' Dead
sea account for the diseases prevailing
there, without imagining any more fear
ful cause. The ' ' apples of Sodom ' ' above
referred to by Chateaubriand, and de
scribed by Josephus and others, answer,
with some exaggerations, to fruits now
growing around the Dead sea.

In 1848, Lieut. Lynch of the United
States' navy passed down the Jordan
from the sea of Tiberias, with two me
tallic boats, and spent three weeks in a
survey of the sea of Sodom. He found
it nearly 1,300 feet deep, and its surface
more than 1,800 feet below the level of
the Mediterranean. From the eastern
side, some eight miles from the south
end, a low promontory projects three-
f jiirths of the way towards the western
ciLTs, and sends up a point five miles
towards the north. Below this point

the lake becomes suddenly shallow, the
southern bay not averaging more than
twelve or fifteen feet in depth, Josh.
15 : 2. This lower part is believed to
cover the sites of the cities destroyed by
lire from heaven, Sodoin, Gomorrah,
Admah, and Zeboim. The vale of Sid-
dim was once a smiling plain, well wa
tered, and like a garden of the Lord,
Gen. 13:10 ; it is now, and for all future
ages, a monument of his just indigna
tion, Deut. 29:23, and an awful warning
to reckless sinners that the day of the
Lord will come upon them also suddenly
and without remedy, Matt. 10:15; 11:22-
24; 2 Pet. 2:4-l>; Jude 7. The bottom
of the shallow bay is a deep slimy mud,
Gen. 14 : 10. On its south-west border
lies a mountain or ridge composed chief
ly of rock-salt, arid called Usdum or Sod
om, between which and the sea stands a
round pillar of salt forty feet high, re
minding one of Lot's wife. At present
the Dead sea has no perceptible outlet,
and the waters poured into it by the
Jordan are probably evaporated by the
intense heat of the unclouded sun, or in
part absorbed in the earth. It is thought
by some that the northern and principal
part of the sea was the product of some
convulsion of nature, long before that
which destroyed Sodom and formed the
south bay ; that the Jordan at first flow
ed into the Ked sea through the remark
able crevasse Avhich extends from its
sources to the gulf of Akabah ; and that
at some period beyond the reach of his
tory, its bed and valley sunk down to
their present level and formed the Dead
sea. Lieutenant Lynch in sounding dis
covered a ravine in the bed of the sea,
corresponding to the channel of the Jor
dan in its valley north of the sea. See
JORDAN.

IV. The SEA OF TIBERIAS or of Galilee ;
the lake of Gennesareth, or of Cinne-
reth, Num. 34 : 11, is so called from the
adjacent country, or from some of the
principal cities on its shores. It resem
bles, in its general appearance, the lake
of Geneva in Switzerland, though not so
large. The Jordan passes through it
from north to south. It is twelve or
fourteen miles long, six or seven miles
in breadth, and 165 feet deep. Its wa
ters lie in a deep basin, surrounded on
all sides by rounded and beautiful hills,
from 500 to 1,000 feet high, except the
narrow entrance and outlet cf the Jor-
399

SEA BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEA

SEA OF GALILEE, FROM THE NORTH-WEST COAST | WITH MAGDALA AND TIBERIAS.

dan at either end. Its sheltered loca
tion protects it in some degree from the
wind, but it is liable to sudden squalls
and whirlwinds, and many travellers on
its shores have met with violent tem
pests—reminding them of those encoun
tered by Christ and his disciples. A
strong current marks the passage of the
Jordan through the middle of the lake,
on its way to the Dead sea. The vol
canic origin of the basin of this lake is
strongly inferred from numerous indica
tions, such as the black basaltic rocks
which abound, frequent and violent
earthquakes, and several hot springs.
According to Lieut. Symonds, it is 328
feet below the level of the Mediterra
nean. Lieut. Lynch makes it G53 feet
below. Its waters are clear and sweet,
and contain various kinds of excellent
fish in great abundance. The appear
ance of the sea from the hills on the
western shore is far less grand and more
beautiful than that of the Dead sea. It
should be seen in spring, when the hills
around it are clothed with grain and fes
tooned with flowers. The towns that
once crowded its shores with a teeming
population, the groves and shrubbery
that covered its hills, and the boats and
gallies that studded its surface are gone.
400

But the sea remains, hallowed by many
scenes described in the gospels. The Sav
iour of mankind often looked upon its
quiet beauty and crossed it in his jour
neys ; he stilled its waves by a word,
and hallowed its shores by his miracles
and teachings. Here several of the apos
tles were called to become "fishers of
men," and in its waters Peter sank
trembling and crying, . "Lord, save
me," Matt. 4 : 18 ; 14:22; Luke 8 : 22 ;
John 21:1.

" How pleasant to me thy deep blue wave,

O sea of Galilee,

For the glorious One who came to save
Hath often stood by thee.

O Saviour, gone to God's right hand,

Yet the same Saviour still,
Graved on thy heart is this lovely strand

And every fragrant hill."

M'CHEYXE.

Y. SEA or WATERS OF MEROM. See ME-
ROM.

The BRAZEN or MOLTEN SEA, made by
Solomon for the temple, was a circular
vessel at least fifteen feet in diameter,
which stood in the court of the temple,
and contained three thousand baths, ac
cording to 2 Chr. 4 : 5, or two thousand
baths according to 1 Kin. 7:26. Calmet
supposes this may be reconciled by saying

SEA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEC

that the cup or bowl contained two thou
sand baths, and the foot or basin a thou
sand more. It was supported by twelve
oxen of brass, and was probably the lar
gest brazen vessel ever made — an evi
dence of the skill of the workers in metal
at that period. It contained from 16,000
to 24,000 gallons, and was supplied with
water either by the labor of the Gibeon-
ites, or as Jewish writers affirm, by a
pipe from the well of Etam, so that a
constant flow was maintained. This
water was used for the various ablutions
of the priests, 2 Chr. 4:6; a perpetual
and impressive testimony from God of
the necessity of moral purification in the
inexhaustible fountain of Christ's grace.
The preceding engraving must be chiefly
imaginary.

SEAL, SEALING. The allusions and
references to seals and sealing are fre
quent in the sacred writings. Seals or
signets were in use at a very early pe
riod, and they were evidently of vari
ous kinds. Some were used as a substi
tute for signing one's name, the owner's
name or chosen device being stamped by
it with a suitable ink on the document
to be authenticated. Seals to be used

for this purpose, with or without the
sign manual, appear to have been
worn by the parties to whom they re
spectively belonged. The seal of a
private person was usually worn on
his finger, or his wrist, or in a brace
let, being small in size, Jer. 32:10;
Luke 15: 22; Jas. 2:2. See RINGS.
The seal of a governor was worn by
him, or carried about his person in the
most secure manner possible. The
royal seal was either personal, to the
king, or public, to the state ; in other
words, the seal of the king and the seal
of the crown, 2 Sam. 1:10: the first the
king retained ; the latter he delivered to
the proper officer of state. So far mod
ern usages enable us to comprehend
clearly the nature of this important in
strument. The impress of the royal seal
on any document gave it the sanction of
government, 1 Kin. 21:8 ; and a tempo
rary transfer of the seal to another hand
conveyed a plenary authority for the oc
casion, Esth. 3:10, 12; 8:2. Instead of
wax, clay was sometimes used to take
the impression of a seal, probably on
account of the heat of the climate, Job
38 : 14. The seal was a token of posses
sion and of careful preservation, Deut.
32 : 34 ; Job 9 : 7 ; 14 : 17. A portion of
clay covering the lock or opening of a
door, etc., guarded it from being opened
clandestinely, Song 4:12; Dan. 6 : \7 ;
Matt. 27 : 66. Travellers in the East
have met the same custom in modern
times. The cord around a book, box, or
roll of parchment was often secured with
a seal, Isa. 8 : 16 ; Rev. 5 : 1. The Holy
Spirit seals Christians, impressing his im
age upon them as a token that they are
his, Eph. 1:13, 14; 4:80. See So.
SEA'SONS. See CANAAK.
SE'BA. See SABEANS.
SE'BAT, the first month of the Jewish
civil year, and the eleventh of the eccle
siastical year— from the new moon of
February to that of March. See MONTH.
They began in this month to number the
years of the trees they planted, the fruits
of which were esteemed impure till the
fourth year, Zech. 1:7.
SE'CRET. See MYSTERY,
SECT, from a Latin word answering
to the Greek word hceresis, which latter
our translators have in some places ren
dered "sect," in others, "heresy." As
used in the New Testament, it implies
neither approbation nor censure of the
401

SEC

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEL

persons to whom it is applied, or of
their opinions, Acts 5:17 ; 15:5. Among
the Jews, there were four sects, distin
guished by their practices and opinions,
yet united in communion with each
other and with the body of their nation:
namely, the Pharisees, the Sadducees,
the Essenes, and the Herodians. Chris
tianity was originally considered as a
new sect of Judaism ; hence Tertullus,
accusing Paul before Felix, says that he
was chief of the seditious sect of the
Nazarenes, Acts 24 : 5 ; and the Jews of
Home said to the apostle, when he ar
rived in this city, "As concerning this
sect, we know that everywhere it is
spoken against," Acts 28:22. See HER
ESY.

SECUN'DUS, a disciple at Thessaloni-
ca, who accompanied Paul in some of his
journeys, Acts 20:4.

SEDl'TION, a popular tumult, Acts
24 : 5, or a religious faction, Gal. 5 : 20.
The same Greek word is translated ' ' in
surrection," in speaking of Barabbas,
Mark 15:7, and "dissension" in Acts
15:2.

SEED, Gen. 1 : 11 ; often used figura
tively in Scripture, Dan. 9:1; 1 Pet.
1 : 23 ; 1 John 3 : 9. There was an in
junction in the Mosaic law against sow
ing a field with mingled seed of diverse
kinds, Lev. 19:19. The "precious seed"
is often committed to the ground with
many fears ; but the harvest, at least in
spiritual things, shall be a season of joy,
Psa. 126:5, 6.

SEER, one supernatural ly enlighten
ed to see things which God only can re
veal ; applied to certain Hebrew proph
ets, 1 Sam. 9:9; 2 Chr. 29 : 30 ; 33 : 18,
19 ; Isa. 29:10 ; 30:10. Compare Num.
24:3, 4.

SEIR, I., a mountain of Judah, near
Kirjath-jearim, Josh. 15:10.

II. A Horite, one of the primitive rul
ers of the country south and south- east
of the Dead sea, Gen. 36:20 ; Deut. 2:12.

III. A mountainous tract lying be
tween the southern extremity of the
Dead sea and the eastern gulf of the Red
sea. Mount Hor formed part of Seir,
and is the only part that retains its orig
inal name. See IDUJLEA.

VIEW OF PART OF THE MAIN VALLEY OF PETRA.

SE'LA, the name of a place mentioned
in 2 Kin. 14:7, where it is said that Am-
aziah king of Judah slew ten thousand
402

men of Edom, in the valley of Salt, and
took Sela by war, and called the name
of it JOKTHEEL, subdued by God. Sela.

SEL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEL

in Hebrew, signifies a rock, and answers
to the Greek word Petra ; whence it has
been reasonably inferred that the city
bearing the name of Petra, and which
was the celebrated capital of Arabia Pe-
tnea, is the place mentioned by the sa
cred historian. It is also mentioned in
Isa. 16 : 1, and may be intended by the
wordSela, translated rock, in Judg. 1:36 ;
Isa. 42:11. The ruins of this place were
in modern times first visited by Burck-
hardt, 1812, and attest the splendor of
the ancient city. He says, "At the dis
tance of a two long days' journey north
east from Akabah, is a rivulet and valley
in the Djebel Shera. on the east side of
the Arabah, called Wady Mousa. This
place is very interesting for its antiqui
ties and the remains of an ancient city,
which I conjecture to be Petra, the cap
ital of Arabia Petrasa, a place which, as
far as I know, no European traveller has
ever visited. In the red sand-stone of
which the valley is composed are up
wards of two hundred and fifty sepul
chres, entirely cut out of the rock, the
greater part of them with Grecian orna
ments. There is a mausoleum in the
shape of a temple, of colossal dimen
sions, likewise cut out of the rock, with
all its apartments, its vestibule, peri
style, etc. It is a most beautiful speci
men of Grecian architecture, and in per
fect preservation. There are other mau-
solea with obelisks, apparently in the
Egyptian style, a whole amphitheatre
cut out of the rock, with the remains of
a p ilace and of several temples. Upon
the summit of the mountain which closes
the narrow valley on its western side,
(mount Hor,) is the tomb of Haroun, or
A.aron. It is held in great veneration by
the Arabs." That this was indeed the
ancient Sela or Petra is established by
various concurring proofs ; Josephus,
Eusebiu.5, and Jerome affirm that the
tomb of Aaron was near Petra ; and the
location and ruins correspond with the
notices given in the Bible, and by Pliny
and Strabo.

Subsequent travellers, especially La-
borde, have given minute and graphic
descriptions of this wonderful city, with
drawings of the principal ruins. The
valley of Petra, 2,200 feet above the great
valley El-Arabah, is about a mile long
from north to south, and half a mile wide,
with numerous short ravines in its sides,
making its whole circuit perhaps four

miles. It is accessible through ravines
at the north and the south ; but the
cliffs which define it on the east and
west are precipitous, and vary from two
hundred to one thousand feet in height.
The main passage into the city is on the
east, and begins between cliil's forty feet
high and fifty yards apart, which soon

GORGE IX PETRA, WITH A PART OF EL-KHUSNEH.

become higher, nearer, and full of exca
vated tombs. This winding ravine is a
403

SEL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEN

mile long, and gives entrance to a small
brook ; its sides at one place are but
twelve feet apart and two hundred and
fifty feet high. At the termination of
this narrow gorge you confront the most
splendid of all the structures of Petra,
el-Khusneh, the temple mentioned by
Burckhardt, hewn out of the face of the
opposite cliff. Here you enter a wider
ravine, which leads north-west, passes
the amphitheatre in a recess on the left,
and at length opens on the great val
ley of the main city towards the west.
The tombs excavated in these, and in all
the side gorges, are without number,
rising range above range ; many of them
are approached by steps cut in the rock,
while others are inaccessible, at the
height of nearly four hundred feet. The
theatre was so large as to accommodate
more than three thousand persons. The
palace, called Pharaoh's house by the
Arabs, is the chief structure not exca
vated in the mountain that survives in
any good degree the ravages of time ;
it was evidently a gorgeous building.
Most of the valley is strown with the
ruins of public edifices and with frag
ments of pottery. The brook flows
through the valley towards the west,
and passes off through a narrow gorge
like that by which it entered. One of
the finest temples, the Deir, stands high
up in a ravine on the west side. It is
hewn out of the solid rock ; its front is
one hundred and fifty-two feet in length
and height ; and its lower columns,
half projecting from the rock, are eight
feet in diameter. A singular charm is
thrown over the whole by the beauty of
the stone from which these various struc
tures are wrought. It is a fine and soft
sandstone, variegated with almost every
variety of hues, red, purple, black, white,
azure, and yellow, the deepest crimson
and the softest pink blending with each
other, while high above the sculptured
monuments the rocks rise in their na
tive rudeness and majesty. The whole
strange and beautiful scene leaves on the
spectator's mind impressions which noth
ing can efface.

Petra was an ancient city, a strong for
tress, and for many ages an important
commercial centre. It was the chief city
among scores which once filled that re
gion. Yet the prophets of God foretold
its downfall, and its abandonment to
solitude and desolation, in terms which
404

strikingly agree with th« facts. "Thy
terribleness hath deceived thee, and the
pride of thy hear,t, 0 thou that dwellest
in the clefts of the rock, that boldest the
height of the hill : though thou shouldest
make thy nest as high as the eagle, I will
bring thee down from thence, saith the
Lord," Jer. 49:7-22. See also Isa. 34:5-
15 ; Ezek. 35 ; Joel 3 : 19 ; Amos 1 : 11,
12; Obad. 3-16. When its ruin took
place we are not informed. There were
Christian churches there in the fifth and
sixth centuries, but after A. D. 536 no
mention is made of it in history.

SE'LAH, a musical term which occurs
seventy-three times in the Psalms, and
is found also in Hab. 3:3, 9, 13. It usu
ally occurs at the end of a period or
strophe, but sometimes at the end only
of a clause. This difficult word, it is now
generally believed, was a direction for a
meditative pause in the singing of a
psalm, during which perhaps there was
an instrumental interlude.
_ SELEU'CIA, a fortified city of Syria,
situated on the seacoast, a little north of
the mouth of the Orontes. It stood near
mount Pierius, and was therefore some
times called Seleucia Pieria, and some
times Seleucia by the sea, in order to dis
tinguish it from other cities of the same
name, of which there were not less than
seven or eight in Syria and the vicinity.
They were all thus named from Seleucus
Nicator. Paul and Barnabas embarked
here for Cyprus, on their first missionary
tour, Acts 13:4.

SEN' ATE, Acts 6:21. See SANHEDRIM.
SE'NIR. a name given to mount Her-
mon by the Amorites, Deut. 3:9 ; 1 Chr.
5 : 23 ; Ezek. 27 : 5. See HERMON.

SENNACH'ERIB, king of Assyria, son
and successor of Shalmaneser, began to
reign's, c. 710, and reigned but a few
years. Hezekiah king of Judah having
shaken off the yoke of the Assyrians, by
which Ahaz his father had suffered un
der Tiglath-pileser, Sennacherib march
ed an army against him, and took all
the strong cities of Judah. Hezekiah,
seeing he had nothing left but Jerusa
lem, which he perhaps found it difficult
to preserve, sent ambassadors to Sen
nacherib, then besieging and destroying
Lachish, to make submission, Sennach
erib accepted his tribute, but refused, to
depart, and sent Rabshakeh with an in
solent message to Jerusalem. Hezekiah
entreated the Lord, who sent a destroy-

SEN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEN

ing angel against the Assyrian army,
and slew in one night 185,000 men. Sen
nacherib returned with all speed to Nin
eveh, and turned his arms against the
nations south of Assyria, and afterwards
towards the north. But his career was
not long ; within two or three years from
his return from Jerusalem, while he was
paying adorations to his god Nisroch, in
the temple, his two sons Adrammelech
and Sharezer slew him and fled into Ar
menia. Esar-haddon his son reigned in
his stead, 2 Kin. 18 ; 19 ; 2 Chr. 32.

A most remarkable confirmation of
the above Bible history has been found
in the long buried ruins of ancient Nin
eveh. The mound called Kouyimjik,
opposite Mosul, has been to. a good de
gree explored, and its ruins prove to be
those of a palace erected by this power
ful monarch. The huge stone tablets
which formed the walls of its various
apartments are covered with bas-reliefs
and inscriptions ; and though large por
tions of these have perished by violence
and L.ue, the fragments that remain are
full of interest. One series of tablets
recounts the warlike exploits of Sen
nacherib, who calls himself ' ' the sub-
duer of kings from the upper sea of the
setting sun to the lower sea of the rising
sun," that is, from the Mediterranean
to the Persian gulf.

The most important of these mural
pages to Bible readers, are those recoiyit-
ing the history of his war against Syria
and the Jews, in the third year of his
reign. Crossing the upper part of mount
Lebanon, he appears to have conquered
Tyre and all the cities south of it on the
seacoast to Askelon. In this region he
came in conflict with an Egyptian army,
sent in aid of king Hezekiah ; this host
he defeated and drove back. See 2 Kin.
19:9 ; Isa. 87. The inscription then pro
ceeds to say, "Hezekiah king of Judah,
who had not submitted to my authority,
forty-six of his principal cities, and for
tresses and villages dependent upon
them, of which I took no account, I
captured, and carried away their spoil.
The fortified towns, and the rest of his
towns which I spoiled, I severed from
his country, and gave to the kings of
Askelon, Ekron, and Gaza, so as to make
his country small. In addition to the
former tribute imposed upon their coun
tries, I added a tribute the nature of
which I fixed." Compare 2 Kin. 18:13 ;

Isa. 36 : 1. He does not profess to have
taken Jerusalem itself, but to have car
ried away Hezekiah' s family, servants,
405

SEP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEP

and treasures, with a tribute of thirty
talents of gold and eight hundred tal
ents of silver. The amount of gold is
the same mentioned in the Bible narra
tive. The three hundred .talents of sil
ver mentioned in Scripture may have
been all that was given in money, and
the live hundred additional claimed in
the Ninevite record may include the
temple and palace treasures, given by
He/ekiah as the price of peace.

In another apartment of the same pal
ace was found a series of well preserved
bas-reliefs, representing the siege and
capture by the Assyrians of a large and
strong city. It was doubly fortilied, and
the assault and the defence were both
fierce. Part of the city is represented as
already taken, while elsewhere the bat
tle rages still in all its fury. Meanwhile
captives are seen flayed, impaled, and
put to the sword ; and from one of the
gates of the city a long procession of
prisoners is brought before the king,
who is gorgeously arrayed and seated on
his throne upon a mound or low hill.
They are presented by the general in
command, very possibly Rabshakeh, with
other chief officers. Two eunuchs stand
behind the king, holding fans and nap
kins. Above his head is an inscription
which is thus translated : "Sennacherib
the mighty king, king of the country of
Assyria, sitting on the throne of judg
ment at the gate of the city Lachisa ; I
give permission for its slaughter." The
captives are stripped of their armor, or
naments, and much of their clothing,
and are evidently Jews.

Little did Sennacherib then antici
pate the utter ruin of his own proud me
tropolis, and still less that the ruins of
his palace should preserve to this re
mote age the tablets containing his own
history, and the image of his god Nis-
roch so incapable of defending him, to
bear witness for the God whom he blas
phemed and defied. See NINEVEH, Nis-

110CII, SlIALMANESER, aild So.

SE'PHAR, "a mountain of the East,"
a boundary of the Joktanite tribes, Gen.
10:30. It is perhaps the same as mount
Sabbcr in South-western Arabia.

SEPH'AIIAD, a place in Asia Minor
near the Bosphorus, to which Jewish
captives were conveyed, Obad. 20.

SEPHARVAIM. When Shalmaneser
king of Assyria carried away Israel from
Samaria to beyond the Euphrates, he
406

sent people in their stead into Palestine,
among whom were the Sepharvaim,
2 Kin. 17:24, 31. That Sepharvaim was
a small district under its own king, is
apparent from 2 Kin. 19 : 13 ; Isa. 37 : 13.
It may, with most probability, be as
signed to Mesopotamia, because it is
named along with other places in that
region, and because Ptolemy mentions a
city of a similar name, Sipphara, as the
most southern of Mesopotamia.

SEP'TUAGINT, the seventy, is the name
of the most ancient Greek version of
the Old Testament, and is so called be
cause there were said to have been sev
enty translators. . The accounts of its
origin disagree, but it should probably
be assigned to the third century before
Christ. This ancient version contains
many errors, and yet as a whole is a
faithful one, particularly in the books of
Moses ; it is of great value in the inter
pretation of the Old Testament, and is
very often quoted by the New Testament
writers, who wrote in the same dialect.
It was the parent of the iirst Lati i, the
Coptic, and many other versions, and
was so much quoted and fallowed by the
Greek and Roman fathers as practically
to supersede the original Hebrew, until
the last few centuries. The chronology
of the Septuagint differs materially from
that of the Hebrew text, adding, for ex
ample, 606 years between the creatior
and the deluge. See ALEXANDRIA.

TOMBS HEWN IN THE EOCK, PETRA.

SEP'ULCHRE, a place of burial. The
Hebrews were always very careful about

SEP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEP

the burial of their dead. Many of their
sepulchres were hewn in rocks : as that

OTHER TOMBS, ETC., IN PETRA.

of Shebna, Isa. 22: 16 ; those of the kings
of Judah and Israel ; and that in which
our Saviour was laid on Calvary. These
tombs of the Jews were sometimes be
neath the surface of the ground ; but
were often in the side of a cliff, and mul
titudes of such are found near the ruins

TOMB OF ABSALOM, ROCK TOMBS, AND GRAVES
IN THE KIDRON VALLEY.

of ancient cities, 2 Kin. 23 : 16 ; Isa.
22:16. Travellers find them along the

bases of hills and mountains in all parts
of Syria ; as on the south side of Hin-
nom, the west side of Olivet, at Tiberias,
in Petra, in the gorge of the Barada,
and in the sea-cliffs north of Acre. The
tombs, as well as the general grave
yards, were uniformly without the city
limits, as is apparent at this day with
respect to both ancient and modern Je
rusalem, 2 Kin. 23:6 ; Jer. 26:23 ; Luke
7:12; John 1 1 : 30. See ACELDAMA. The
kings of Judah, almost exclusively, ap
pear to have been buried within Jerusa
lem, on mount Zion. 1 Kin. 2:10; 2 Kin.
14:20; 2 Chr. 16:14; 28:27; Acts 2:29.
Family tombs were common, and were
carefully preserved, Gen. 50:5-13 ; Judg.
8 : 32 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 32 ; 1 Kin. 13 : 22. Tomb
stones with inscriptions were in use, Gen.
35:20; 2 Kin. 23:16, 17. Absalom was
buried under a heap of stones, 2 Sam.
18 : 17. In many ancient heathen na
tions, a king was buried under a vast
mound, with his arms, utensils, horses,
and attendants, Ezek. 32:26, 27; and
the pyramids of Egypt are believed to be
the tombs of kings, each having but one
or two apartments, in one of which the
stone coffin of the builder has been found.
It was thought an act of piety to pre
serve and adorn the tombs of the proph
ets, but was often an act of hypocrisy ;
and our Saviour says that the Pharisees
Avere like whited sepulchres, which ap
peared fine without, but inwardly were
full of rottenness and corruption, Matt.
23 : 27-29 ; and Lightfoot has shown
that every year, after the winter rains
were over, the Hebrews whitened them
anew. In Luke 11 : 44, Christ compares
the Pharisees to "graves which appear
not," so that men walk over them with
out being aware of it, and may thus con
tract an involuntary impurity. A super
stitious adoration of the tombs and bones
of supposed saints was then and is now
a very prevalent form of idolatry ; and
our Saviour tells the Jews of his day
they were as guilty as their fathers, Luke
11 : 47, 48 : they built the sepulchres of
the prophets, their fathers slew them ;
the hypocritical idolatry of the sons was
as fatal a sin as the killing of the proph
ets by their fathers. These worshippers
of the prophets soon afterwards showed
that they allowed the deeds of their fa
thers, by crucifying the divine Prophet
whom Moses had foretold. In Syria at
the present day the tomb of David on
407

SEP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEP

mount Zion and that of Abraham at He
bron are most jealously guarded, and
any intruder is instantly put to death ;
while almost all the laws of God and man
may be violated with impunity. Deserted
tombs were sometimes used as places of
refuge and residence by the poor, Isa.
65:4 ; Luke 8:27 ; the shepherds of Pal
estine still drive their flocks into them
for shelter, and wandering Arabs live in
them during the winter. See BURIAL.

Maundrell's description of the sepul
chre north of Jerusalem — supposed by
many to be the work of Helena queen of
Adiabene, though now known as "the
tombs of the kings," — may be useful for
illustrating some passages of Scripture:

"The next place we came to was those
famous grots called the sepulchres of the
kings ; but for what reason they go by
that name is hard to resolve; for it is
certain none of the kings, either of Israel
or Judah, were buried here, the holy
Scriptures assigning other places for their
sepulchres. Whoever was buried here,
this is certain, that the place itself die-

covers so great an expense, both of labor
and treasure, that we may well suppose
it to have been the work of kings. You
approach to it at the east side through
an entrance cut out of the natural rock,
which admits you into an open court of
about forty paces square, cut down into
the rock with which it is encompassed
instead of walls. On the west side of
the court is a portico nine paces long
and four broad, hewn likewise out of the
natural rock. This has a kind of archi
trave, running along its front, adorned
with sculpture, of fruits and flowers, still
discernible, but by time much defaced.
At the end of the portico, on the left
hand, you descend to the passage into
the sepulchres. The door is now so ob
structed with stones and rubbish, that
it is a thing of some difficulty to creep
through it. But within you arrive in a
large fair room, about seven yards square,
cut out of the natural rock. Its sides
and ceiling are so exactly square, and its
angles so just, that no architect, with
levels and plummets, could build a room

PLAN OF THE TOMBS OF THE KINGS.

more regular. And the whole is so firm
and entire, that it may be called a cham
ber hollowed out of one piece of marble.
From this room you pass into, I think,
six more, one within another, all of the
same fabric with the first. Of these the
408

two innermost are deeper than the rest,
having a second descent of about six or
seven steps into them. In every one of
these rooms, except the first, were cof
fins of stone placed in niches in the sides
of the chambers. They had been at first

SER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SER

covered with handsome lids, and carved
with garlands ; but now most of them
were broken to pieces by sacrilegious
hands."

SE'RAH, a daughter of Ash^r, thrice
named among those who migrated to
Egypt, Gen. 46:17 ; Num. 26:46 ; 1 Chr.
7:30. Why she was thus distinguished
is unknown, but the rabbis have many
fables respecting her.

SERAI AH, the name of six persons,
alluded to in the following passages :
2 Sam. 8:17 ; 2 Kin. 25 : 18 ; Ezra 7:1;
Jer. 36 : 20 ; 40 : 8 ; 51 : 59. The last is
termed "a quiet prince," or as in the
marginal reading, ' ' chief chamberlain. ' '
He bore to the Jews in Babylon a mes
sage from the prophet Jeremiah.

SERAPHIM, burning ones, celestial
beings surrounding the throne of God.
Compare Deut. 4:24; Heb. 12:29. They
appear to be distinguished from the cher
ubim, Ezek. 1 : 5-12. The prophet Isa
iah, 6:2, 3, represents theni as reverent
ly adoring the triune God, and burning
with zeal to fly and execute his will.
Each one had six wings, with two of
which he covered his face, with two his
feet, and with the two others he flew.
They cried to one another, and said,
" Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts ;
the whole earth is full of his glory !"

SER'GEANTS, Acts 1G : 35, properly
Roman lictors, public servants who bore
a bundle of rods, sometimes with an axe
in the centre, before the magistrates of
cities and colonies as insignia of their
office, and who executed the sentences
which their masters pronounced.

SER'GIUS PAU'LUS, proconsul or
governor of the isle of Cyprus, was con
verted under the ministry of Paul, A. D.
48, Acts 13: 7.

SER'PENTS. These reptiles, unclean
among the Hebrews, Lev. 11:10. 41, are
widely diffused through the world, but
are most numerous and venomous in
tropical climates. About one-sixth part
of all that are known are supposed to
be poisonous. These are distinguished
by having two hollow poison-fangs in
the upper jaw, and are usually of slow
er motion than most snakes. Venom
ous serpents were abundant in Egypt
and Arabia, and seven different kinds
are mentioned in the Hebrew scriptures,
gome of which are identified with exist
ing species. See ADDER, ASP, COCKA
TRICE, and VIPER.

18

THE COBRA DI CAPELLO.

The serpents mentioned in Num. 21 ;
Isa. 14 : 29 ; 30 : 6, and by whom multi
tudes of the Israelites were destroyed in
the desert north of the gulf of Akabah,
were probably called "fiery" and "fly
ing" with reference to the agonizing
heat caused by their poison, and the
rapidity of their darting motion. He
rodotus indeed speaks of winged ser
pents as appearing every spring on the
Arabian border of Egypt ; but he did not
see them, nor are there any to be met
with in modern times. The serpent of
brass, made and erected on a pole by
Moses, had no healing virtue in itself,
but was a test of the penitence and faith
of the people. The author of Ecclesias-
ticus says of the Israelites, "They were
troubled for a small season that they
might be admonished, having a sign of
salvation to put them in remembrance
of the commandment of thy law. For
he that turned towards it was not saved
by the thing that he saw, but by thee,
that art the Saviour of all." Our Sav
iour himself shows that the brazen ser
pent was a type of Him, John 3 : 14, 15.
The believing view of Christ is salvation
to the soul infected by the fatal poison
of sin. Respecting the brazen serpent,
see NEIIUSIITAN. Hezekiah destroyed a
true and most sacred relic ; Rome, on
the contrary, fabricates false relics and
adores them. See CHARMERS.

Interpreters have largely speculated
concerning the nature of the serpent
that tempted Eve. Some have thought
that serpents originally had feet and
speech ; but there is no probability that
this creature was ever otherwise than it
now is. Its subtle, crafty malignity is
409

SER

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SER

often alluded to in the Scriptures, Gen.
3:1; Matt. 10 : 16 ; 23 : 33. Besides, it
cannot be doubted but that by the ser
pent we are to understand the devil,
who employed the serpent as a vehicle
to seduce the first woman, Gen. 8 : 13 ;
2 Cor. 11:3; Rev. 12:9.

SE'RUG, a descendant of Shem, and
an ancestor of Abraham, Gen. 11:20-23 ;
Luke 3 : 35. Jewish tradition says he
was the first of his line that fell into
idolatry, Josh. 24:2.

SER'VANT. This word sometimes
denotes a man who voluntarily dedi
cates himself to the service of another.
Thus Joshua was the servant of Moses ;
Elisha of Elijah ; and Peter, Andrew,
Philip, and Paul were servants of Jesus
Christ. The servants of Pharaoh, of
Saul, and of David, were their subjects
in general, and their court officers and
counsellors in particular. The Philis
tines, Syrians, and other nations were
servants of David, that is, they obeyed
and paid him tribute. The servants of
God are those who are devoted to his
service and obey his holy word.

In its primary sense, the word usually
means in the Bible either a hired ser
vant, or one whose service was the prop
erty of his master for a limited time and
under various restrictions. Joseph is the
first whom we read of as sold into bond
age. Gen. 37:27. 28. The households of
some of the early patriarchs contained
many servants, who were apparently
treated with kindness and justice ; the
highest trusts were sometimes confided
to them, and they might inherit their
master's estate, Gen. 14:11-16 ; 15:2-4;
24 : 1-10. They shared the religious priv
ileges of the household, Gen. 17 : 9-13,
27 ; 18 : 19, and were not transferred to
other masters.

At the establishment of the Hebrew
commonwealth, involuntary servitude
was everywhere prevalent ; and so far
as it existed among the Jews, Moses
sought to bring it under the restrictions
demanded by religion and humanity.
The mildest form of bond-service was
that of a Hebrew in the house of another
Hebrew. He might become bound to
this service in various ways, chiefly
through poverty, Ex. 21:7; Lev. 25:39-
47 ; to acquit himself of a debt he could
not otherwise pay, 2 Kin. 4:1 ; to make
restitution for a theft, Ex. 22 : 3 ; or to
earn the price of his ransom from cap-
410

tivity among heathen. This form of
service could not continue more than
six or seven years ; unless, when the
Sabbatical year came round, the servant
chose tq remain permanently or until
the Jubilee with his master, in token of
which he suffered his ear to be bored
before witnesses, Ex. 21 : 2, 6 ; 25 : 40.
The Hebrew servant was not to be made
to serve with rigor, nor transferred to
any harder bondage ; he had an appeal
to the tribunals, a right to all religious
privileges, the power of demanding re
lease on providing a pecuniary equiva
lent, and a donation from his master at
his release, Lev. 25:47-55; Deut. 15:12-
18. Compare also 2 Chron. 28 : 10, 11 ;
Neh. 5 : 1-13 ; Jer. 34 : 8-22. The law
likewise provided for the deliverance of
a Hebrew, who was in bondage to a res
ident foreigner, Lev. 25:47-54.

From the heathen around and among
them, especially from their captive ene
mies and the remains of the Canaanites,
the Hebrews obtained many servants.
These were protected by law, Deut. 1 : 16,
17; 27:19, and might become proselytes,
attend the festivals, enjoy religious in
struction and privileges, Ex. 12:44; Deut.
12 : 18 ; 29 : 10-13 ; 31 : 10-13. The ser
vant who was mutilated by his master
was to be set free, Ex. 21 : 26, 27 ; the
refugee from foreign oppression was to
be welcomed, Deut. 23:15, 16 ; and kid
napping or man-stealing was forbidden
on pain of death, Exod. 21 : 16 ; Deut.
24:7; 1 Tim. 1:10.

Roman slavery, as it existed in the
time of Christ, was comparatively un
known to the Jews. The Romans held
in bondage captives taken in war, and
purchased slaves. Their bondage was
perpetual, and the master held unques
tioned control of the person and life of
his slaves. Yet large numbers were set
free, and in many instances Roman freed-
men rose to the highest honors.

The allusions of the Bible to involun
tary servitude, imply that it is an evil
and undesirable condition of life ; yet
the bondman who cannot obtain his free
dom is divinely exhorted to contentment,
1 Cor. 7 : 20-24. Meanwhile the Bible
gives directions as to the mutual duties
of masters and servants, Eph. 6 : 5-9 ;
Col. 3:22 ; 4:1 ; Tit. 2:9 ; Phile. ; 1 Pet.
2:18 ; and proclaims the great truths of
the common origin of all men, the im
mortality of every human soul, and its

SET

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEA

right to the Bible and to all necessary
means of knowing and serving the Sav
iour — the application of which to all the
relations of master and servant, superior
and inferior, employer and employed,
would prevent all oppression, which God
abhors, Deut. 24 : 14 ; Psa. 103 : 6 ; Isa.
10:1-3 ; Amos 4:1 ; Mai. 3:5 ; Jas. 5:4.

SETH, the first son of Adam after the
death of Abel, Gen. 4:25, 26 ; 5:3, 6, 8,
and ancestor of the line of godly -patri
archs.

SEVEN. As from the beginning this
was the number of days in the week, so
it often has in Scripture a sort of em
phasis attached to it, and is very gen
erally used as a round or perfect num
ber. Clean beasts were taken into the
ark by sevens, Gen. 7. The years of
plenty and famine in Egypt were mark
ed by sevens, Gen. 41. With -the Jews,
not only was there a seventh day Sab
bath, but every seventh year was a sab
bath, and after every seven times seven
years came a jubilee. Their great feasts
of unleavened bread and of tabernacles
were observed for seven days ; the num
ber of animals in many of their sacrifices
was limited to seven. The golden can-,
dlestick had seven branches. Seven
priests with seven trumpets went around
the walls of Jericho seven days, and
seven times seven on the seventh day.
In the Apocalypse we find seven church
es mentioned, seven candlesticks, seven
spirits, seven stars, seven seals, seven
trumpets, seven thunders, seven vials,
seven plagues, and seven angels to pour
them out.

Seven is often put for any round or
whole number, just as we use "ten," or
"a dozen ;" so in Matt. 12 : 45 ; 1 Sam.
2:5; Job 5 : 19 ; Prov. 26 : 16, 25 ; Isa.
4:1 ; Jer. 15 : 9. In like manner, seven
times, or seven-fold, means often, abun
dantly, completely, Gen. 4:15, 24; Lev.
26:24; Psa. 12:6; 79:12; Matt. 18:21.
And seventy times seven is a still higher
superlative, Matt. 18:22.

SHAAL'BIM, a town of Gad, long held
by the Amorites, Josh. 19 : 42, Judg.
1 : 35, but in the time of Solomon the
head-quarters of one of his commissa
ries, 1 Kin. 4:9.

SHAD'OW sometimes denotes intense
darkness and gloom, Psa. 23 : 4, and
sometimes a cool retreat, Isa. 33 : 2, or
perfect protection, Psa. 17:8; Isa. 49:2;
Dan. 4 : 12. The long shadows cast by

the declining sun are alluded to in Job
7:2; Jer. 6 : 4. The swift, never ceasing
motion of a shadow is an emblem of hu
man life, 1 Chr. 29:15; Psa. 102:11.

SHA'DRACH, the Chaldean name
given to Ananias at the court of Nebu
chadnezzar, Dim. 1:7. See ABED-NEGO.

SHAL'ISHA, a district adjoining
mount Ephraim on the west, 1 Sam.
9 : 4. Baal-shalisha is placed by Euse-
bius fifteen miles from Lydda, towards
the north.

SHAL'LUM, I., son of Jabesh, or a na
tive of Jabesh, who treacherously killed
Zechariah king of Israel, and usurped his
kingdom, B. c. 772. He held it only one
month, when Menahem son of Gadi kill
ed him in Samaria. Scripture says that
Shallum was the executioner of the
threatenings of the Lord against the
house of Jehu, 2 Kin. 15:10-15.

II. See JEIIOAHAZ II.

III. The husband of Huldah the proph
etess in the time of Josiah, 2 Kin. 22:14.

Others of this name are alluded to in
Num. 26:49; 1 Chr. 2:40; 9:17,19,31;
Ezra 2:42; 7:2; 10:24, 42; Neh. 3:12;
7:45.

SHALMANE'SEK, king of Assyria,
between Tiglath-pileser and Sennache
rib. He ascended the throne about B. c.
728, and reigned fourteen years. Scrip
ture reports that he came into Palestine,
subdued Samaria, and obliged Hoshea to
pay him tribute ; but in the third year,
being weary of this exaction, Hoshea
combined secretly with So king of Egypt
to remove the subjection. Shalmaneser
brought an army against him, ravaged
Samaria, besieged Hoshea in his capital,
and notwithstanding his long resistance
of three years, 2 Kin. 17 ; 18 : 9-12, he
took the city and dismantled it, put Ho
shea into bonds, and carried away most
of the people beyond the Euphrates. He
thus .ruined the kingdom of Samaria,
which had subsisted two hundred and
fifty-four years, from B. c. 975 to 721.
The bas-relief copied in the next page was
found on a fine Assyrian obelisk of black
marble, six and a half feet high, and cov
ered on all sides with inscriptions. It
was discovered in the ruins of the north
west palace at Nimroud, and is believed
from various evidences to represent Shal
maneser receiving tribute from the Jews
subdued by his arms. Hezekiah king of
Judah successfully resisted him, 2 Kin.
18 : 7 : but he appears to have ravaged
411

SHA BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHA

Moab, Isa. 10:9; 15, 16, 23; and is said with the exception of insular Tyre, which
in Josephus to have conquered Phoenicia, he besieged in vain for five years.
412

SIIA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SEE

SHAM'BLES, 1 Cor. 10: 25, a public
meat-market.

SHAM'GAR, son of Anath, the third
judge of Israel, after Ehud and shortly
before Barak, in a time of great insecu
rity and distress, Judg. 3:31 ; 5:6. Scrip
ture only says he defended Israel, and
killed six hundred Philistines with an
ox-goad. See PLOUGH.

SHAM'MAH, I., one of the three chief
of David's thirty heroes, who shared with
David and Eleazar the honor of the ex
ploit recorded in 2 Sam. 23: 11, 12 ; 1 Chr.
11 : 12-14. Another feat is described in
2 Sam. 23:13-17.

II. A brother of David, 1 Sam. 16:9 ;
17:13 ; elsewhere called Shimcah, 2 Sam.
13:3, 22; 1 Chr. 2:13.

Others of this name are mentioned,
Gen. 36:13, 17 ; 2 Sam. 23:25,33 ; IChr.
11:27; 27:8.

SHA'PHAN, L, a scribe or secretary
under king Josiah, to whom he read
from the newly found autograph roll of
the book of the law, 2 Kin. 22:12; Jer.
29:3; 36:10; Ezek. 8:11.

II. The father of Ahikam, 2 Kin. 22:12 ;
25:22; Jer. 26:24.

SHA'PHAT, I., the father of Elisha,
IKin. 19:16.

II. A descendant of David, 1 Chr.
3:22.

III. A chief herdsman of David in
Bashan, 1 Chr. 27:29.

SHARE'ZER, I., a son of Sennache-rib,
who assisted in slaying his father, Isa.
37:38.

II. A delegate sent to Jerusalem with
Eegemmelec and others, probably soon
after the return from the Babylonish
captivity, to inquire of the priests at
Jerusalem whether a certain fast was
still to be observed, Zech. 7:2; 8:19.

SHAK/ON, I., a plain adjoining the
seacoast of Palestine between Carmel
and Joppa, about sixty miles in length
and of variable width, expanding inland
as it stretches from the promontory of
Carmel towards the south. It contains
some sandy tracts, but the soil is in gen
eral highly productive, and the plain was
of old famous for its beauty and fertility,
1 Chr. 27:29 ; Song2:l ; Isa. 33:9 ; 35:2 ;
65 : 10. It contained a town of the same
name, called Saron in Acts 9 : 35. The
whole plain was once thickly populated,
but is now comparatively uninhabited.
The heat of summer is excessive, and the
climate somewhat unhealthy. All trav

ellers describe the view of the plain from
the tower of Ramleh as one of surpass
ing richness and beauty. The frowning
hiils of Judah on the east confront the
glittering waters of the Mediterranean
on the west. Towards the north and
south far as the eye can reach spreads
the beautiful plain, covered in many
parts with fields of green or golden grain.
Near by are the immense olive-groves of
Ramleh and Lydda, and amid them the
picturesque towers, minarets, and domes
of these villages ; while the hill-sides tow
ards the north-east are thickly studded
with native hamlets. The uncultivated
parts of the plain are covered in spring
and the early summer with a rich profu
sion of flowers.

II. A town in the tribe of Gad, in the
district of Bashan beyond the Jordan,
IChr. 5:16.

SHA'VEH, a valley north of Jerusa
lem, called also the King's Dale, Gen.
14:17; 2 Sam. 18:18.

SHAVING. The Jews shaved their
beards and hair in time of mourning,
repentance, or distress, Job 1 : 20, Jer.
48:37, and in certain ceremonial purifi
cations, Lev. 14:9 ; Num. 8:7. At other
times they wore them long, like other
oriental nations — except the Egyptians,
who kept their beards shaved, as we
learn from Herodotus and from antique
monuments. Hence Joseph shaved be-
foi-e he was presented to Pharaoh, Gen.
41 : 14. See BEARD.

SHEAL'TIEL. See SALATHIEL.

SHE'AR-JASH'UB, the remnant shall
return, Isa. 7:3; 10:21, the name of one
of Isaiah's sons ; supposed to have had
a prophetic meaning, like Maher-shalal-
hash-baz.

SHE'BA, I., son of Raamah, Gen.
10 : 7. His posterity are supposed to
have settled near the head of the Per
sian gulf. See Cusn and RAAMAII.

II. Son of Joktan, of the race of Shem,
Gen. 10:28. See SABEANS II.

III. Son of Jokshan, and grandson of
Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 25 : 3. He
is supposed to have settled in Arabia
Deserta.

IV. A turbulent Benjamite, who after
the death of Absalom made a fruitless ef
fort to excite a rebellion in Israel against
David. Being pursued, and besieged in
Abel-beth-maachah, near the southern
part of Lebanon, he was beheaded by the
people of the city, 2 Sam. 20.

413

SHE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SHE

SITEBA, QUEEN OP. See SABEANS II.

SHE'BAT, the fifth month of the Jew
ish civil year, and the eleventh of the
ecclesiastical year, from the new moon
of February to that of March, Zech. 1:7.
See MONTH.

SHEB'NA, steward of king Hezekiah's
palace, Isa. 22 : 15, afterwards his secre
tary, 2 Kin. 18:18, 37.

SHE'CHEM, I., a Canaanite prince, at
the town of the same name, who abduct
ed Dinah the daughter of Jacob, and was
soon afterwards treacherously slain, with
many of his people, by Simeon and Levi,
Gen. 34.

II. A city of central Canaan, between
the mountains Gerizim and Ebal, thirty-
four miles north of Jerusalem ; called
also Sychar and Sychem, Acts 7:16. It
is first mentioned in the history of Abra
ham, who here erected his first altar in
Canaan, and took possession of the coun
try in the name of Jehovah, Gen. 12:6;

33 : 18, 19 ; 35 : 4. Jacob bought a field
in its neighborhood, which, by way of
overplus, he gave to his son Joseph, who
was buried here, Gen. 48 : 22 ; Josh.
24 : 32. After the conquest of Canaan
it became a Levitical city of refuge in
Ephraim, and a gathering-place of the
tribes, Josh. 20 : 7 ; 21 : 21 ; 24 : 1, 25 ;
Judg. 9. Here Rehoboam gave the ten
tribes occasion to revolt, 1 Kin. 12. In
its vicinity was Jacob's well or fountain,
at which Christ discoursed with the wom
an of Samaria, John 4:5. See also Acts
8 : 25 ; 9 : 31 ; 15 : 3. After the ruin of
Samaria by Shalmaneser, Sbechem be^
came the capital of the Samaritans ; and
Josephus says it was so in the time of
Alexander the Great. At the present
day it is also the seat of the small rem-
naiit of the Samaritans. See SAMARI
TANS. It was called by the Romans Nc-
apolis, from which the Arabs have made
Napolose, or Nabulus.

VIEW OF KABTTLTTS AND MOTTNT GERIZIM FROM THE NORTH-WEST.

The valley of Shechem extends several
miles north-west between mount Ebal
and mount Gerizim, and is about five
hundred yards wide ; so that in the pure
and elastic air of Palestine the two moun
tains are within hailing distance of each
other, one circumstance among thou
sands evincing the exact truthfulness ©f
414

Bible narratives, Deut. 27:11-14 ; Judg.
9:7. The winter rains which fall in the
eastern part of the valley find their way
to the Jordan, while in the western part
are numerous springs, forming a pretty
brook which flows towards the Mediter
ranean. "Here," says Dr. Robinson,
' ' a scene of luxuriant and almost unpar-

SHE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SHE

alleled verdure burst upon our view.
The whole valley was filled with gar
dens of vegetables and orchards of all
kinds of fruits, watered by several foun
tains which burst forth in various parts
and flow westward in refreshing streams.
It came upon us suddenly, like a scene
of fairy enchantment. We saw nothing
to compare with it in Palestine." The
modern town has several long and nar
row streets, partly on the base of mount
Gerizim. It does not appear to extend
so far to the east as the ancient city did.
The houses are high, and well built of
stone, and covered with small domes.
Nabulus is thought to contain eight
thousand inhabitants, all Mohammedans
except five hundred Greek Christians,
one hundred and fifty Samaritans, and
as many Jews. The rocky base of mount
Ebal on the north of the valley is full
of ancient excavated tombs. On mount
Gerizim is the holy place of the Samari
tans, and the ruins of a strong fortress
erected by Justinian. At the foot of
these mountains on the east lies the
beautiful plain of Mukhna, ten miles
long and a mile and a half wide ; and
where the valley opens on this plain,
Joseph's tomb and Jacob's well are lo
cated, by the unanimous consent of Jews,
Christians, and Mohammedans. The for
mer spot is now covered by a Mohamme
dan Wely, or sacred tomb ; and the lat
ter by an arched stone chamber, entered
by a narrow hole in the roof, and, the
mouth of the well within is covered by
a large stone. The well itself is one
hundred and five feet deep, and is now
sometimes dry. It bears every mark of
high antiquity.

The following extract is from Dr.
Clarke's description of this place :
"There is nothing in the Holy Land
finer than a view of Napolose from the
heights around it. As the traveller de
scends towards it from the hills, it ap
pears luxuriantly embosomed in the most
delightful and fragrant bowers, half con
cealed by rich gardens, and by stately
trees collected into groves, all around
the bold and beautiful valley in which
it stands. Trade seems to flourish among
its inhabitants. Their principal employ
ment is in making soap ; but the manu
factures of the town supply a very wide
ly extended neighborhood, and are ex
ported to a great distance upon camels.
In the morning after our arrival, we met

caravans coming from Grand Cairo, and
noticed others reposing in the large olive
plantations near the gates.

' ' The sacred story of events transacted
in the fields of Sychem, from our earliest
years is remembered with delight ; but
with the territory before our eyes where
those events took place, and in the view
of objects existing as they were describ
ed above three thousand years ago, the
grateful impression kindles into ecstasy.
Along the valley we beheld ' a company
of Ishmaelites coming from Gilead, ' Geri.
37 : 25, as in the days of Reuben and Ju-
dah, ' with their camels bearing spicery
and balm and myrrh,' who would gladly
have purchased another Joseph of his
brethren, and conveyed him as a slave
to some Potiphar in Egypt. Upon the
hills around, flocks and herds were feed
ing, as of old ; nor in the simple garb of
the shepherds of Samaria was there any
thing repugnant to the notions we may
entertain of the appearance presented by
the sons of Jacob. It was indeed a scene
to abstract and to elevate the mind ; and
under emotions so called forth by every
circumstance of powerful coincidence, a
single moment seemed to concentrate
whole ages of existence.

" The principal object of veneration is
Jacob's well, over which a church was
formerly erected. This is situated at a
small distance from the town, in the
road to Jerusalem, and has been visited
by pilgrims of all ages, but particularly
since the Christian era. as the place where
our Saviour revealed himself to the wom
an of Samaria. The spot is so distinctly
marked by the evangelist, and so little
liable to uncertainty, from the circum
stance of the well itself and the features
of the country, that, if no tradition ex
isted for its identity, the site of it could
hardly be mistaken. Perhaps no Chris
tian scholar ever attentively read the
fourth chapter of John, without being
struck with the numerous internal evi
dences of truth which crowd upon the
mind in its perusal. Within so small a
compass it is impossible to find in other
writings so many sources of reflection
and of interest. Independently of its
importance as a theological document, it
concentrates so much information, that
a volume might be filled with the illus
tration it reflects on the history of the
Jews and on the geography of their coun
try. All that can be gathered on these
415

SHE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SHE

subjects from Josephus seems "but as a
comment to illustrate this chapter. The
journey of our Lord from Judea into Gal
ilee ; the cause of it ; his passage through
the territory of Samaria ; his approach to
the metropolis of this country ; its name ;
his arrival at the Amorite field which ter
minates the narrow valley of Sychem ;
the ancient custom of halting at a well ;
the female employment of drawing wa
ter ; the disciples sent into the city for
food, by which its situation out of the
town is obviously implied ; the question
of the woman referring to existing preju
dices which separated the Jews from the
Samaritans ; the depth of the well ; the
oriental allusion contained in the expres
sion, ' living water ;' the history of the
well, and the customs thereby illustrat
ed ; the worship upon mount Gerizim ;
all these occur within the space of twen
ty verses."

THE FAT-TAILED SYRIAN SHEEP.

SHEEP. Of the Syrian sheep, accord
ing to Dr. Russell, there are two varie
ties : the one called Bedaween sheep,
which differ in no respect from the larger
kinds of sheep among us, except that
their tails are somewhat longer and
thicker ; the others are those often men
tioned by travellers on account of their
extraordinary tails ; and this species is
by far the most numerous. The tail of
one of these animals is very broad and
large, terminating in a small appendage
that turns back upon it. It is of a sub
stance between fat and marrow, and is
not eaten separately, but mixed with the
lean meat in many of their dishes, and
also often used instead of butter. A
common sheep of this sort, without the
416

head, feet, skin, and entrails, weighs from
sixty to eighty pounds, of which the tail
itself is usually ten or fifteen pounds, and
when the animal is fattened, twice or
thrice that weight, and very inconven
ient to its owner.

The sheep or lamb was the Common
sacrifice under the Mosaic law ; and it is
to be remarked, that when the divine
legislator speaks of this victim, he never
omits to appoint that the rump or tail
be laid whole on the lire of the altar,
Ex. 29 : 22 ; Lev. 3 : 9. The reason for
this is seen in the account just given
from Dr. Russell ; from which it appears
that this was the most delicate part of
the animal, and therefore the most prop
er to be presented in sacrilice to Jeho
vah.

The innocence, mildness, submission,
and patience of the sheep or lamb, ren
dered it peculiarly suitable for a sacri
fice, and an appropriate type of the Lamb
of God, John 1 : 29. A recent traveller
in Palestine witnessed the shearing of a
sheep in the immediate vicinity of Geth-
semane ; and the silent, unresisting sub
mission of the poor animal, thrown with
its feet bound upon the earth, its sides
rudely pressed by the shearer's knees,
while every movement threatened to
lacerate the flesh, was a touching com
mentary on the prophet's description of
Christ, Isa. 53:7 ; Acts 8:32-35.

There are frequent allusions in Scrip
ture to these characteristics of the sheep,
and to its proneness to go astray, Psa.
119 : 176 ; Isa. 53 : 6. It is a gregarious
animal also ; and as loving the compan
ionship of the flock and dependent on
the protection and guidance of its mas
ter, its name is often given to the people
of God, 2 Kin. 22: 17; Psa. 79:13; 80:1;
Matt. 25 : 32. Sheep and goats are still
found in Syria feeding indiscriminately
together, as in ancient times, Gen. 30:35;
Matt. 25 : 32, 33. The season of sheep-
shearing was one of great joy and festiv
ity, 1 Sam. 25:2, 8, 36 ; 2 Sam. 13:23.

Sheep-cotes or folds, among the Israel
ites, appear to have been generally open
houses, or enclosures walled round, often
in front of rocky caverns, to guard the
sheep from beasts of prey by night, and
the scorching heat of noon, Num. 32: 16 ;
2. Sam. 7:8; Jer. 23:3, 6; John 10:1-5.
See SHEPHERD.

SHEEP-MARKET, John 5:2. The
original might with at least equal pro*

SHE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SHE

priety be rendered sheep-gate ; and a
gate so called is mentioned in Neh. 3:1-
32 ; 12:39. It was adjacent to the tem
ple, and was so named from the number
of sheep introduced through it for the
temple service. Dr. Barclay thinks the
" sheep- market " was an enclosure for
sheep and other animals designed for
sacrifice, outside the temple area on the
east.

SHEK'EL. The shekel was properly
and only a weight. It was used espec
ially in weighing uncoined gold and sil
ver: "The land is worth 400 shekels of
silver ; . . . Abraham weighed to Ephron
the silver — in the audience of the sons of
Heth," Gen. 23 : 15, 16. In such cases
the word shekel is often omitted in the
Hebrew, as in Gen. 20:16 ; 37:28, where
our translators have supplied the word
"pieces," but improperly, because coin
ed money was not then known. See
MONEY. Between the sacred shekel, Ex.
30:13, and the shekel after the "king's
weight," 2 Sam. 14:26, there would
seern to have been a difference ; but this
difference cannot now be determined,
and many think the phrase "shekel of
the sanctuary ' ' simply means a full and
just shekel, according to the temple
standards. The first coin which bore the
name of shekel was struck after the ex

ile, in the time of the Maccabees, 1 Map.
15:6, and bore the inscription, Shekel of
Israel. Bockh, whose authority in mat
ters pertaining to ancient weights and
measures is very high, fixes it proxi-
mately at 274 Parfs grains. It is the
coin mentioned in the New Testament,
Matt. 26 : 15, etc. , where our translators
have rendered it by "pieces of silver."

SHEM, a son of Noah, Gen. 5 : 32 ;
6 : 10, always named before Ham and
Japheth, as the eldest son ; or, as some
think, because he was the forefather of
the Hebrews. In Gen. 10 : 21, the word
elder may be applied to Shem, instead of
Japheth. He received a blessing from
Jus dying father, Gen. 9 : 26, and of his

line the Messiah was born. He had five
sons, and their posterity occupied the
central regions between Ham and Ja
pheth, and peopled the finest provinces
of the East. The languages of some of
these nations are still called the Shemitic
languages, including the Hebrew, Chal-
dee, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, etc. ; but
in this general class are found several
languages spoken by nations descended
from Ham.

SHEMAI'AH, I., a prophet of Israel,
by whom God forbade Rehoboam to en
deavor to coerce the ten tribes back to
their allegiance, and called the king and
his court to repent at the invasion of
Shishak. He is said to have written the
history of Rehoboam 's reign, 1 Kings
12:22-24; 2 Chr. 12:5-8, 15.

II. A Levite, who made a registry of
the twenty-four priestly classes, 1 Chr.
15:8, 11; 24:6.

III. A false prophet among the exiled
Jews in Babylon, who opposed the proph
et Jeremiah, and incurred divine judg
ments on himself and his family. For
his name, Nehelamite, the marginal read
ing is a dreamer, Jer. 29:24-32.

IV. A false prophet in the pay of San-
ballat and Tobiah, who sought to terrify
Nehemiah into the cowardly and forbid
den step of taking refuge within the tem
ple, Nupi. 3:38; Neh. 6:10-14.

SHE'MER, the former owner of the
hill on which Oinri built Samaria, 1 Kin.
16:24.

SHEM'INITH, in the titles of Psa. 6,
12, and in 1 Chr. 15:21. It means prop
erly the eighth, and seems to have been
not an instrument, but a part in music,
perhaps the lowest.

SHE'NIR, See HERMON.

SHEPHATI'AH, the name of seven
distinguished Jews, alluded to in the
ifollowing^passages : 2 Sam. 3:4; 1 Chr.
12:5; 27:16; 2Chr. 21:2; Ezra 2:4, 57;
Neh. 11:4; Jer. 38:1.

SHEPHERD, or PASTOR. Abel was a
keeper of sheep, Gen. 4:2, as were the
greater number of the ancient patri
archs. When men began to multiply,
and to follow different employments,
Jabal son of Lamech was acknowledged
as father, that is, founder of shepherds
and nomads, Gen. 4 : 20. A large part
of the wealth of ancient patriarchs con
sisted in flocks and herds, the care of
which was shared by their sons, daugh
ters,- and servants. Rachel the bride of
417

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SHI

Jacob was a shepherdess, Gen. 29:6 ; his
sons, the fathers, of the tribes of Israel
were shepherds, and so was David their
king, Psa. 78 : 70-72. The employment
is highly honored in the Bible, Luke
2 : 8-20. In the time of the kings, the
"chief herdsman" occupied a post of
some importance, 1 Sam. 21 : 7 ; 2 Kin.
3 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 29-31. In Palestine and
its vicinity, besides those who united the
keeping of flocks and herds with the til
lage of the ground, there were and still
are numbers of nomades or wandering
shepherds confining themselves to no
settled home. These dwellers in tents
often had a wide range of pasture grounds,
from one to another of which they drove
their flocks as occasion required, Gen.
37 : 12-17. In the vast deserts east and
south of Palestine they found many spots
which in winter and spring were clothed
with verdure, Ex. 3:1 ; Psa. 65:12. But
the heat of summer withered these "pas
tures of the wilderness," and drove the
shepherds and their flocks to seek for
highlands and streams. There are many
indications in Scripture of the conscious
strength and independence of the ancient
shepherd patriarchs, of the extent of
their households, and the consideration
in which they were held, Gen. 14: 14-24 ;
21:22-32; 26:13-16; 30:43; Job 1:3.

God sometimes takes the name of
Shepherd of Israel, Psa. 80 : 1 ; Jer* 31 : 10 ;
and kings, both in Scripture and ancient
writers, are distinguished by the title of
' ' Shepherds of the people. ' ' The proph
ets often inveigh against the " shepherds
of Israel," that is, the kings, who feed
themselves and neglect their flocks ; who
distress, ill-treat, seduce, and lead them
astray, Ezek. 34 : 10. In like manner
Christ, as the Messiah, is often called a
shepherd, Zech. 13 : 7, and also takes on
himself the title of "the Good Shep
herd," who gives his life for his sheep,
John 10: 11, 14, 15. Paul calls him the
great Shepherd of the sheep, Heb. 13:20,
and Peter gives him the appellation of
Prince of shepherds, 1 Pet. 5 : 4. His
ministers are in like manner the pastors
or under-shepherds of the flock, Jer. 3:15;
23:3; Eph. 4:11.

In John 10:1-16, our Saviour says the
good shepherd lays down his life for his
sheep ; that he knows them, and they
know him ; that they hear his voice, and
follow him ; that he goes before them ;
that no one shall force them out of his
418

hands, and that he calls them by their
names. These, however, being all inci
dents taken from the customs of the
country, are by no means so striking to
us as they must have been to those who
heard our Lord, and who every day wit
nessed such methods of conducting this
domesticated animal. Modern travellers
in the East meet with many pleasing
confirmations of the truth of Scripture
in respect to these particulars ; they see
the shepherd walking before his flock,
any one of which will instantly run to
him when called by its own name. The
hireling, or bad shepherd, forsakes the
sheep, and the thief enters not by the
door of the sheepfold, but climbs in
another way. See SHEEP. The Bible
applies many of the excellences of the
faithful shepherd in illustration of the
Saviour's care of his flock. The shep
herd was responsible for each member of
the flock intrusted to him, Gen. 31 : 39 ;
Ex. 22 : 12 ; John 10 : 28 ; he had need
of great courage and endurance, Gen.
31 : 40 ; 1 Sam. 17:34, 35 ; John 10:15 ;
he exercised a tender care towards the
feeble, and carried the lambs in his arms,
Gen. 33 : 13 ; Isa. 40 : 11 ; Mark 10 : 14,
16; and searched for the lost sheep, bring
ing it back from the "land of drought
and the shadow of death ' ' into green pas
tures and by the still waters, Psa. 23 ;
Luke 15:4-7.

SHE'SHACH, a poetical name for Bab
ylon, signifying, as some judge, house or
court of the prince, Jer. 25:26; 51:41.

SHESHBAZ ZAR. See ZERUBBABEL.

SHETH'AR-BOZ'NAI. See TATNAI.

SHIB'BOLETH, a stream. In a Avar
between the Ephraimites and the men of
Gilead under Jephthah, the former were
discomfited, and fled towards the fords
of the Jordan. The Gileadites took pos
session of all these fords, and when an
Ephraimite who had escaped came to the
river side and desired to pass over, they
asked him if he were not an Ephraimite.
If he said, No, they bade him pronounce
shibboleth ; but he pronouncing it sibboleth,
according to the dialect of the Ephraim
ites, they lulled him. In this war there
fell 42,000 Ephraimites, Judg. 12. This
incident should not be passed over with
out observing, that it affords proof of di
alectical variations among the tribes of
the same nation, and speaking the same
language, in those early days. There can
be no wonder, therefore, if we find in

SHI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SHI

later ages the same word written differ
ent ways, according to the pronunciation
of different tribes. That this continued,
is evident from the peculiarities of the
Galilean dialect, by which Peter was
discovered to be of that district, Mark
14:70.

SHIELD, a piece of defensive armor.
God is often called the shield of his peo
ple, Gen. 15:1; Psa. 5:12;- 84:11, as are
also princes and great men, 2 Sam. 1:21 ;
Psa. 47 : 9. See ARMOR.

SHIGGAI'ON, Psa. 7, title, and SIIIG-
GIONOTH, Hab. 3:1; probably song, or
song of praise ; perhaps some particular
species of ode.

SHI'LOH, I. This term is used, Gen.
49 : 10, to denote the Messiah, the com
ing of whom Jacob foretells in these
words: "The sceptre shall not depart
from Judah, nor a lawgiver from be
tween his feet, until Shiloh come ; and
unto him shall the gathering of the peo
ple be ;" that is, until the time of Christ,
Judah' s self-government as a tribe should
not cease. It must be admitted, how
ever, that the literal signiiication of the
word is not well ascertained. Some
translate, "The sceptre shall not depart
from Judah till he comes to whom it
belongs." Others, with more probabil
ity, till the coming of the Peacemaker,
or of the One desired.

II. A famous city of Ephraim, about
ten miles south of Shechem, and twenty-
four north of Jerusalem. Here Joshua
assembled the people to make the second
distribution of the Land of Promise ; and

here the tabernacle of the Lord was set
up, when they were settled in the coun
try, Josh. 18 : 1 ; 19 : 51. The ark and
the tabernacle continued at Shiloh, from
B. c. 1444 to B. c. 1116, when it was taken
by the Philistines, under the administra
tion of the high-priest Eli. In honor of
the presence of the ark, there was "a
feast of the Lord in Shiloh yearly ;" and
at one of these festivals the daughters of
Shiloh were seized by a remnant of the
Benjamites, Judg. 21:19-23. At Shiloh
Samuel began to prophesy, 1 Sam. 4 : 1,
and here the prophet Ahijah dwelt,
1 Kin. 14:2.

SHIM'EI, I., a Benjamite kinsman of
Saul, who insulted king David when rlee-
ing before Absalom, and humbled him
self on David's return. On both occa
sions David spared and forgave him ;
but when dying he cautioned Solomon
against a man who knew no restraints
but those of fear. Shimei gave his parole
never to leave Jerusalem ; but broke it
by pursuing his fugitive servants to Gath,
and was put to death on returning, 2 Sam.
16: 5-14 ; 19 : 16-23 ; 1 Kin. 2:8, 9, 36-
46.

II. An officer under David, and per
haps under Solomon, 1 Kin. 1:8 ; 4:18.

III. A distinguished family at Jerusa
lem, Zech. 12:18.

SHI'NAR, a level region of indefinite
extent a*ound Babylon and the junction
of the Euphrates and Tigris, Gen. 10: 10 ;
11:2; 14:1; Josh. 7:21, Hcb., garment
of Shinar ; Isa. 11:11; Dan. 1:2; Zech.
5 : 11. See MESOPOTAMIA.

SHIP. The ships of the ancients were
very imperfect in comparison with mod
ern ones. Navigators crept carefully
along the shores, from one headland or
prominent point to another, making a
harbor if practicable every night ; and
when out of sight of land, being igno
rant of the compass and quadrant, they

guided their course by the sun and cer
tain stars. Even in St. Paul's time,
vessels passing from Palestine to Italy,
sometimes wintered on the way ! Acts
27 : 12 ; 28 : 11. The ancient ships were
in general small, though a few large ships
are on record. They were often highly
ornamented both at the prow and the
419

SHI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SHI

atern ; and the figurehead or "sign," by
which the vessel was known, was some
times an image of its tutelar divinity.

They were usually propelled by oars,
often in several "banks" or rows one
above another, as well as by sails. In

PART OF A WAR-GALLEY, FROM AN ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF.

war, the galley tried to pierce and run
down its antagonist. The Phoenicians
were celebrated for their ships and their
extensive commerce, as appears from Eze-
kiel's description, ch. 27, as well as from
numerous ancient historians. Though
Joppa and in Christ's time Cfesarea were
Jewish ports, 2 Chr. 2 : 26, Jonah 1 : 3,
yet the Jews were never a maritime peo
ple, and most of their foreign navigation
would appear to have been carried on
by the aid of Phoenicians, 1 Kin. 9 : 26 ;
10 : 22 ; 22 : 49, 50. Paul's graphic and
faithful description of his voyage and
shipwreck in Acts 27, discloses many of
the peculiarities of ancient navigation.
For the "ships of Tarshish," see TAR-
SHISII.

SHIPH'RAH and PIT' AH, midwives
in Egypt, who through the fear of God
spared the newborn sons of the Hebrews,
contrary to the orders of the king. God
rewarded their kindness to his people,
though condemning no doubt the un-
truthfulness of their excuse to the king.
He "made them houses," that is, prob
ably gave each of them a numerous fam
ily, Ex. 1:15-21.

SHI'SHAK, a king of Egypt, who de-
420

clared war against Rehoboam king of
Judah in the fifth year of his reign. He

SHISHAK, FROM A THEBAN TEMPLE.

entered Judah, B. c. 971, with an innu
merable multitude of people out of
Egypt, the countries of Lubim, of Su-
chim, and of Cush, captured the strong-

SHI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SHU

est places in the country, and carried
away from Jerusalem the treasures of
the Lord's house and of the king's pal
ace, as well as the golden bucklers of
Solomon. Jeroboam having secured the
friendship of Shishak, his territories were
not invaded, 1 Kin. 11 : 40 ; 14 : 25, 26 ;
2 Chr. 12:2-9. Shishak is generally be
lieved to have been the Sesonchis of sec
ular history, the first king of the twenty-
second or Bubastine line. He dethroned
the dynasty into which Solomon mar
ried, 1 Kin. 3:1, and made many foreign
conquests. In the palace-temple of Kar-
nak in Egypt, the walls of which are yet
standing, Sesonchis is represented in a
large bas-relief, dragging captive kings
in triumph before the three chief The-
ban gods. Each country or city is per
sonified, and its name written in an oval

above it. One of these figures, with Jew
ish features, has an inscription which
Champollion interprets, "kingdom of
Judah." Several other symbols are
thought to denote as many walled towns
of Judah, captured by Shishak. See
PHARAOH.

SHIT'TAH, and SHIT'TIM, a valuable
kind of wood, of which Moses made the

greater part of the tables, altars, and
planks belonging to the tabernacle. Je
rome says, "The wood is hard, tough,
smooth, without knots, and extremely
beautiful ; so that the rich and curious
make screws of it for their presses. It
does not grow in cultivated places, nor
in any other places of the Roman em
pire, but only in the deserts of Arabia. ' '
It is thought he means the black acacia,

the Acacia Seyal, which is found in the
deserts of Arabia, and the wood of which
is very common about mount Sinai and
the mountains which border on the Red
sea, and is so hard and solid as to be
almost incorruptible.

SHOES. See SANDALS.

SHOSHAN'NIM-E'DUTH, lilies of testi
mony, Psa. 60 ; 80. See SHUSHAN.

SHRINE. See DIANA.

SHU'LAMITE, peaceful, in Hebrew a
feminine name, corresponding to Solo
mon as Julia does to Julius. It is the
figurative name of the bride in Solo
mon's Song, 6 : 13 ; and the bridegroom
is represented by SOLOMON, also meaning
peaceful.

SHU'NEM, a city of Issachar, Josh.
19 : 18. The Philistines encamped at
Shunem, in the great field of plain of
Esdraelon, 1 Sam. 28 : 4 ; and Saul en
camped at Gilboa. Abishag, king Da
vid's nurse, was of Shunem, 1 Kin. 1:3;
so also was the woman whose son Elisha
restored to life, 2 Kin. 4 : 8-37. Euse-
bius and Jerome place it five miles south
of Tabor ; and it is now recognized in a
poor village called Solam, on a declivity
at the north-west corner of the smaller
valley of Jezreel.

SHUR, a city on the north-east border
421

SHU

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SID

of Egypt, not far from the modern Suez,
Gen. 16:7; 20:1; 25:18; 1 Sam. 15:7 ;
27 : 8. It gave its name to the desert
between it and Canaan, towards the
Mediterranean, Ex. 15:22.

SHU'SHAN, I., Psa. 60, title; plural
SHOSHAN'NIM, Psa. 45, 69, titles ; the
name of a musical instrument. The
word signifies a lily, or lilies ; and if the
instrument were so named from its sim
ilarity to this flower, we might under
stand the cymbal. Or it may denote a
melody, so named for its pleasantness,
or, as some suppose, the pleasantness of
the subject matter of the song, as in the
title to Psalm 45.

II. The capital city of Elam, or Per
sia, Gen. 14 : 1, Dan. 8:2, on the river
Ulai. It was the winter residence of the
Persian kings, after Cyrus, Esth. 1:5;
and is deeply interesting as the scene of
the wonderful events narrated in the
book of Esther. Here Daniel had the
vision of the ram and he-goat, in the
third year of Belshazzar, Dan. 8. Ne-
hemiah was also at Shushan, when he
obtained from Artaxerxes permission to
return into Judea, and to repair the walls
of Jerusalem, Neh. 1:1.

The present Shouster, the capital of
Khusistan, in long. 49 East, lat. 32
North, on the river Karun, a branch of
the Shat-el-Arab, has been generally
believed to be the ancient Shushan, the
Susa of the Greeks; but Mr. Kinneir
rather thinks the ruins about thirty-five
miles west of Shouster are those of that
ancient residence of royalty, ' ' stretch
ing not less, perhaps, than twelve miles
from one extremity to the other. They
occupy an immense space between the
rivers Kerah and Abzal; and like the
ruins of Ctesiphon, Babylon, and Kufa,
consist of hillocks of earth and rubbish,
covered with broken pieces of brick and
colored tile. The largest is a mile in
circumference, and nearly one hundred
feet in height ; another, not quite so
high, is double the circuit. They are
formed of clay and pieces of tile, with
irregular layers of brick and mortar, five
or six feet in thickness, to serve, as it
should seem, as a kind of prop to the
mass. Large blocks of marble, covered
with hieroglyphics, are not unfrequently
here discovered by the Arabs, when dig
ging in search of hidden treasure ; and
at the foot of the most elevated of the
pyramids (ruins) stands the tomb of
422

Daniel, a small and apparently a mod
ern building, erected on the spot where
the relics of that prophet are believed to
rest." Major Rennell coincides in the
opinion that these ruins represent the an
cient Susa. The desolation of the place,
abandoned to beasts of prey, agrees with
the prediction in Ezek. 32:24.

The preceding statements are confirm
ed by Loftus, who with Col. Williams
visited and in part explored these ruins
in 1851-2. Shush, he says, abounds in
lions, wolves, lynxes, jackals, boars, etc.
During nine months of the year the
country is burnt up by the most intense
heat, though exceedingly rich and beau
tiful in the rainy season. His excava
tions in the great mound disclosed the
ruins of a vast palace, commenced ap
parently by Darius, carried on by Xer
xes, and finished by Artaxerxes Mnemcn.
It is altogether probable that this was
the scene of the festival described in Es
ther 1. The "pillars of marble" may
perhaps be even now traced in the ruined
colonnade forming a great central court ;
the huge columns were fluted and highly
ornamented, and one of the capitals meas
ured was twenty-eight feet high.

SIB'MAH, a city of Reuben, Num.
32 : 38 ; Josh. 13 : 19. Isaiah, 16 : 8, 9,
speaks of the vines of Sibmah, which
were cut down by the enemies of the
Moabites ; for that people had taken the
city of Sibmah, Jer. 48 : 32, and other
cities of Reuben, after this tribe had been
carried into captivity by Tiglath-pileser,
2 Kin. 15 : 29 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 26. Jerome
says that between Heshbon and Sibmah
there was hardly the distance of five
hundred paces.

SID'DIM. See SEA III.

SI'DON, in the Old Testament ZIDON,
now called Saida, was a celebrated city
of Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean sea,
twenty miles north of Tyre and as many
south of Beyroot. It is one of the most
ancient cities in the world, Gen. 49 : 13,
and is believed to have been founded by
Zidon, the eldest son of Canaan, Gen.
10 : 15 ; 49 : 13. In the time of Homer,
the Zidonians were eminent for their
trade and commerce, their wealth and
prosperity, their skill in navigation, as
tronomy, architecture, and for their man
ufactures of glass, etc. They had then a
commodious harbor, now choked with
sand and inaccessible to any but the
smallest vessels. Upon the division of

SIG

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SIL

Canaan among the tribes by Joshua,
Great Zidon fell to the lot of Asher, Josh.
11:8; 19 : 28 ; but that tribe never suc
ceeded in obtaining possession, Judg.
1:31; 3:3; 10:12. The Zidonians con
tinued long under their own government
and kings, though sometimes tributary,
to the kings of Tyre. They were sub
dued successively by the Babylonians,
Egyptians, Seleucidce, and Romans, the
latter of whom deprived them of their
freedom. Many of the inhabitants of
Sidon became followers of our Saviour,
Mark 3 : 8, and he himself visited their
coasts, Matt. 15 : 21-28 ; Mark 7 : 24-31.
Many of them also resorted to him in
Galilee, Luke 6 : 17. The gospel was
proclaimed to the Jews at Sidon after
the martyrdom of Stephen, Acts 11 : 19,
and there was a Christian church there,
when Paul visited it on his voyage to
Rome, Acts 27 : 3. It is at present, like
most of the other Turkish towns in Syria,
dirty and full of ruins, though it still
retains a little coasting trade, and has
five thousand inhabitants. It incurred
the judgments of God for its sins, Ezek.
28 : 21-24, though less ruinously than
Tyre. Our Saviour refers to both cities,
in reproaching the Jews as more highly
favored and less excusable than they,
Matt. 1 1 : 22. Saida occupies an .elevated
promontory, projecting into the sea, and

defended by walls. Its environs, watered
by a stream from Lebanon, are famous
for their beautiful gardens, and fruit-
trees of every kind.

SIGN, a token, pledge, or proof, Gen.
9:12, 13; 17:11; Ex. 3: 12; Isa. 8: 18.
Also a supernatural portent, Luke 21 : 11;
and a miracle, regarded as a token of the
divine agency, Ex. 4:7-9; Mark 8:11.
The "signs of heaven" were the move
ments and aspects of the heavenly bod
ies, from which heathen astrologers pre
tended to obtain revelations, Isa. 44:25;
Jer. 10:2. See SHIP.

SIG'NET, a ring for sealing. See
RING, and SEAL.

SI'HON, king of the Amorites at Hesh-
bon, on refusing passage to the Hebrews,
and coming to attack them, was himself
slain, his army routed, and his domin
ions divided among Israel, Num. 21:21-
34; Deut. 2:26-36.

SI'HOR, black or turbid, the Nile. In
Isa. 23:3, and Jer. 2:18, this name must
necessarily be understood of the Nile.
In Josh. 13 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 13 : 5, some have
understood it of the little river between
Egypt and Judah.

SI'LAS, Acts 15:22, and SILVA'NUS,
2 Cor. 1 : 19, the former name being a
contraction of the latter ; one of the chief
men among the first disciples at Jerusa
lem, Acts 15 : 22, and supposed by some
423

SIL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SIL

to have been of the number of the sev
enty. On occasion of a dispute- at Anti-
och, as to the observance of legal cere
monies, Paul and Barnabas were chosen
to go to Jerusalem, to advise with the
apostles ; and they returned with Judas
and Silas. Silas joined himself to Paul ;
and after Paul and Barnabas had sepa
rated, Acts 15:37-41, A. D. 51, he accom
panied Paul to visit the churches of Syria
and Cilicia, and the towns and provinces
of Lycaonia, Phrygia, Galatia, and Mace
donia. He was imprisoned with him at
Philippi. joined him at Corinth after a
brief separation, bringing, it is supposed,
the donation referred to in 2 Cor. 11 : 9,
Phil. 4 : 10, 15, and probably went with
him to Jerusalem, Acts 16:19, 25 ; 17:4,
10, 14 ; 18 : 5 ; 1 and 2 Thess. 1:1. He
appears always as a "faithful brother,"
well known and praised by all the church
es, 2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Pet. 5:12.

SILK, in the time of the Ptolemies,
came to Greece and Rome from the far
east of China, etc. , by the way of Alex
andria, and was sold for its weight in
gold. It sometimes came in the form
of skeins, and was woven into a light
and thin gauze. It is mentioned in Rev.
18 : 12, and probably in Ezek. 16 : 10, 13.
In Gen. 41:42 and Prov. 31:22, the word
rendered silk in our version is the same
that is elsewhere correctly rendered fine
linen. It is not known how early or
extensively the Jews used it.

The pool is now an artificial stone reser
voir, fifty-three feet long, eighteen feet
wide, and nineteen feet deep. Steps lead
to the bottom of the pool, three or four
feet above which the water flows off south
east to water the cultivated grounds in
the valley below. The fountain is in an
arched excavation in the foot of the cliff
above the pool ; and the small basin
here is connected by a winding passage
cut through the solid rock under the
hill Ophel, with the "Fountain of the
Virgin ' ' eleven hundred feet north on the

FOUNTAIN AND POOL OF S1LOAM.

SILO' AM, John 9 : 7, 11, or SIIILOAH,
Neh. 3 : 15 ; Isa. 8:6; a fountain and
pool at the base of the hill Ophel, near
the opening of the Tyropoeon into the
valley of the Kidron on the south of
Jerusalem ;

" Siloah's brook, that flowed
Fast by the oracle of God."

MILTOW.

424

UPPER POOL, OR FOUNTAIN OF THE VIRGIN.

east side of mount Moriah. See BETIIES-
DA. This passage was traversed through
out by Dr. Robinson. The water flowing
through it is tolerably sweet and clear,
but has a marked taste, and in the dry
season is slightly brackish. It is thought
to be derived from the reservoirs under
the ancient temple area, and in part
from mount Zion. It runs "softly,"
Isa. 8 : 6, but ebbs and flows in the
"Fountain of the Virgin," and less per
ceptibly in that of Siloam, at irregular
intervals. Thus the water rose more
than a foot in the upper fountain, and
fell again within ten minutes, while Dr.
Robinson was on the spot. He once
found a party of soldiers there washing
their clothes, John 9 : 1-11, and it is in
constant use for purposes of ablution.
At Siloam also the water is used for wash
ing, watering animals, etc.

Nothing is known respecting the
"tower" near Siloam, the fall of which
killed eighteen men. The ancient city

SIL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SIM

wall is believed to have enclosed this
pool. Christ teaches us by the above
incident that temporal calamities are
not always pi-oofs of special guilt, Luke
13 : 4, 5, though the utmost sufferings
ever endured in this world are far less
than the sins of even the best of men
deserve, Lam. 3:39.

SILVA'NUS. See SILAS.

SIL'VER, one of the precious metals,
and the one most commonly used as coin
among all nations. It is first mentioned
in Scripture in the history of Abraham,
Gen. 13:2; 20:16; 23:16, and was used
in constructing the tabernacle, Ex. 26 : 19,
32, and afterwards the temple, 1 Chr.
29 : 4. In employing it as a medium of
trade, the ancient Hebrews weighed it
out, instead of having coins. In the
times of the New Testament there were
coins. See SHEKEL, and MONEY.

SIM'EON, I., one of the twelve patri
archs, the son of Jacob and Leah, Gen.
29 : 33 ; Ex. 6 : 15. Some have thought
he was more guilty than his brethren in
the treatment of Joseph, Gen. 37 : 20 ;
42 : 24 ; 43 : 23 ; but he may have been
detained as a hostage because he was one
of the eldest sons. The tribes of Simeon
and Levi were scattered and dispei-sed in
Israel, in conformity with the prediction
of Jacob, on account of their sacrilegious
and piratical revenge of the outrage com
mitted against Dinah their sister, Gen.
34 ; 49 : 5. Levi had no compact lot or
portion in the Holy Land ; and Simeon
received for his portion only a district
dismembered from Judah, with some
other lands the tribe overran in the
mountains of Seir, and in the desert of
Gedor, 1 Chr. 4:24, 39, 42. The portion
of Simeon was west and south of that
of Judah, having the Philistines on the
north-west and the desert on the south,
Josh. 19:1-9. The tribe was reduced in
numbers while in the wilderness, from
59,300 to 24,000, Num. 1 : 23 ; 26 : 14 ;
very probably on account of sharing in
the licentious idolatry of Moab, with
Zimri their prince, Num. 25, or for other
sins. They are little known in subse
quent history. We find them faithful
to David, 1 Chr. 12 : 25, and afterwards
to Asa, 2 Chr. 15 : 9, and in general ab
sorbed by Judah. Moses omits this tribe
in his dying benedictions, Deut. 33 ; but
its place in Israel is restored by a cove
nant-keeping God, Ezek. 48 : 24 ; Rev.

II. A venerable saint at Jerusalem,
full of the Holy Spirit, who was expect
ing the redemption of Israel, Luke 2:25-
35. It had been revealed to him that he
should not die before he had seen the
Christ so long promised ; and he there
fore came into the temple, prompted by
inspiration, just at the time when Joseph
and Mary presented our Saviour there,
in obedience to the law. Simeon took
the child in his arms, gave thanks to
God, and blessed Joseph and Mary. We
know nothing further concerning him.

III. Surnamed NI'GER, or the Black,
Acts 13:1, was among the prophets and
teachers of the Christian church at Anti-
och. Some think he was Simon the Cy-
renian ; but there is no proof of this.

IV. The apostle Peter is also called
Simeon in Acts 15 : 14, but elsewhere
Simon.

SI'MON, I., one of the twelve apos
tles. See PETER.

II. The Canaanite, or Zelotes, one of
the twelve apostles. See ZELOTES.

III. One of the "brethren" of Jesus,
Matt. 13:55 ; Mark 6:3. He is by some
supposed to be the same with the preced
ing Simon Zelotes. See JAMES III.

IV. The Cyrenian, who was compelled
to aid in bearing the cross of Jesus, Matt.
27:32, probably on account of his known
attachment to His cause. He was " the
father of Alexander and Rufus," Mark
15 : 21 ; and from the cordial salutation
of Paul, Rom. 16:13, it would seem that
the family afterwards resided at Rome,
and that their labor of love was not for
gotten by God.

V. A Pharisee, probably at Caperna
um, who invited Jesus to dinner at his
house, Luke 7:36-50.

VI. The leper ; that is, who had been
a leper ; a resident of Bethany, with
whom also Jesus supped, Matt. 26 : 6 ;
Mark 14 : 3. Compare John 12 : 1-11.

VII. The tanner ; a disciple who dwelt
at Joppa, and in whose house Peter lodg
ed, Acts 9: 43; 10:6, 17, 32.

VIII. The sorcerer of Samaria ; often
called Simon Magus, that is, the Magi
cian. See SORCERER. This artful im
postor, by the aid of some knowledge of
philosophy, medicine, physics, and as
tronomy, acquired an ascendency over
the people of Samaria. But the preach
ing and miracles of Philip brought great
numbers to Christ, and convinced even
Simon that a real and great power at-

425

SIM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SIN

tended the gospel. He coveted these
spiritual gifts of the apostles for selfish
ends, and sought them by joining the
church and afterwards offering to pur
chase them with money. Peter took the
occasion to expose his hypocrisy by a ter
rible denunciation, Acts 8: 9-24. There
are various doubtful traditions as to his
subsequent course. The sin of traffick
ing in spiritual things, called Simony
after him, was more odious to Peter than
to many who claim to be his especial fol
lowers.

IX. The father of Judas Iscariot, John
6:71; 13:2, 26.

SIM'PLE and SIMPLICITY are some
times used in the Bible in a good sense,
denoting sincerity, candor, and an art
less ignorance of evil, Rom. 16 : 19 ;
2 Cor. 1:12; 11:3; sometimes in a bad
sense, denoting a heedless foolishness
both mental and moral, Prov. 1 : 22 ;
9:4; 14:15 ; 22:3 ; and sometimes in the
sense of mere ignorance or inexperience,
2 Sam. 15:11; Prov. 1:4; 21:11.

SIN, I., any thought, word, desire,
action, or omission of action, contrary
to the law of God, or defective when
compared with it.

The origin of sin is a subject which
baffles all investigation ; and our inqui
ries are much better directed when we
seek through Christ a release from its
penalty and power, for ourselves and the
world. Its entrance into the world, and
infection of the whole human race, its
nature, forms, and effects, and its fatal
possession of every unregenerate -soul,
are fully described in the Bible, Gen.
6:5; Psa. 51 : 5 ; Matt. 15 : 19 ; Rom.
5:12; Jas. 1:14, 15.

As contrary to the nature, worship,
love, and service of God, sin is called
ungodliness ; as a violation of the law
of God and of the claims of man, it is a
transgression or trespass ; as a deviation
from eternal rectitude, it is called iniqui
ty or unrighteousness ; as the evil and
bitter root of all actual transgression,
the depravity transmitted from our first
parents to all their seed, it is called
"original sin," or in the Bible, "the
flesh," " the law of sin and death," etc.,
Rom. 8 : 1, 2 ; 1 John 3 : 4 ; 5 : 17. The
just penalty or "wages of sin is death ;"
this was threatened against the first sin,
Gen. 2 : 17, and all subsequent sins :
" The soul that sinneth it shall die." A
single sin, unrepented of and unforgiv-
426

en, destroys the soul, as a single break
renders a whole ocean cable worthless.
Its guilt and evil are to be measured by
the holiness, justice, and goodness of the
law it violates, the eternity of the misery
it causes, and the greatness of the Sacri
fice necessary to expiate it.

"Sin" is also sometimes put for the
sacrifice of expiation, the sin-offering,
described in Lev. 4:3, 25, 29. So, Rom. ,*
8:3 ; and in 2 Cor. 5 : 21, Paul says that/
God was pleased that Jesus, who knew"
no sin, should be our victim of expia
tion : ' ' For he hath made him to be sin
for us, who knew no sin ; that we might
be made the righteousness of God in
him."

For the sin against the Holy Ghost,
see BLASPHEMY.

II. A desert of Arabia Petraa, near
Egypt, and on the western arm of the
Red sea, Ex. 16 : 1 ; 17:1; Num. 33 : 12.
To be distinguished from the desert of
Zin. See ZIN.

III. An ancient fortified city, called
" the strength of Egypt," Ezek. 30 : 15,
16. Its name means mire, and in this
it agrees with Pelusium and Tineh, the
Greek and modern names of the same
place. It defended the north-east fron
tier of Egypt, and lay near the Mediter
ranean, on the eastern arm of the Nile.
Its site, near the village of Tineh, is
surrounded with morasses ; and is now
accessible by boats only during a high
inundation, or by land in the driest part
of summer. A few mounds and columns
alone remain.

SI'NAI, a mountain, or mountain
range, in Arabia Petraea, in the penin
sula formed by the two arms of the Red
sea, and rendered memorable as the spot
where the law was given to Israel through
Moses, Ex. 19:1 to Num. 10:33. As this
mountain has been almost unknown in
modern times, until recently, and is of
such importance in Scripture history,
we shall enter into some details respect
ing it.

The upper region of Sinai forms an
irregular circle of thirty or forty miles
in diameter, possessing numerous sources
of water, a temperate climate, and a soil
capable of supporting animal and vege
table life ; for which reason it is the
refuge of all the Bedaweens when the
low country is parched up. This, there
fore, was the part of the peninsula best
adapted to the residence of nearly a year,

SIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SIN

PLAIN ER-RAHAH, AND CONVENT OF ST. CATHARINE.

during which the Israelites were num
bered, and received their laws from the
Most High. In the highest and central
part of this region, seven thousand feet
above the level of the sea, rises the sa
cred summit of Horeb or Sinai. The two
names are* used almost indiscriminately
in the Bible, the former predominating
in Deuteronomy. Some have thought
there were two adjacent summits, called,
in the time of Moses, Horeb and Sinai ;
and indeed the monks give these names
to the northern and southern heights of
the same ridge, three miles long. But
the comparison of all the Scripture pas
sages rather shows that HOREB was the
general name for the group, and SINAI
the name of the sacred summit.

In approaching this elevated region
from the north-west, Burckhardt writes,
"We now approached the central sum
mits of mount Sinai, which we had had
in view for several days. Abrupt cliffs
of granite, from six to 'eight hundred
feet in height, whose surface is black
ened by the sun, surround the avenues
leading to the elevated region to which
the name of Sinai is specifically applied.
These cliffs inclose the holy mountain on
three sides, leaving the east and north
east sides only, towards the gulf of Aka-
ba, more open to the view. At the -end
of three hours, we entered these cliffs

by a narrow defile about forty feet in
breadth, with perpendicular granite rocks
on both sides. The ground is covered
with sand and pebbles, brought down by
the torrent which rushes from the upper
region in the winter time."

The general approach to Sinai from
the same quarter is thus described by
Mr. Carne : "A few hours more, and we
got sight of the mountains round Sinai.
Their appearance was magnificent. When
we drew near, and emerged out of a deep
pass, the scenery was infinitely striking ;
and on the right extended a vast range
of mountains, as far as the eye could
reach, from the vicinity of Sinai down
to Tor, on the gulf of Suez. They were
perfectly bare, but of grand and singular
form. We had hoped to reach the con
vent by daylight ; but the moon had
risen some time when we entered the
mouth of a narrow pass, where our
conductors advised us to dismount. A
gentle yet perpetual ascent led on, mile
after mile, up this mournful valley,
whose aspect was terrific, yet ever vary
ing. It was not above two hundred
yards in width, and the mountains rose
to an immense height on each side. The
road wound at their feet along the edge
of a precipice, and amid masses of rock
that had fallen from above. It was a
toilsome path, generally over stones
427

SIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SIN

placed like steps, probably by the Arabs ;
and the moonlight was of little service
to us in this deep valley, as it only rest
ed on the frowning summits above.
Where is mount Sinai ? was the inquiry
of every one. The Arabs pointed before
to Jebel Moosa, the mount of Moses, as it
is called ; but we could not distinguish it.
Again and again point after point was
turned, and we saw but the same stern
scenery. But what had the beauty and

softness of nature to do here? Mount
Sinai required an approach like this,
where all seemed to proclaim the land
of miracles, and to have been visited by
the terrors of the Lord. The scenes, as
you gazed around, had an unearthly
character, suited to the sound of the
fearful trumpet that was once heard
there. We entered at last on the more
open valley, about half a mile wide, and
drew near this famous mountain."

The elevated valley or plain Er-Rahah,
here and above referred to, is now gen
erally believed to be the place where the
Hebrews assembled to witness the giving
of the law. It is two miles long from
north-west to south-east, and on an av
erage half a mile wide. The square mile
thus afforded is nearly doubled by the
addition of those portions of side val
leys, particularly Esh- Sheikh towards
the north-north-east, from which the
summit Ras-Sufsafeh can be seen. This
summit, which Dr. Robinson takes to be
the true Sinai, rises abruptly on the south
side of the plain some fifteen hundred
feet. It is the termination of a ridge
running three miles south-east, the
southern and highest point of which is
called by the Arabs Jebel Musa, or Mo-
428

ses' Mount. Separated from this ridge
by deep and steep ravines, are two par
allel ridges, of which the eastern is called
the Mountain of the Cross, and the west
ern, Jebel Humr. The convent of St.
Catharine lies in the ravine east of the
true Sinai ; while mount Catharine is the
south peak of the western ridge, lying
south-west of Jebel Musa, and rising-
more than one thousand feet higher.
From the convent, Di. Robinson ascend
ed the central and sacred mountain, and
the steep peak Ras-Sufsafeh. "The ex
treme difficulty," he says, "and even
danger of the ascent, was well rewarded
by the prospect that now opened before
us. The whole plain Er-Rahah lay spread
out beneath our feet ; while wady Esh-
Sheikh on the right and a recess on the

SIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SIN

left, both connected with and opening
broadly from Er-Rahah, presented an
area which serves nearly to double that
of the plain. Our conviction was strength
ened that here, or on some one of the ad
jacent cliffs, was the spot where the Lord
descended in fire and proclaimed the law.
Here lay the plain where the whole con
gregation might be assembled ; here was
the mount which might be approached
and touched; and here the mountain brow
[where alone the lightnings and the thick
*bloud would be visible, and the thunders
and the voice of the trump be heard,
when the Lord came down in the sight
of all the people upon mount Sinai. We
gave ourselves up to the impressions of
the awful scene ; and read with a feeling
which will never be forgotten the sub
lime account of the transaction and the
commandments there promulgated, in
the original words as recorded by the
great Hebrew legislator."

The plain Er-Rahah is supposed to
have been reached by the Hebrews from
the shore of the Red sea, south of the
desert of Sin, by a series of wadys or
broad ravines winding up among the
mountains in an easterly direction, chief
ly wady Feiran and wady Esh-Sheikh.
The former commences near the Red sea,
and opens into the latter, which making
a circuit to the north of Sinai, enters the
plain at its foot from the north-north
east. For several miles from its termi
nation here, this valley is half a mile
wide. By the same northern entrance
most travellers have approached the sa
cred mountain. Its south side is less
known. To the spectator on Jebel Mu-
sa, it presents no trace of any plain, val
ley, or level ground to be compared with
that on the north ; yet some writers
maintain that the Hebrews received the
law at the southern foot of Sinai. See
map, in the article EXODUS.

In many of the western Sinaite val
leys, and most of all in El-Mukatteb,
which enters wady Feiran from the
north-west, the more accessible parts of
the rocky sides are covered by thousands
of inscriptions, usually short, and rudely
carved in spots where travellers would
naturally stop to rest at noon ; frequent
ly accompanied by a cross and mingled
with representations of animals. The

inscriptions are in an unknown charac
ter, but were at first ascribed to the an
cient Israelites on their way from Egypt
to Sinai ; and afterwards to Christian pil
grims of the fourth century. Recently,
however, many of them have been deci
phered by Prof. Beer of Leipzig, who
regards them as the only known remains
of the language and characters once pe
culiar to the Nabatha3ans of Arabia Pe-
429

SIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SNA

trsea. Those thus far deciphered are
simply proper names, neither Jewish nor
Christian, preceded by some such words
a£ "peace," "blessed," "in memory
of."

The giving of the law upon mount Si
nai made it one of the most memorable
spots on the globe. Here, moreover,
God appeared to Moses in the burning
bush, Exod. 3 and 4 ; and six centuries
later, sublimely revealed himself to the
prophet Elijah when fleeing from the
fury of Jezebel, 1 Kin. 19. There are
frequent allusions in Scripture to the
glorious and awful delivery of the Law,
Judg. 5:5; Psa. 68:8, 17; Hab. 3:3. In
the New Testament, the dispensation
proclaimed on Sinai is contrasted with
the gospel of the grace of God, Gal.
4:24, 25; Heb. 12:18-29.

SI'NIM, Isa. 49 : 12, a people very re
mote from the Holy Land, towards the
east or south ; generally believed to mean
the Chinese, who have been known to
Western Asia from early times, and are
called by the Arabs Sin, and by the Syr
ians Tsini.

SI'NITES, a Canaanite tribe, probably
near mount Lebanon, Gen. 10:17; IChr.
1:15.

SI'ON, I. , a name given in Deut. 4 : 48
to one of the elevations of the mountain
ridge called Hermon, which see.

II. The Greek or New Testament form
of Zion, which see.

SIR'ION. See HERMON.

SIS'ERA, a general in the army of
Jabin king of Hazor, sent by his master
against Barak and Deborah, who occu
pied mount Tabor with an army. Being
defeated, he fled on foot, and was inglo-
riously slain by Jael, Judg. 4, 5. See
JAEL.

SIS'TER. In the style of the Hebrews,
' ' sister ' ' has equal latitude with ' ' broth
er." It is used, not only for a sister by
natural relation, from the same father
and mother, but also for a sister by the
same father only, or by the same mother
only ; or for any near female relative,
Gen. 12:13. See BROTHER.

SITH, an obsolete word, meaning
since, Ezek. 35:6.

SI' VAN, the third Hebrew ecclesiasti
cal month, arid the ninth of the civil
year, beginning with the new moon of
our June, Esth. 8:9.

SLAVE, Jer. 2 : 14 ; Kev. 18 : 13. See
SERVANT.

430

SLIME. See PITCH, and SEA III.

SLING, an instrument much used in
war before the invention of fire-arms.
It was a formidable weapon in hands
like those of David and the Benjamites,
Judg. 20 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 17: 48-50 ; 1 Chr.
12:2; 2 Chr. 26:14.

SMITH, an artificer in brass, iron, etc.,
first mentioned in Gen. 4 : 22. The art
of the smith is one of the essentials of
civilization ; and without it a nation was
peculiarly defenceless in time of war,
Judg. 5 : 8 ; 1 Sain. 13 : 19-22 ; 2 Kin.
24 : 14. Workers in silver and in copper
were distinguished from each other, Acts
19:24; 2, Tim. 4:14.

SMYR'NA, a celebrated Ionian city,
situated at the head of a deep gulf on
the western coast of Asia Minor, forty
miles north by west of Ephesus. It was
one of the richest and most powerful
cities of that region, and was frequented
by great numbers of Jews. A Christian
church was established there at an early
day, and was one of the seven churches
addressed by Christ in the Revelation of
John, 1 : 11 ; 2 : 8-11. It is still a pros
perous commercial city, being visited by
many foreign ships, and by numerous
caravans of camels from the interior. Its
population is nearly 150,000 ; of whom
one-half are Turks, one-fourth Greeks,
and the remainder chiefly Armenians,
Jews, and Franks. So many of its in
habitants arc not Mohammedans, that it
is called by the Turks Giaour Izmir, or
Infidel Smyrna. It has a deep and capa
cious harbor, well protected except tow
ards the west by the hills which rise to
a great height in the rear of the city,
inclosing it on three sides. On these
hills lie the scanty remains of the an
cient city ; among which is the ground-
plot of the stadium, where is said to
have occurred the martyrdom of Poly-
carp — the pupil of the apostle John, and
very probably ' ' the angel of the church
in Ephesus," Rev. 2:8. Smyrna has
been often devastated by earthquakes
and conflagrations; multitudes perished
there of the cholera in 1831, and 60,000
died of the plague in 1824 ; yet its fine
situation secures a prompt recovery from
every disaster. It is now the seat of
important missionary efforts, and enjoys
the ordinances of a Protestant church.

SNAIL, in Lev. 11 : 30, is probably a
sort of lizard ; and in Psa. 58 : 8, the com
mon slug or snail without a shell, which

8X0

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SOD

11 melteth " away by depositing its slime
wherever it passes.

SNOW is often alluded to in Scrip
ture, for its whiteness, Ex. 4:6; Num.

12 : 10 ; 2 Kin. 5 : 27 ; Psa. 51 : 7 ; Isa.
1 : 18, and for its cleansing qualities, Job
9 : 30. The expression in Prov. 25 : 13,
' ' as the cold of snow in the time of har
vest," alludes to its use in preparing cool
drinks for the reapers ; while on the
other hand, in Prov. 26 : 1, "snow in
summer," that is, a fall of snow, being
unseasonable and unnatural, is compared
to honors inappropriately lavished on a
fool. Snow from Anti-Lebanon is still
sold at Damascus and Beyroot in the
summer, and even conveyed to Egypt.
It rarely fell of any great depth in the
latitude of Palestine, or remained long
on the ground except in elevated spots,
2 Sam. 23:20. Like every other wonder
of nature, it is ascribed to the hand of
God, Psa. 147:16, 17.

SO, king of Egypt, made an alliance
with Hoshea king of Israel, and prom
ised him assistance ; but was unable to
prevent Shalmaneser king of Assyria
from taking Samaria and subverting the
kingdom, u. c. 721, 2 Kin. 17 : 4. See
PHARAOH. So is believed to have been
the Servetus or Sabaco II. of secular his
tory, the second king of the Ethiopian
or twenty-fifth dynasty, and the prede
cessor of Tirhakah. A singular fact has
been brought to light by the recent ex
plorations at Nineveh, corroborating the
Scripture record the more forcibly, be
cause unexpected and direct. The Bible
shows that Egypt and Assyria, though
remote, were often in conflict during the
height of the Assyrian power, and that
So was at war with Shalmaneser. After
war comes the treaty of peace ; and as
the Bible prepares us to suppose such
treaties were made, the Assyrian ruins
furnish evidence of their existence. In
the remains of Sennacherib's palace re
cently disentombed, a small room was
found which seems to have been a hall
of records ; and among the seals it con
tained was the seal of So, well known
to students of Egyptian antiquities. It
was impressed, as was then the custom,
on a piece of fine clay, which also bore
the impress of a royal signet of Assyria ;
thus showing the probability that such
a treaty between the two nations had
here been deposited. If so, when the
two monarchs affixed their seals to a

document which like themselves has
turned to dust, the Most High by their
act affixed an additional seal to his holy
word, which is true and abideth for ever.

SOAP, Mai. 3 : 2, Hebrew, borith, the
cleanser; in Jer. 2 : 22 distinguished from
nitre, which see. It is well known that
the ancients used certain vegetables and
their ashes for the purpose of cleansing
linen, etc. The ashes of seashore plants
contain barilla or carbonate of soda, and
those of poplar and other inland plants
contain carbonate of potash. Combined
with oil or fat these alkalies produced
soap ; but it is not known in what forms
the Jews used them.

SO'COH, or SIIO'CIIOH, I., 1 Kin. 4:10,
a town in the plain of Judah, near Aze-
kah, famous for a battle of David and
Saul with the Philistines, 1 Sam. 17 : 1 ;
against whom Rehoboam fortified it, and
by whom it was afterwards taken, 2 Chr.
11:7; 28:18.

II. A town in the mountains of Ju
dah, south by west of Hebron, Josh.
15 : 48. Dr. Robinson found traces of
both these sites, under the name of Su-
weikeh, or Shaukeh.

SOD'OM, one of the cities of the plain,
and for some time the dwelling-place of
Lot, Gen. 13 : 10-13 ; 14:12. Its crimes
and vices were so enormous, that God
destroyed it by fire from heaven, with
three neighboring cities, Gomorrah, Ze-
boim, and Admah, which were as wick
ed as itself, Gen. 19. The plain of Sid-
dim in which they stood was pleasant
and fruitful, like an earthly paradise ;
but it was first burned, and afterwards
mostly overflowed by the waters of the
Dead sea or lake of Sodom. See JOR
DAN, and SEA III. The prophets, in
denouncing woes upon other countries,
mention the destruction of Sodom and
Gomorrah, and intimate that these places
shall be desert and dried up and unin
habited, Jer. 49 : 18 ; 50 : 40 ; that they
shall be covered with briers and bram
bles, a land of salt and sulphur, where
can be neither planting nor sowing,
Deut. 29 : 23 ; Amos 4:11. Throughout
Scripture the ruin of Sodom and Gomor
rah is represented as a most signal effect
of God's anger, and as a mirror in which
those living at ease in sin and lust may
see their own doom. The name is given
in Rev. 11 : 8, to the great and corrupt
city of antichrist. "Sodomites" were
men addicted to the beastly lusts allud-
431

SOL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SOL

ed to in Gen. 19 ; 1 Kin. 14 : 24 ; Horn.
1:26, 27.

SOL'OMON, peaceful, the son and suc
cessor of David, born of Bathsheba, B. c.
1033. The prophet Nathan called him
Jedidiah, " beloved of the Lord," 2 Sam.
12 : 25, and he was a child of promise,
1 Chr. 22:9, 10. At the age of eighteen
he received from David the throne which
his brother Adonijah had endeavored to
usurp. Scripture records his earnest and
pious petition for wisdom from above,
that he might govern that great people
well ; and the bestowal of that wisdom,
with numerous other blessings in its
train, Matt. 6:33. His unequalled learn
ing and sagacity soon became renowned
throughout the East, and continue so
even to this day. In every kind of tem
poral prosperity he was preeminently
favored. His unquestioned dominion
extended from the Euphrates to the
"river of Egypt;" Palmyra in the des
ert and Ezion-geber on the Red sea were
in his possession. He accomplished Da
vid's purpose by erecting a temple for
Jehovah with the utmost magnificence.
Many other important public and pri
vate works were executed during his
reign. He established a lucrative com
merce with Tyre, Egypt, Arabia, India,
and Babylon, by the fruits of which he
himself tirst and chiefly, and indirectly
the whole land, were greatly enriched.
He was the wisest, wealthiest, most
honored, and fortunate of men. But
through the temptations connected with
this flood of prosperity, he became lux
urious, proud, and forgetful of God;
plunged into every kind of self-indul
gence ; allowed his wives, and at length
assisted them, in their abominable idol
atries ; and forfeited the favor of God.
Yet divine grace did not forsake him ;
he was reclaimed, and has given us the
proofs of his repentance and the fruits of
his experience in his inspired writings.
His reign continued forty years, B. c.
1015-975, and was uniformly peaceful,
and favorable to the people, if we except
the evils of a corrupt example and an
excessive taxation. His history is less
fully recorded than David's by the sacred
historians, 1 Kin. 1:11 ; 2 Chr. 1-9; but
we may learn much respecting him from
his writings, especially from the book of
Ecclesiastes. Nothing could more em
phatically teach us the weakness of hu
man nature, even when accompanied
432

with the utmost learning and sagacity,
the perils of prosperity, or the insuffi
ciency of all possible earthly good to
satisfy the wants of man.

The writings of Solomon covered a
wide range in the natural sciences, as
well as in philosophy and morals. "He
spake three thousand proverbs ; and his
songs were a thousand and five : and he
spake of trees — of beasts, and of fowl, and
of creeping things, and of fishes," 1 Kin.
4:32, 33.

SOLOMON'S POOLS, Eccl. 2 : 6. Among
these may perhaps be included the an
cient structures now so called, two or
three miles south-west of Bethlehem.
These are three fcirge reservoirs lying
one above and beyond another in a nar
row valley. They are built of large
stones, and plastered within ; and the
water collected in them, and in several
fountains in the vicinity, was conveyed
in an aqueduct to Bethlehem and Jeru
salem. The upper pool is 380 feet in
length, the middle pool 423, and the
lower one 582. Their average breadth
is 200 feet, and their depth 38 feet. At
present they contain comparatively little
water ; yet they are of incalculable im
portance to Bethlehem, and might easily
be made so to Jerusalem. The aqueduct
crosses the valley of Hinnom below the
south-west corner of the city wall, winds
south around mount Zion, and turns
north again into the city towards the
Haram area.

SOLOMON'S PORCH. See TEMPLE.

SOXOMON'S SONG, called also CANTICLES,
and SONG OF SONGS, B. c. 1012. This
highly figurative and beautiful poem has
always held a place in the canonical
Scriptures, and of course was a part of
the Bible in the time of Christ ; it was
so regarded by the early Christians, and
appears in the ancient catalogues, man
uscripts, and versions. Numerous and
very different opinions have been held
as to the subject and plan of this poem ;
but that its design is to set forth the
spiritual love and mutual communion
between Christ and his people, is evident
from its harmony, when so understood,
with the large class of Scripture passages
which represent God and particularly
Christ as the husband of the church, and
employ the marriage relation in its va
rious aspects to illustrate the relation
between the Saviour and his people.
Thus Psalm 45 is a Messianic nuptial

SON

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SOP

song. See also Isa. 54:5 ; 62:5 ; Jer. 3 ;
Ezek. 16 ; Hos. 1-3 ; 2 Cor. 11:2 ; Eph.
6:23-32; Rev. 19:7-9; 21:2-9.

In the exposition of this beautiful
poem we must remember the difference
between eastern and western nations.
Modern conventional rules and notions
are not the standard to which its plan,
its images, or its phraseology should be
brought. The veiling of spiritual fervor
and enjoyment under the symbol of love
is common among oriental nations, and
commentators have quoted portions of
Eastern allegorical songs which bear no
small resemblance to this inspired alle
gory. Many Christians, deeply imbued
with the spirit of the gospel, have found
great delight and benefit in reading it.
Jonathan Edwards says, "I found an
inward sweetness that would carry me
away in my contemplations. This I
know not how to express otherwise than
by a calm, delightful abstraction of the
soul from all concerns of the world ; and
sometimes a kind of vision of fixed ideas
and imaginations of being alone in the
mountains or some solitary wilderness,
far from mankind, sweetly conversing
with Christ, and rapt and swallowed up
in God. The sense I had of divine things
would often of a sudden kindle up an
ardor in my soul that I knew not how to
express. While thus engaged, it always
seemed natural to me to sing or chant
forth my meditations, or to speak my
thoughts in soliloquies with a singing
voice."

Dr. John Brown of Haddington, in the
introduction to his admirable paraphrase
of this book, says, "If understood of the
marriage and fellowship between Christ
and his people, it will appear most exalt
ed, instructive, and heart-warming. Its
majestic style, its power on men's con
science to promote holiness and purity,
the harmony of its language with that
of Christ's parables and the book of Rev
elation, the sincerity of the bride in ac
knowledging her faults, and its general
reception by the Jewish and Christian
church, sufficiently prove it inspired of
God. To such as read it with a carnal
and especially with a wanton mind, it is
the savor of death unto death, as the
, mind and conscience of such are defiled ;
but to such as have experienced much
fellowship with Christ, and read it with
a heavenly and spiritual temper of mind,
it will be the savor of life unto life. The
19

speakers in it are, Christ, Believers, and
the Daughters of Jerusalem," or com
panions and friends of believers.

SON sometimes denotes a grandson,
or any remote descendant, Gen. 29 : 5 ;
2 Sam. 19:24. At other times a son by
adoption is meant, Gen. 48 : 5 ; or by
law, Ruth 4:17 ; or by education, 1 Sam.
3:6; 20 : 35 ; or by conversion, as Titus
was Paul's "son after the common
faith," Tit. 1 : 4. And again it denotes
a mental or moral resemblance, etc.,
Judg. 19:22; Psa. 89:6; Isa. 57:3; Acts
13:10. In a similar sense men are some
times called sons of God, Luke 3 : 38 ;
Rom. 8:14.

SON OF GOD, a peculiar appellation of
Christ, expressing his eternal relation
ship to the Father, Psa. 2:7; Dan. 3:25?
Luke 1 : 35 ; John 1 : 18, 34. Christ al
ways claimed to be the only-begotten Son
of the Father, Matt. 4:3; 8:29; 27:54;
John 3 : 16-18 ; and the Jews rightly
understood him as thus making himself
equal with God, John 5 : 18 ; 10:30-33.

SON OF MAN, a title of Christ, assumed
by himself in his humiliation, John 1:51.
It was understood as a designation of the
Messiah, according to Old Testament pre
dictions; Psa. 80:17 ; Dan. 7:13, 14 ; but
appears to indicate especially his true
humanity or oneness with the human
race. It is applied to him more than
eighty times in the New Testament.

SOOTH'SAYER. See SORCKRER.

SOP, John 13 : 26, a small portion of
bread, dipped in sauce, wine, or some
other liquid at table, Ruth 2:14. Mod
ern table utensils were unknown or little
used by the ancients. The food was con
veyed to the mouth by the thumb and
fingers, and a choice morsel was often
thus bestowed on a favored guest. Sim
ilar customs still prevail in Palestine.
Jowett says, ' ' There are set on the table
in the evening two or three messes of
stewed meat, vegetables, and sour milk.
To me the privilege of a knife, spoon,
and plate was granted ; but the rest
helped themselves immediately from the
dish, in which five Arab fingers might
be seen at once. Their bread, which is
extremely thin, tearing and folding up
like a sheet of paper, is used for rolling
together a large mouthful, or sopping
up the fluid and vegetables. When the
master of the house found in the dish
any dainty morsel, he took it out with
his fingers, and put it to my mouth."
433

SOP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SPA

SOPATER, a Berean Christian, and
one of those who attended Paul from
Greece into Asia Minor, Acts 20 : 4. He
is supposed to have been the kinsman of
Paul called Sosipatcr in Kom. 10:21.

SOR'CERER, one who practised sor
cery ; nearly synonymous with magi
cian, soothsayer, or wizard. This was a
class of persons who dealt in incantations
and divinations, and boasted of a power,
in consequence of their deep science and
by means of certain rites, to evoke the
spirits of the dead from their gloomy
abodes, and compel them to disclose in
formation on subjects beyond the reach
of human powers. They pretended also
that, by means of certain herbs and in
cantations, they were able to expel de
mons, Acts 13:6, 8. Those persons also
who devoted themselves to the general
studies above mentioned, often abused
their knowledge and deceived the com
mon people, by pretending to foretell
the destinies of men from the motions
and appearances of the planets and stars,
and to cure diseases by repeating certain
phrases, etc. Of this class appears to
have been Simon the sorcerer, mention
ed in Acts 8 : 9, 11. Females who prac
tised such arts were called sorceresses
and witches, Mai. 3:5 ; Rev. 22:15. See
DIVINATION, ENCHANTMENTS, and MAGIC.

SO'REK, a valley in which Delilah
resided, not far from Zorah and Eshtaol,
Judg. 16:4. In winter and spring it was
the channel of a brook, ilowing north
west from Judah, by the region of Dan
and the Philistines, into the Mediterra
nean. Jerome mentions a village of So-
rek in that vicinity. The same Hebrew
word, translated ' ' choice ' ' and ' ' noble ' '
in Gen. 49 : 11, Isa. 5 : 2, Jer. 2 : 21, is
the name of a vine bearing small grapes,
but very sweet and almost without seeds.
This vine may have given the valley its
name.

SOSIPATER. See SOPATER.

SOS'THENES, the chief of the syna
gogue at Corinth, who was beaten by
the Gentiles when the Jews carried Paul
before Gallio the proconsul, Acts 18:17.
He appears to have been the leader of
the Jews in this attempt to destroy Paul.
Whether he was converted, and is iden
tical with the "Sosthenes our brother"
in 1 Cor. 1:1, is unknown.

SOUL. The ancients supposed the
soul, or rather the animating principle
of life, to reside in the breath, and that
434

it departed from the body with the
breath. Hence the Hebrew and Greek
words which, when they refer to man,
in our Bibles are translated "soul," are
usually rendered "life" or "breath"
when they refer to animals, Gen. 2:7;
7:15; Num. 16:22; Job 12: 10; 34:14,
15; Psa. 104:29; Eccl. 12:7; Acts 17: 25.

But together with this principle of life,
which is common to men and brutes,
and which in brutes perishes with the
body, there is in man a spiritual, rea
sonable, and immortal soul, the seat of
our thoughts, affections, and reasonings,
which distinguishes us from the brute cre
ation, and in which chiefly consists our
resemblance to God, Gen. 1 : 26. This
must be spiritual, because it thinks ; it
must be immortal, because it is spiritual.
Scripture ascribes to man alone under
standing, conscience, the knowledge of
God, wisdom, immortality, and the hope
of future everlasting happiness. It
threatens men only with punishment in
another life, and with the pains of hell.
In some places the Bible seems to distin
guish soul from spirit, 1 Thess. 5 : 23 ;
Heb. 4:12 : the organ of our sensations,
appetites, and passions, allied to the
body, from that nobler portion of our
nature which most allies man to God.
Yet we are to conceive of them as one
indivisible and spiritual being, called
also the mind and the heart, spoken of
variously as living, feeling, understand
ing, reasoning, willing, etc. Its usual
designation is the soul.

The immortality of the soul is a fun
damental doctrine of revealed religion.
The ancient patriarchs lived and died
persuaded of this truth ; and it was in
the hope of another life that they receiv
ed the promises. Compare*Gen. 50:33;
Num. 23 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 28:13-15 ; 2 Sam.
12:23; Job 19:25, 26; Eccl. 12:7; Heb.
11 : 13-16. In the gospel "life and im
mortality," and the worth of immortal
souls, are fully brought to light, Matt.
16 : 26 ; 1 Cor." 15 : 45-57 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 10.
To save the souls of men, Christ freely
devoted himself to death ; and how doc i
it become us to labor and toil and strive,
in our respective spheres, to promote tlu
great work for which He bled and died !

SPAIN comprehended, in ancient
usage, the modern kingdoms of Spain
and Portugal, that is, the whole Spanish
peninsula. In the time of Paul, it was
subject to the Romans, and was fre--

SPA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SPI

quented by many Jews. For the sup
posed origin of its name, see CONEY. In
Rom. 15 : 24, 28, Paul expresses his in
tention of visiting Spain ; and many con
jecture that he did so between his first
and second imprisonments at Home,
about A. D. 64-66.

SPAN, Lam. 2 : 20, the distance from
the extremity of the thumb to that of
the little linger, when stretched apart ;
some nine inches.

SPAR'ROW, a small bird, the Passer
Domesticus of naturalists, with quill and
tail feathers brown, and its body gray
.and black, resembling the small " chirp
ing-bird ' ' of America. It is a general
inhabitant of Europe, Asia, and Africa ;
is bold and familiar in its habits, and
frequents populous places. It builds
under the eaves of houses, and in simi
lar situations ; feeds on seeds, fruits, and
insects; and lays five or six eggs of a
pale ash color, with brown spots. The
Hebrew name Tzippor includes also other
small chirping birds, feeding on grain
and insects, and classed as clean, Lev.
14 : 4 ; among others the thrush, which
may be alluded to in Psa. 102 : 7, a bird
remarkable throughout the East for sit
ting solitary on the habitations of men
and warbling in sweet and plaintive
strains. A sparrow is of course of com
paratively little value ; and it is there
fore a striking exemplification of God's
providence to say that he watches even
over the sparrow's fall, Matt. 10 : 29.
These birds are still very numerous,
troublesome, and cheap in Jerusalem,
Luke 12:6, and flit in great numbers
around the mosque of Omar, on the site
of the ancient temple, within the pre

cincts of which they built their favored
nests of old, Psa. 84:3.

THE NAKDOSTACHYS JATAMAXSI.

SPIKE'NARD, Song 1:12 ; 4:13, 14, a
highly perfumed ointment prepared from
a plant in India growing in short spikes.
It was highly prized by the ancients, and
was a favorite perfume at their baths and
banquets. Horace represents a small box
of it as equivalent to a large vessel of
wine, and as a handsome quota for a
guest to contribute to an entertainment.
It was kept closely sealed, sometimes in
alabaster boxes ; and to unseal and open
it was called breaking the box, Mark
14 : 3. The evangelists speak of it as
diffusing a rich perfume ; and as ' ' pre
cious," and "very costly," a pound of
it being wrorth more than three hundred
denarii, or over forty dollars, John 12:3-
5. See ALABASTER, and PENNY.

SPI'DER, a well-known insect, re
markable for the thread which it spins,
and with which it forms a web of curious
texture, but so frail that it is exposed to
be broken and destroyed by the slightest
accident. To the slenderness of this filmy
workmanship Job compares the hope of
435

SPI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SPI

the wicked, 8 : 14. So also in Isa. 59 : 5,
it is shown that the works of sinners are
utterly inadequate to cover or protect
them. In Prov. 30 : 28, it is said in our
version that ' ' the spider taketh hold
with her hands, and is in kings' pal
aces ;" but the Hebrew employs here a
different word, which signifies, accord
ing to the best interpreters, a species of
lizard frequent in Palestine.

SPIR'IT is a word employed in various
senses in Scripture.

I. For THE HOLY SPIRIT, the third per
son of the Holy Trinity, who inspired the
prophets, animates good men, pours his
unction into our hearts, imparts to us
life and comfort ; and in whose name we
are baptized and blessed, as well as in
that of the Father and the Son. When
the adjective Holy is applied to the term
Spirit, we should always understand it
as here explained ; but there are many
places where it must be taken in this
sense, although the term Holy is omit
ted. See HOLY SPIRIT.

II. BREATH, respiration ; or the princi
ple of animal life, common to men and
animals : this God has given, and this
he recalls when he takes away life, Eccl.
3:21. See SOUL.

III. The RATIONAL SOUL which ani
mates us, and preserves its being after
the death of the body. That spiritual,
reasoning, and choosing substance, which
is capable of eternal happiness. See
SOUL.

The "spirits in prison," 1 Pet. 3 : 19,
it is generally thought, are the souls of
antediluvian sinners now reserved unto
the judgment-day, but unto whom the
Spirit preached by the agency of Noah,
etc. , 2 Pet. 2 : 5, when, they were in the
flesh. Thus Christ "preached" to the
Ephesians, whom he never visited in per-
gon, Eph. 2:17.

IV. An ANGEL, good or bad; a soul

436

separate from the body, Mark 14:26. It
is said, Acts 23 : 8, that the Sadducees
denied the existence of angels and spir
its. Christ, appearing to his disciples,
said to them, Luke 24:39, "Handle me,
and see ; for a spirit hath not flesh and
bones, as ye see me have."

V. The DISPOSITION of the mind or in
tellect. Thus we read of a spirit of jeal
ousy, a spirit of fornication, a spirit of
prayer, a spirit of infirmity, a spirit of
wisdom and understanding, a spirit of
fear of the Lord, Hos. 4 : 12 ; Zech. 12 : 10 ;
Luke 13: 11; Isa. 11:2.

VI. The RENEWED NATURE of true be-

lievers, which is produced by the Holy
Spirit, and conforms the soul to his like
ness. Spirit is thus the opposite of flesh,
John 3:6. This spirit is vitally united
with, and in some passages can hardly
be distinguished from the "Spirit of
Christ," which animates true Christians,
the children of God, and distinguishes
them from the children of darkness, who
are animated by the spirit of the world,
Rom. 8:1-16. 'This indwelling Spirit is
the gift of grace, of adoption — the Holy
Spirit poured into our hearts — which em
boldens us to call God ' ' Abba, my Fa
ther." Those who are influenced by this
Spirit "have crucified the flesh, with its
affections and lusts," Gal. 5:16-25.

' ' Distinguishing or discerning of spir
its" consisted in discerning whether a
man were really inspired by the Spirit of
God, or was a false prophet, an impos
tor, who only followed the impulse of
his own spirit or of Satan. Paul speaks,
1 Cor. 12 : 10, of the discerning of spirits
as being among the miraculous gifts
granted by God to the faithful at the
first settlement of Christianity.

To "quench the Spirit," 1 Thess.
5:19, is a metaphorical expression easily
understood. The Spirit may be quench
ed by forcing, as it were, that divine
Agent to withdraw from us, by irregu
larity of life, frivolity, avarice, negli
gence, or other sins contrary to charity,
truth, peace, and his other gifts and
qualifications.

We ' ' grieve ' ' the Spirit of God by
withstanding his holy inspirations, the
impulses of his grace ; or by living in a
lukewarm and incautious manner ; by
despising his gifts, or neglecting them ;
by abusing his favors, either out of van
ity, curiosity, or indifference. In a con
trary sense, 2 Tim. 1 : 6, we "stir up"

SPO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

STE

the Spirit of God which is in us, by
the practice of virtue, by compliance
with his inspirations, by fervor in his
service, by renewing our gratitude, arid
by diligently serving Christ and doing
the works of the Spirit.

SPOIL, booty taken in war, in which
all the soldiers were permitted by David
to share, whether actually engaged in
battle or not, 1 Sam. 30 : 21-35. A portion
of what was thus gained was devoted to
the Lord of hosts as early as the time of
Abraham, Gen. 14 : 20 ; and under the
Mosaic legislation a delinite rule for this
purpose was established, Num. 31 : 26-
47; 1 Chr. 26:27. Christ "spoiled]'
principalities and powers when by his
atoning work he triumphed over Satan
and his hosts, and deprived them of their
power to injure his people, Col. 2 : 15.
Paul warns Christians not to permit
human philosophy, tradition, etc., to
"spoil" them, that is, to rob them of
Scripture truths and spiritual blessings,
Col. 2:8. See PHILOSOPHY.

STA'CHYS, a disciple of Paul, by
whom he is honorably mentioned, Rom.
16:9. From his name it would seem
that he was a Greek, though residing at
Rome.

STAC'TE, one of the four ingredients
composing the sacred perfume, Exod.
30 : 34, 35. Some think the gum called
storax is intended ; but it is generally
understood to be the purest kind of
myrrh ; and as the Hebrew properly sig
nifies a drop, it would seem to refer to
myrrh as distilling, dropping from the
tree of its own accord, without incision.
So Pliny, speaking of the trees whence
myrrh is produced, says, "Before any
incision is made, they exude of their
own accord what is called Stacte, to
which no kind of myrrh is preferable. ' '

STAR. Under the name of stars, the
Hebrews comprehended all the constel
lations, planets, and heavenly lumina
ries, except the sun and moon. The
psalmist, to exalt the power and om
niscience of God, says, "He telleth the
number of the stars ; he calleth them all
by their names," Psa. 147 : 4 ; God being
described as a king taking a review of
his army, and knowing the name of
every one of his soldiers. Christ is called
' ' the Morning Star," which is the bright
est of the heavenly train, and ushers in
the day, Rev. 22 : 16. Compare Num.
24:17. To express a very extraordinary

increase and multiplication, Scripture
uses the similitude of the stars of heav
en, or of the sands of the sea, Gen. 15:5 ;
22 : 17 ; 26 : 4 ; Ex. 32 : 13. In times of
disgrace and public calamity, it is said
the stars withhold their light ; they are
covered with darkness ; they fall from
heaven, and disappear. These figurative
and emphatic expressions, which refer
to the governing powers of nations, are
only weakened and enervated by being
explained.

In the pure atmosphere of Judea and
the East the stars shine with peculiar
brilliancy, and seem as if hanging mid
way in the heavenly canopy, while the
eye penetrates the ether far beyond
them. The beauty and splendor that
men observed in the stars ; the great
advantages they derived from them ;
the wonderful order apparent in their
courses ; the influence ascribed to their
returns, in the production and preserva
tion of animals, fruits, plants, and min
erals, have induced almost all heathen
nations to impute to them life, know
ledge, power, and to pay them a sove
reign worship and adoration. The Is
raelites also needed to be warned against
this sin. "Learn not the way of the
heathen," says God, "and be not dis
mayed at the signs of heaven ; for the
heathen are dismayed at them," Jer.
10:2. See IDOLATRY.

STAR IN THE EAST. It is a fact of great
interest, that when the Saviour appeared,
not only were the Jews eagerly expect
ing the Messiah, but many in various
heathen lands were cherishing similar
hopes : in part through the diffusion of
the Hebrew prophecies ; in part through
the felt need of a Saviour ; and in part
perhaps through direct divine intima
tions. The eastern magi apparently
were not only apprized of the coming
birth of a royal and divine being in
Judea, but were miraculously guided to
Bethlehem by a meteoric light, appear
ing in the right direction for their course,
Matt. 2 : 9. The fanciful theory of the
distinguished astronomer Kepler, that
the conjunction of the planets Jupiter
and Saturn six years before the common
Christian era may have constituted the
"star in the east," does not appear to
meet the terms of the inspired narrative.
See MAGI.

STEPHANAS, a Christian of Corinth,
whose family Paul baptized, the first con'
437

STE

BIBLE DICTIONARY

STO

vert to the gospel in Achaia, probably
about A. D. 52, 1 Cor. 1 : 16. He was for
ward in the service of the church, and
came to Paul at Ephesus, 1 Cor. 16 : 15,
17.

STE'PHEN, one of the seven deacons
first chosen by the church at Jerusalem,
and distinguished among them as "a
man full of faith and of the Holy Ghost. ' '
He seems from his name to have been a
Hellenistic Jew, (see GRECIANS,) and to
have been chosen in part as being famil
iar with the language, opinions, and cus
toms of the Greeks, Acts 6 : 1-6. His
mighty works and unanswerable argu
ments roused the bitterest hostility
against him, and he was brought before
the Sanhedrim for trial, on the charge
of blasphemy and heresy. His speech in
his own defence, probably recorded only
in part, shows historically that Christi
anity was the true development of the
religion of Moses, fulfilling all its types
and prophecies ; and that the opponents
of Christianity were but the children and
imitators of those who had always op
posed true religion. Plis enraged hear
ers hurried him to death, a judicial tri
bunal becoming a riotous mob for the
occasion. Compare John 18 : 31. With
Christlike magnanimity he forgave his
murderers, and "fell asleep" amid their
stones, with his eyes upon the Saviour
"standing at the right hand of God," as
if rising from his throne to protect and
receive the first martyr of his church,
Acts 7. The results of Stephen's death
illustrate the saying of Tertullian, "The
blood of the martyrs is the seed of the
church," Acts 8 : 1, 4 ; 11 : 19-21. Au
gustine observes that the church owes
the conversion and ministry of Paul to
the prayer of Stephen. Paul, himself a
Cilician, Acts 6:9; 22 : 3, had undoubt
edly felt the force of his arguments in
the discussions which preceded his arrest;
and long afterwards alluded to his own
presence at the martyr's death, Acts
22 : 19, 20 — that triumph of Christian
faith and love which has taught so many
martyrs and Christians how to die. Yet
nothing he heard or witnessed availed
for his conversion, till he saw the Sav
iour himself, Acts 9. The scene of Ste
phen's martyrdom is placed by modern
tradition on the east side of Jerusalem,
near the gate called after his name. Ear
lier traditions located it more to the
north.

438

STOCK, the trunk of a tree, Job 14:8,
or a reproachful name for the idols carv
ed out of it, Jer. 2:27 ; Hos. 4:12. The
stocks in which Paul and Silas were fast
ened, Acts 16 : 24, were an instrument
well known in Europe and America until

recent times ; consisting of two beams,
the upper one movable, with grooves
between them large enough to receive
the ancles of the prisoner. The arms
also were sometimes confined. Stocks
were frequently erected in market-places,
that the insults of the populace might be
added to the pain of confinement, Job
13:27; Jer. 20:2.

STOICS, a set of fatalistic heathen
philosophers, so named from the Greek
word signifying porch, or portico, be
cause Zeno its founder, more than three
centuries before Christ, held his school
in a porch of the city of Athens. They
placed the supreme happiness of man in
living agreeably to nature and reason ;
affecting the same stiffness, patience,
apathy, austerity, and insensibility as
the Pharisees, whom they much resem
bled. They were in great repute at Ath
ens when Paul visited that city, Acts
17 : 18.

STONE. The allusion in Rev. 2 : 17
may be to the practice at the Olympic
games of giving the successful competi
tor a .white stone, inscribed with his
name and the value of his prize ; or to
the mode of balloting with black and

STO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SIR

white stones on the question of the ac
quittal of an accused person, or his ad
mission to certain privileges ; if the
stones deposited in the urn by the judges
were all white, the decision was favor
able. In early ages, flint-stone knives
were in common use, instead of steel,
Ex. 4 : 25 ; Josh. 5:2. It was also custom
ary to raise a heap or mound of stones
in commemoration of any remarkable
event, Gen. 31 : 46 ; Josh. 4:5-7 ; 7 : 26 ;
8:29; 2 Sam. 18:17. The same custom
still prevails in Syria, and passing trav
ellers are wont to add each one a stone
to the heap. See CORNER-STONE.

STON'ING was a punishment much in
use among the Hebrews, and the rabbins
reckon all crimes as being subject to it,
which the law condemns to death with
out expressing the particular mode.
They say that when a man was Con
demned to death, he was leu out of the
city to the place of execution, and there
exhorted to acknowledge and confess his
fault. He was then stoned in one of two
ways ; either stones were thrown upon
him till he died, or he was thrown head
long down a steep place, and a large
stone rolled upon his body. The former
was the usual mode ; and the witnesses
were required to cast the first stones,
Deut. 17 : 5-7 ; for which purpose they
sometimes threw off their outer gar
ments, Acts 7 : 58. To the latter mode
it is supposed there is a reference in
Matt.^ 21 : 44. So also in Luke 4 : 29,
where compare NAZARETH.

STORK. Its Hebrew name signifies
kindness or mercy, and its Greek name
natural affection, probably because of
the tenderness which it is said to mani
fest towards its parents — never, as is re

ported, forsaking them, but feeding and
defending them in their decrepitude. In
modern times, parent storks are known
to have perished in the effort to rescue
their young from flames ; and it has
been a popular, but perhaps ill-founded
opinion, that in their migratory flights,
the leader of the flock when fatigued is
partially supported by others as he falls
into the rear. In Jer. 8:7, allusion is
made to the unerring instinct of the
stork as a bird of passage, and perhaps
to its lofty flight : ' ' The stork in thd
heavens knoweth her appointed times."
Moses places it among unclean birds,
Lev. 11 : 19 ; Deut. 14 : 18. The psalmist
says, "As for the stork, the fir-trees are
her house," Psa. 104:17. In the climate
of Europe, she commonly builds her nest
on some high tower or ruin, or on iha
top of a house ; but in Palestine, where
the coverings of the houses are flat, she
builds in high trees.

The stork has the beak and legs long
and red ; it feeds on field-mice, lizards,
snakes, frogs, and insects. Its plumage
would be wholly white, but that the
extremities of its wings, and some small
part of its head and thighs, are black.
It sits for the space of thirty days, and
lays but four eggs. Storks migrate to
southern countries in August, and return
in the spring. They are still the object
of much veneration among the common
people in some parts of Europe and Asia.

STKAIT, narrow, and difficult to pass,
Matt. 7 : 13, 14. This word should not
be confounded with straight. To be "in
a strait," is to have one's way beset with
doubts or difficulties, to be at a loss,
1 Sam. 13:6; 2 Sam. 24:14; Phil. 1:23.

STRANGER is sometimes used in a
special sense, easily understood from the
context. It usually denotes a foreigner,
one who is not a native of the land in
which he resides, Gen. 23 : 4. The Mo
saic law enjoined a generous hospitality
towards foreign residents, saying, "Thou
shalt love him as thyself," Lev. 19 : 33,
34 ; Deut. 10 : 18, 19 ; 24 : 17 ; 27 : 19.
They were subject to the law, Ex. 20:10,
Lev. 16 : 20, and were admitted to many
of the privileges of the chosen people of
God, Num. 9:14; 15:14. The strangers
whom David collected to aid in building
the temple, 1 Chr. 22 : 2, probably com
prised many of the remnants of the Ca-
naanite tribes, 1 Kin. 9:20, 21. Hospi
tality to strangers, including all travel-
439

STR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SWI

lers, was the duty of all good citizens,
Job 31: 32; Heb. 13:2.

STREETS, in the towns and cities of
Palestine, are supposed to have been
comparatively narrow and ill graded, on
account of the unevenness of their sites,
and the little use of wheel - carriages.
They were wider, however, than in many
modern cities, Laike 14 : 21, and 'termi
nated in large public areas around the
gates, Neh. 8:1. Josephus says that
those of Jerusalem were paved. They
were named, like our own streets, Acts
9:11, and often resembled the bazaars of
modern eastern cities, the shops of the
same kind being in the same street and
giving it its name, as the bakers' street,
Neh. 3 : 31, 32 ; Jer. 37:21, and the val
ley of the cheesemongers. Here, and
especially at the prominent points and
corners, men loved, as the Turks do
now, to spread their piece of carpet and
sit, 1 Sam. 4:13 ; Job 29:7 ; and here at
the hours of prayer they performed their
devotions, Matt. 6:5.

STRONG DRINK. See WINE.

SUC'COTH, booths, L, a spot in the val
ley of the Jordan and near the Jabbok,
where Jacob set up his tents on his return
from Mesopotamia, Gen. 33:17. Joshua
assigned the city subsequently built here
to the tribe of Gad, Josh. 13:27. Gideon
tore the flesh of the principal men of
Succoth with thorns and briars, because
they returned him a haughty answer
when pursuing the Midianites, Judg. 8 : 5.
It seems to have lain on the east side of
the Jordan ; but may possibly have been
on the west side, at the place now called
Sakut. Compare 1 Kin. 7 : 46 ; Psa.
60:6.

II. The first encampment of the Is
raelites, on their way out of Egypt, Ex.
12 : 37.

SUC'COTH BE'NOTH, tents of the daugh
ters, 2 Kin. 17:30, an object of idolatrous
worship among the Babylonians : an idol ;
or as some think, tents or booths, in
which the Babylonian females prosti
tuted themselves to Mylitta, the Assyr
ian Venus.

SUK'KIIM, allies of Shishak in his
invasion of Judah, 2 Chr. 12 : 3 ; proba
bly from regions south-east of Egypt.

SUM'MER. See CANAAN.

SUN, the great luminary of day, which
furnishes so many similitudes to the He
brew poets, as well as those of all nations,
Judg. 5 : 31 ; Psa. 84 : 11 ; Prov. 4 : 18 ;
440

Luke I : 78, 79 ; John 8 : 12. For the
idolatrous worship of the sun, see BAAL.

SUPERSTITION and SUPERSTP-
TIOUS, Acts 17:22 and 19:25, are not to
be understood offensively. Paul found
the Athenians "much addicted to devo
tion," such as it was: perhaps "relig
ion" and " religiously inclined " may
better express the sense of the original.

SUPPER, see EATING, and LORD'S SUP
PER. For the suppers, or love-feasts,
which used to accompany the celebration
of the Lord's supper, see FEASTS.

SURE'TY, one who makes himself per
sonally responsible for the safe appear
ing of another, Gen. 43 : 9 and 44 : 32, or for
the full payment of his debts, etc. , Prov.
22 : 26. Christ is the ' ' surety of a better
testament ;" that is, in the glorious and
complete covenant of grace he engages
to meet all the claims of the divine law
against his people, that they may be ab
solved, and enriched with all covenant
blessings, Heb. 7 : 22. Hence his obedi
ence unto death, Isa. 53:5, 12.

SWAL'LOW, the well-known bird of
passage, which is so common both in our
country, in Europe, and in the East, Psa.
84:3; Isa. 38:14; Jer. 8:7. See CRANE,
and SPARROW.

SWAN. This bird is mentioned only
in Lev. 11 : 18, and Deut. 14:16 ; and it
is there quite doubtful whether the He
brew word means a swan. The Septua-
gint calls it the ibis, and the purple hen,
a water-fowl.

SWEARING. See OATH.
. SWINE, a well-known animal, forbid
den as food to the Hebrews, who held its
flesh in such detestation that they would
not so much as pronounce its name, Lev*

SYC

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SYE

11:7; Deut. 14:8. The eating of swine's
flesh was among the most odious of the
idolatrous abominations charged upon
some of the Jews, Isa. 65 : 4 ; 66 : 3-, 17.
The herd of swine destroyed by evil spir
its in the sea of Gennesaret, Matt. 8:32,
are supposed to have been kept by Jews
for sale to the Gentiles around them, in
defiance of the law. The beautiful and
affecting parable of the prodigal son
shows that the tending of swine was
considered to be an employment of the
most despicable character ; it was the
last resource of that depraved and un
happy being who had squandered his
patrimony in riotous living, Luke 15:14-
16. The irreclaimably filthy habits of
this animal illustrate the insufficiency of
reformation without regeneration, 2 Pet.
2 : 22 ; as its treading in the mire any
precious thing which it cannot eat, illus
trates the treatment which some profli
gates give to the gospel, Matt. 7:6.

SYC'AMORE, or SYCAMINE, Luke 17:6,
a curious tree, which seems to partake of
the nature of both the mulberry and the
fig, the former in its leaf, and the latter
in its fruit. Hence its name in Greek,
meaning the mulberry-fig. The syca
more is thus described by Norden : "I
shall remark that they have in Egypt
divers sorts of figs ; but if there is any
difference between them, a particular
kind differs still more. I mean that
which the sycamore bears, that they
name in Arabic giomez. It was upon a
tree of this sort that Zaccheus got up, to
see bur Saviour pass through Jericho,
Luke 19 : 4. This sycamore is of the
height of a beech, and bears its fruit in
a manner quite different from other
trees. It has them on the trunk itself,
which shoots out little sprigs in form of
19*

a grape-stalk, at the end of which grows
the fruit, close to one another, much
like bunches of grapes. The tree is al
ways green, and bears fruit several times
in the year, for I have seen some syca
mores which had fruit two months after
others. The fruit has the figure and
smell of real figs, but is inferior to them
in the taste, having a disgustful sweet
ness. (Compare Amos 7:14.) Its color
is a yellow, inclining to an ochre, shad
owed by a flesh color; -in the inside, it
resembles the common fig, excepting
that itjias a blackish coloring, with yel
low spots. This sort of tree is pretty
common in Egypt. The people, for the
greater part, live on its fruit."

The sycamore has a very large trunk,
which breaks up into five or six stout
branches not many feet above the
ground; it is planted by the roadside,
and often where two ways meet ; and
sends its enormous roots deeply into the
ground in every direction, so that few
trees can compare with it in steadfast
firmness. The power that could say to
it, " Be thou plucked up by the root,
and be thou planted in the sea," and it
should obey, must be of God, Luke 17:6.
From 1 Kin. 10 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 28, and
2 Chr. 1 : 15, it is evident that this tree
was quite common in Palestine, as well
as in Egypt ; and from its being joined
with the vines in Psa. 78 : 47, as well as
from the circumstance of David's ap
pointing a particular officer to superin
tend the plantations of them, it seems to
have been as much valued in ancient as
in modern times. From Isa. 9 : 10, we
find that the timber of the sycamore was
used in the construction of buildings ;
and notwithstanding its porous and
spongy appearance, it was of extreme
durability. Describing the catacombs
and mummies of Egypt, Dr. Shaw states
that he found the mummy chests, and
the little square boxes containing vari
ous figures, which are placed at the feet
of each mummy, to be both made of syc
amore wood, and thus preserved entire
and uncorrupted for at least three thou
sand years.

SY'CHAR, or SY'CIIEM. See SHEOHEM.

SYE'NE, a city on the southern fron
tiers of Egypt, towards Ethiopia, between
Thebes and the cataracts of the Nile, and
now called Assouan. Pliny says it stands
in a peninsula on the eastern shore of
the Nile ; that it was a mile in circum-
441

SYN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SYN

fjrence, and had a "Rrmrm garrison.
" From Migdol," the tower, "unto Sye-
ne," denotes the whole length of Egypt
from north to son Ui, Ezek. 29:10; 30:6.
Few remains of the ancient city are now
extant. In its vicinity are quarries of
the Egyptian granite called Syenite,
which furnished the material for numer
ous obelisks and colossal statues.

SYN'AGOGUE, a word which prima
rily signifies an assembly ; but, like the
word church, came at length to be ap
plied to the buildings in which the ordi
nary Jewish assemblies for the worship
of God were convened. From the silence
of the Old Testament with reference to
these places of worship, many commen
tators and writers on biblical antiquities
are of opinion that they were not in use
till after the Babylonish captivity ; and
that before that time, the Jews held
their social meetings for religious wor
ship either in the open air or in the
houses of the prophets. See 2 Kin. 4:23.
In Psa. 74 : 8, it is at least very doubtful
whether the Hebrew word rendered syna
gogues, refers to synagogue-buildings such
as existed after the captivity. Properly
the word signifies only places where relig
ious assemblies were held. In the time
of our Saviour they abounded. Syna
gogues could only be erected, in those
places where ten men of age, learning,
pieby^ and easy circumstances could be
found to attend to the service which was
enjoined in them. Large towns had sev
eral synagogues ; and soon after trie cap
tivity their utility became so obvious,
that they were scattered over the land,
and became the parish churches of the
Jewish nation. Their number appears
to have been very considerable ; and
when the erection of a synagogue was
considered a mark of piety, Luke 7 : 5,
or a passport to heaven, we need not be
surprised to hear that they were multi-

?lied beyond all necessity, so that in
erusalem alone there were not fewe,r
than 460 or 480. They were generally
built on the most elevated ground, and
consisted of two parts. The westerly
part of the building contained the ark
or chest in which the book of the law
and the sections of the prophets were
deposited, and was called the temple by
way of eminence. The other, in which
the congregation assembled, was termed
the body of the synagogue. The people
sat with their faces towards the temple,
442

and the elders in the contrary direction,
and opposite to the people ; the space
between them being occupied by the
pulpit or reading-desk. The seats of the
elders were considered more holy than
the others, an<? are spoken of as " the
chief seats in the synagogues," Matt.
23:6. The women sat by themselves in
a gallery secluded by lattice- work.

The stated office-bearers in every syn
agogue were ten, forming six distinct
classes. We notice first the Archisyji-
agogos, or ruler of the synagogue, who
regulated all its concerns and granted
permission to address the assembly. Of
these there were three in each syna
gogue. Dr. Lightfoot believes them to
have possessed a civil power, and to have
constituted the lowest civil tribunal,
commonly known as ' ' the council of
three," whose office it was to judge mi
nor offences against religion, and also to
decide the differences that arose between
any members of the synagogue, as to
money matters, thefts, losses, etc. To
these officers there is perhaps an allusion
in 1 Cor. 6 : 5. See also JUDGMENT. The
second office-bearer was ' ' the angel of the
synagogue," or minister of the congre
gation, who prayed and preached. In al
lusion to these, the pastors of the Asiatic
churches are called "angels," Kev. 2 ; 3.

The service of the synagogue was as
follows : The people being seated, the
' ' angel of the synagogue ' ' ascended the
pulpit, and offered up the public pray
ers, the people rising from their seats,
and standing in a posture of deep devo
tion, Matt. 6:5; Mark 11 : 25 ; Luke
18 : 11, 13. The prayers were nineteen
in number, and were closed by reading
the execration. The next thing was the
repetition of their phylacteries ; after
which came the reading of the law and
the prophets. The former was divided
into fifty-four sections, with which were
united corresponding portions from -the
prophets; (see Acts 13:15, 27; 15:21;)
and these were read through once in the
course of the year. After the return
from the captivity, an interpreter was
employed in reading the law and the
prophets, Neh. 8 : 2-8, who interpreted
them into the Syro - Chaldaic dialect,
which Avas then spoken by the people.
The last part of the service was the ex
pounding of the Scriptures, and preach
ing from them to the people. This was
done either by one of the officers, or by

SYN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

SYR

some distinguished person who happen
ed to be present. The reader will recol
lect one memorable occasion on which
our Saviour availed himself of the oppor
tunity thus afforded to address his coun
trymen, Luke 4 : 20 ; and there are sev
eral other instances recorded of himself
and his disciples teaching in the syna
gogues. See Matt. 13 : 54 ; Mark 6:2;
John 18 : 20 ; Acts 13 : 5, 15, 44 ; 14 : 1 ;
17 : 2-4, 10, 17 ; 18 : 4, 26 ; 19 : 8. The
whole service was concluded with a short
prayer or benediction.

The Jewish synagogues were not only
used for the purposes of divine worship,
but also for courts of judicature, in such
matters as fell under the cognizance of
the Council of Three, of which we have
already spoken. On such occasions, the
sentence given against the offender was
sometimes, after the manner of prompt
punishment still prevalent in the East,
carried into effect in the place where the
council was assembled. Hence we read
of persons being beaten in the syna
gogue, and scourged in the synagogue,
Matt. 10 : 17 ; Mark 13 : 9 ; Acts 22 : 19 ;
26 : 11 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 24. To be "put out
of the synagogue," or excommunicated
from the Jewish church and deprived of
the national privileges, was a punish
ment much dreaded, John 9:22; 12 : 42 ;
16 : 2. In our own day the Jews erect
synagogues wherever they are sufficient
ly numerous, and assemble on their Sab
bath for worship ; this being conducted,
that is, the reading or chanting of the
Old Testament and of prayers, in the
original Hebrew, though it is a dead
language spoken by few among them.
Among the synagogues of Jerusalem,
now eight or ten in number, are some
for Jews of Spanish orighi, and others
for German Jews, etc., as in the time of
Paul there were separate synagogues for
the Libertines, Cyrenians, Alexandrians,
etc., Acts 6: 9.

SYN'TYCHE, and EUO'DIAS, Phil.
4 . 2, 3, women eminent for virtue and
good works in the church at Philippi.
Paul exhorts them tf> persevere, or rath
er, to act harmoniously together in their
Christian labors, as all should do who
are ' ' in the Lord. ' '

SYRACUSE, now Siracasa, a large
and celebrated city on the eastern coast
of Sicily, furnished with a capacious
and excellent harbor. The city, found
ed 734 B. c., was opulent and powerful,

and was divided into four or five quar
ters or districts, which were of them
selves separate cities. The whole cir
cumference is stated by Strabo to have
been one hundred and eighty stadia, or
about twenty-two English miles. Syra
cuse is celebrated as having been the
birthplace and residence of Archimedes,
whose ingenious mechanical contrivances
during its siege by the Romans, 200 B. c. ,
long delayed its capture. Paul passed
three days here, on his way from Melita
to Rome, in the spring of A. D. 63, Acts
28 : 12. Population anciently 20(T,000 ;
now 11,000.

SYR'IA, in Hebrew ARAM, a large dis
trict of Asia, lying, in the widest accep
tation of the name, between the Medi
terranean, mount Taurus, and the Ti
gris, and thus including Mesopotamia,
that is, in Hebrew, Syria of the two riv
ers. Sec ARAM II. Excepting the Leb
anon range, it is for the most part a level
country. In the New Testament, Syria
may be considered as bounded west and
north-west by the Mediterranean and by
mount Taurus, which separates it from
Cilicia and Cataonia in Asia Minor, east
by the Euphrates, and south by Arabia
Deserta and Palestine, or rather Judea,
for the name Syria included also the
northern part of Palestine. The valley
between the ridges of Lebanon and Anti-
Lebanon was called Ccele-Syria, which
appellation was also sometimes extended
to the adjacent country on the east. At
the time of the Jewish exile, Syria and
Phoenicia were subject to the king of
Babylon, and they afterwards were trib
utary to the Persian monarchs. After
the country fell into the hands of the
Romans, Syria was made the* province of
a proconsul ; to which Judea, although
governed by its own procurators, was
annexed in such a way, that in some
cases an appeal might be made to the
proconsul of Syria, who had at least the
power of removing the procurators from
office. Syria is now in the possession of
the Turks. Its better portions have been
thickly populated from a very early pe
riod, and travellers find traces of numer
ous cities wholly unknown to history.

SY'RO-PH(ENI'CIA is Phoenicia prop
erly so called, but during" the period
when by conquest it was united to the
kingdom of Syria, it prefixed to its old
name Phoenicia, that' of Syria. The
Canaanitish woman is called a Syro-
443

TAA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TAB

Phoenician, Mark 7 : 26, because she was
of Phoenicia, then considered as part of
Syria. Matthew, who is by some sup
posed to have written in Hebrew or Syr-
iac, calls her a Canaanitish woman, Matt.
15 : 22, because that country was really
peopled by Canaanites, Zidon being the
eldest son of Canaan, Gen. 10 : 15. See
PHCENICIA.

TA'ANACH, a Canaanite royal city,
Josh. 12:21, in the territory of Issachar,
but assigned to Manasseh, Josh. 17 : 11 ;

21:25. There is still a small place called
Taannuk on the south border of the plain
of Esdraelon, four miles south-east of the
site of Megiddo, which is usually named
with Taanach, Judg. 1:27 ; 5:19 ; IKin.
4:12.

TA'BER, to beat the tabret, a small
drum or tambourine. The word is used
in Nah. 2 : 7 of women beating their
breasts in sign of grief.

TAB'ERAH, burning, so named on ac
count of the fire wiiich fell upon the
Israelites for their murmurings while
encamped here, Num. 11 : 1-3 ; Deut.
9:22.

TAB'ERNACLE, a tent, booth, pavil
ion, or temporary dwelling. For its
general meaning and uses, see TENT. In
the Scriptures it is employed more par
ticularly of the tent made by Moses at
the command of God, for the place of
religious worship of the Hebrews, before
the building of the temple. The direc
tions of God, and the account of the ex
ecution of them, are contained in Exod.
25, and the following chapters. This is
usually called the tabernacle of the con
gregation, or tent of assembly, and some
times the tabernacle of the testimony.

The tabernacle was of an oblong rec
tangular form, thirty cubits long, ten
broad, and ten in height, Ex. 20:15-80 ;
36 : 20-30 ; that is, about fifty-five feet
long, eighteen broad, and eighteen high.
The two sides and the western end were
444

formed of boards of shittim wood, over
laid with thin plates of gold, and fixed
in solid sockets or vases of silver.
Above, they were secured by bars of the
same wood overlaid with gold, passing
through rings of gold which were fixed
to the .boards. On the east end, which
was the entrance, there were no boards,
but only five pillars of shittim wood,
whose chapiters and fillets were overlaid
with gold, and th^ir hooks of gold,
standing in five sockets of brass. The
tabernacle thus erected was covered with
four different kinds of curtains. The
first and inner curtain was composed of
fine linen, magnificently embroidered
with figures of cherubim, in shades of
blue, purple, and scarlet ; this formed
the beautiful ceiling. The next cover
ing was made of fine goats' hair ; the

TAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TAB

third of rams' skins or morocco dyed
red ; and the fourth and outward cover
ing of a thicker leather. See BADGERS'
SKINS. We have already said that the
east end of the tabernacle had no boards,
but only five pillars of shittim wood ; it
was therefore closed with a richly em
broidered curtain suspended from these
pillars, Ex. 27:16.

Such was the external appearance of
the sacred tent, which was divided into
two apartments by means of four pillars
of shittim wood overlaid with gold, like
the pillars before described, two cubits
and a half distant from each other ; only
they stood in sockets of silver instead of
brass, Ex. 26 : 32 ; -36 : 36 ; and on these
pillars was hung a veil, formed of the
same materials as the one placed at the
east end, Exod. 26:31-33; 36:35; Heb.
9:3. The interior of the tabernacle was
thus divided, it is generally supposed, in
the same proportions as the temple aftcr-
.wards built according to its model ; two-
thirds of the whole length being allotted
to the first room, or the Holy -Place, and
one-third to the second, or Most Holy
Place. Thus the former would be twen
ty cubits long, ten: wide, and ten high,
and the latter ten cubits every way. It
is observable, that neither the Holy nor
the Most Holy place had. any window.
Hence the need of the candlestick in the
one, for the service that was performed
therein.

The tabernacle thus described stood
in an open space or court of an oblong
form, one hundred cubits in length, and
fifty in breadth, situated due east and
west, Ex. 27 : 18. This court was sur
rounded with pillars of brass, filleted
with silver, and placed at the distance
of five cubits from each other, twenty
on each side and ten on each end. Their

MOLEST/ iP

HE\ \CWEi

N.

Q LAVER.

E.

sockets were of brass, and were fastened
to the earth with pins of the same metal,
Exod. 38 : 10, 17, 20. Their height was
probably five cubits, that being the length
of the curtains that were suspended on
them, Ex. 38:18. These curtains, which
formed an enclosure round the court,
were of fine twined white linen yarn,
Ex. 27 : 9 ; 38 : 9, 16, except that at the
entrance on the east end, which was of
blue and purple and scarlet and fine
white twined linen, with cords to draw
it either up or aside when the priests
entered the court, Ex. 27 : 16 ; 38 : 18.
Within this area stood the altar of burnt-
offerings, and the laver with its foot or
base. This altar was placed in a line
between the door of the court and the
door of the tabernacle, but nearer the
former, Exod. 40 : 6, 29 ; the laver stood
between the altar of burnt-offering and
the door of the tabernacle, Ex. 38 : 8.
In this court all the Israelites presented
their offerings, vows, and prayers.
But although the tabernacle was sur-
445

TAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TAB

rounded by the court, there is no reason
to think that it stood in the centre of it.
It is more probable that the area at the
east end was fifty cubits square ; and in
deed a less space than that could hardly
suffice for the work that was to be done
there, and for the persons who were im
mediately to attend the service. We
now proceed to notice the furniture
which the tabernacle contained.

In the Holy Place, to which none but
priests were admitted, Heb. 9 : 6, were
three objects worthy of notice : namely,
the altar of incense, the table for the
show-bread, and the candlestick for the
lights, all of which have been described
in their respective places. The altar of
incense was placed in the middle of the
sanctuary, before the veil, Ex. 30:6-10;
40 : 26, 27 ; and on it the incense was
burnt morning and evening, Ex. CO : 7,
8. On the north side of the altar of
incense, that is, on the right hand of the
priest as he entered, stood the table for
the shoAv-bread, Ex. 26 : 35 ; 40 : 22, 23 ;
and on the south side of the Holy Place,
the golden candlestick, Ex. 25 : 31-39.
In the Most Holy Place, into which only
the high -priest entered once a year,
Heb. 9:7, was the ark, covered by the
mercy-scat and the cherubim.

The gold and silver employed in dec
orating the tabernacle are estimated at
not less than a million of dollars. The
remarkable and costly structure thus
described was erected in the wilderness
of Sinai, on the first day of the first
month of the second year, after the Is
raelites left Egypt, Ex. 40:17 ; and when
erected was anointed, together with its
furniture, with holy oil, vcr. 9-11, and
sanctified by blood* Ex. 24:' 6-8; Heb.
9 : 21. The altar of burnt-offerings, es
pecially, was sanctified by sacrifices dur
ing seven days, Ex. 29 : 37 ; while rich
donations were given by the princes of
the tribes for the service of the sanctu
ary, Num. 7.

We should not omit to observe, that
the tabernacle was so constructed as to
be taken to pieces and put together
again, as occasion required. This was
indispensable ; it being designed to ac
company the Israelites during their trav
els in the wilderness. With it moved
and rested the pillar of fire and of cloud.
As often as Israel removed, the taber
nacle was taken to pieces by the priests,
closely covered, and borne in regular
44G

order by the Levites, Num. 4. Wher
ever they encamped, it was pitched in
the midst of their tents, which were set
up in a quadrangular form, under their
respective standards, at a distance from
the tabernacle of two thousand cubits ;
while Moses and Aaron, with the priests
and Levites, occupied a place between
them.

How long this tabernacle existed we
do not know. During the conquest it
remained at Gilgal, Josh. 4 : 19 ; 10 : 43.
After the conquest it was stationed for
many years at Shiloh, Josh. 18 : 1 ; 1 Sam.
1:3. In 2 Sam. 6:17, and IChr. 15:1,
it is said that David had prepared and
pitched a tabernacle in Jerusalem for the
ark, which before had long been at Kir-
jath-jearim, and then in the house of
Obed-edom, 1 Chr. 13 : G, 14; 2 Sam.
6:11, 12. In 1 Chr. 21:29, it is said that
the tabernacle of Moses was still at Gib-
eon at that time ; and it would there
fore seem that the ark had long been
separated from it. The tabernacle still
remained at Gibeon in the time of Solo
mon, who sacrificed before it, 2 Chr. 1:3,
13. This is the last mention made of it ;
for apparently the tabernacle brought
with the ark into ths temple, 2 Chr. 5:5,
was the tent in which the ark had been
kept on Zion, 2 Chr. 1:4 ; 5:2.

FEAST OP TABERNACLES. This festival
derives its name from the booths in
which the people dwelt during its con
tinuance, which were constructed of the
branches and leaves of trees, on the
roofs of their houses, in the courts, and
also in the streets. Nehcmiah describes^
the gathering of palm-branches, olive-
branches, myrtle-branches, etc., for this
occasion, from the mount of Olives. It
was one of the three great festivals of
the year, at which all the men of Israel
were required to be present, Dcut. 16 : 16.
It was celebrated during eight days,
commencing on the fifteenth day of the
month Tishri, that is, fifteen days after
the new moon in October ; and the first
and last days were particularly distin
guished, Lev. 23:34-43 ; Nch. 8 : 14-18.
This festival was instituted in memory
of the forty years' wanderings of the
Israelites in the desert, Lev. 23 : 42, 43,
and also as a season of gratitude and
thanksgiving for the gathering in of the
harvest; whence it is also called the
Feast of the Harvest, Ex. 23:16 ; 34:22.
The season was an occasion of rejoicing

TAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TAB

and feasting. The public sacrifices con
sisted of two rams and fourteen lambs
on each of the first seven days, together
with thirteen bullocks on the first day,
twelve on the second, eleven on the
third, ten on the fourth, nine on the
fifth, eight on the sixth, and seven on
the seventh ; while on the eighth day
one bullock, one ram, and seven lambs
were offered, Num. 29:12-39. On every
seventh year, the law of Moses was also
read in public, in the presence of all the
people, Deut. 31:10-13; Neh. 8:18. To
these ceremonies the later Jews added a j
libation of water mingled with wine, j
which was poured upon the morning
sacrifice of each day. The priests, hav
ing filled a vessel of water from the
fountain of Siloam, bore it through the
water-gate to the temple, and there,
while the trumpets and horns were
sounding, poured it upon the sacrifice
arranged upon the altar. This was
probably done as a memorial of the
abundant supply of water which God
afforded to the Israelites during their
wanderings in the desert ; and perhaps
with reference to purification from sin,
1 Sam. 7:6. This was accompanied with
the singing of Isa. 12 : "With joy shall
ye draw water from the wells of salva
tion ;" and may naturally have suggest
ed our Saviour's announcement while
attending this festival, "If any man
thirst, let him come unto me and
drink," John 7 : 37, 38. The first and
eighth days of the festival were sabbaths
to the Lord, in which there was a holy
convocation, and in which all labor was
prohibited, Lev. 23 : 39 ; Num. 29 : 12,
35 ; and as the eighth was the last festi
val day celebrated in the course of each
year, it appears to have been esteemed
as peculiarly important and sacred.

TA'BLE. See BREAD, and EATING.

TAB'ITHA. See DORCAS.

TABOR, an isolated mountain of Gal
ilee, on the north-eastern side of the
plain of Esdraelon, an arm of which ex
tends beyond the mountain in the same
direction. It is of limestone formation,
conical in form, and well wooded, espec
ially on the north side, with fine oaks
and other trees and odoriferous plants.
It rises 1,350 feet above the plain at its
base, which is 400 feet above the Medi
terranean, and by a winding path on the
north-west side one may ride to its sum
mit in an hour.. There is a small oblong

MOUNT TABOR, FROM THE PLAIN OF ESDRAELON.

plain on the svimmit, surrounded by a
larger but less regular tract, perhaps a
mile in circumference. The prospect
from mount Tabor is extensive and beau
tiful. Dr. Robinson and many others
speak of it as one 'of the finest in Pales
tine ; and Lord Nugent declared it the
most splendid he could recollect having
ever seen from any natural height. See
Jer. 46:18. Its general features are the
same as those of the view from the
heights of Nazareth, five miles to the
west. See NAZARETH. Glimpses of the
Mediterranean appear over the high
grounds which intervene. In the plain
at the southern base of the mountain
are the sources of the brook Kishon, and
the villages Endor and Nain, famous in
Bible history. Besides the fertile ex
panse of Esdraelon, and mounts Carmel,
Gilboa, etc. , on its borders, the view em
braces a portion of the sea of Galilee in
the north-east ; and towards the north
the mountains of Galilee, with the town
of Safed crowning the highest of them
all, recalling the proverb which it is said
to have first suggested, " A city that is
set on a hill cannot be hid." Still far
ther to the north and east, the snow-
crowned head of Hermon overlooks the
fifty miles which intervene, Psa. 89:12.

On the summit of Tabor a fortified
town anciently stood, probably of the
same name, 1 Chr. 6 : 77. This was in
existence, and was garrisoned by the
Romans in the time .of Christ, which
conflicts with the tradition that makes
Tabor the scene of the transfiguration.
447

TAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TAH

Kuins of ancient walls enclose the area
on the summit ; and at various points
there are remains of fortifications and
dwellings, some of which are of the age
of the crusaders, and others of more an
cient date. Tabor lay on the borders
of Issachar and Zebulun, Josh. 19 : 12,
22. The host of Barak encamped upon
it, before the battle with Sisera, Judg.
4 : 6, 12, 14. At a later day it appears
to have been desecrated by idolatry,
Hos. 5:1.

TAB'RET, Gen. 31:27, Isa. 5:12, a
sort of small drum or tambourine, play
ed as an accompaniment to singing. See
TIMBREL.

TACH'ES, golden and brazen clasps,
uniting the separate curtains of the tab
ernacle, Ex. 26:6, 11.

TAD'MOR, or TA'MAR, apalm-tree, 1 Kin.
9 : 18, a city founded by Solomon in the
desert of Syria, on the borders of Arabia
Deserta, towards the Euphrates, 2 Chr.
8:4. It was remote from human habi
tations, on an oasis in the midst of a
dreary wilderness ; and it is probable
that Solomon built it to facilitate his
commerce with the East, as it afforded a
supply of water, a thing of the utmost
importance in an Arabian desert. It was
about one hundred and twenty miles
north-east of Damascus, mor° than half
the distance to the Euphrates. The
original name was preserved till the
time of Alexander, who extended his
448

conquests to this city, which then ex
changed its name Tadmor for that of
Palmyra, both signifying that it was a
"city of palms." It submitted to the
Romans about the year 130, and contin
ued in alliance with them during a pe
riod of one hundred and fifty years. In
the third century the famous queen Ze-
nobia reigned- here over all the adjacent
provinces, till conquered and carried cap
tive to Home by Aurelian. When the
Saracens triumphed in the East, ' they
acquired possession of this city, and re
stored its ancient name. It is still called
Thadmor. Of the time of its ruin there
is no authentic record ; but it is thought,
with some probability, that its destruc
tion occurred during the period in which
it was occupied by the Saracens.

Of its appearance in modern times,
Messrs. Wood and Dawkins, who visited
it in 1751, thus speak: "It is scarcely
possible to imagine any thing more strik
ing than this view. So great a number
of Corinthian pillars, mixed with so lit
tle wall or solid building, afforded a most
romantic variety of prospect." Volney
observes, ' ' In the space covered by these
ruins, we sometimes find a palace, of
which nothing remains but the court
and walls ; sometimes a temple, whose
peristyle is half thrown down ; and now
a portico, a gallery, a triumphal arch.
If from this striking scene we cast our
eyes upon the ground, another almost
as varied presents itself. On which side
soever we look, the earth is strowed with
vast stones half buried, with broken en
tablatures, mutilated friezes, disfigured
reliefs, effaced sculptures, violated tombs,
and altars defiled by the dust. ' ' Most of
the edifices the ruins of which are above
described, date from the first three cen
turies of the Christian era ; while shape
less mounds of rubbish, covered with soil
and herbage, contain the only memori
als of the Tadmor of Solomon. The city
was situated under and east of a ridge of
barren hills, and its other sides were sep
arated only by a wall from the open des
ert. It was originally about ten miles
in circumference ; but such have been
the destructions effected by time, that
the boundaries are with difficulty traced
and determined.

TAHAPANES, Jer. 2:16, or TAHPAN'-
HES, Jer. 43:7, 9, or TEIIAPII'NEHES, Ezek.
30:18, the name of an Egyptian city, for
which the Seventy put Taphne, and the

TAL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TAR

Greek historians Daphne. This city lay
in the vicinity of Pelusium, towards the
south-west, on the western bank of the
Pelusiac branch of the Nile, and is there
fore called by Herodotus the Pelusiac
Daphne. To this city Johanan and many
of the Jews retired, after the destruction
of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans, taking
with them the prophet Jeremiah, Jer.
43 : 7-9; 44:1. That Tahapanes was a
large and important city, is apparent
from the threats uttered against it by
Ezeldcl, 30:18. According to some, Ha-
nes, in Isa. 30:4; is an abbreviated name
of the same city.

TALE sometimes means a number,
verified by counting, Ex. 5:8, 18; IChr.
9:28.

TAL'ENT. This was a weight used
among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
but varying exceedingly in different
countries and in different parts of the
same country. The Jewish talent is
usually estimated at about 125 pounds
troy weight, though others estimate it
a little less than 114 pounds troy. The
common Attic talent was equal, on the
usual estimate, to about 56 Ibs. 11 oz.
troy. In the New Testament, a talent is
a denomination of money, which was an
ciently reckoned by weight. The value
of the talent, therefore, varied in differ
ent countries, in proportion to the differ
ent weights of the talent. The Jewish
talent appears, from Ex. 38 : 25, 26, to
have been equal to 3,000 shekels; and
as the shekel is estimated at about fifty
cents, the value of the talent would be
about 1,500 dollars. The Attic talent is
usually reckoned at about 225 pounds
sterling, or 1,000 dollars, though others
make it only about 860 dollars. The
talent spoken of in the New Testament
is probably the Jewish, and is used only
of an indefinitely large sum, Matt. 18:24;
25:14-30.

TAL'MAI, king of Geshur, on the bor
ders of Palestine and Syria. David mar
ried Maacha his daughter, the mother of
Tamar and Absalom. The latter aveng
ed the wrongs of his sister Tamar by the
murder of Amnon, and then took refuge
at the court of his grandfather, where he
remained three years, 2 Sam. 3:3; 13
and 14.

TAMAR, a palm-tree, I. , a Canaanitish
woman, mother of Pharez and Zarah,
Gen. 38.'

II. A daughter of David. SeeTALMAi.

III. A daughter of Absalom, 2 Sam.
14:27.

TAM'MUZ, a Syrian idol, mentioned
in Ezek. 8:14, where the women are rep
resented as weeping for it. It is gener
ally supposed that Tammuz was the same
deity as the Phoenician Adonis, and per
haps the Egyptian Osiris. The fabled
death and restoration of Adonis, sup
posed to symbolize the departure and
return of the sun, were celebrated at
the summer solstice first with lamenta
tion, and then with rejoicings and ob
scene revels.

TAP'ESTRY, cloth for hangings and
bed -covers, covered with ornamental
needlework, Prov. 7:16.

TAP'PUAH, I., now Teffuh, a town
among the hills north-west of Hebron,
Josh. 12:17; 15:53.

II. Another city of Judah, south-west
of Hebron, Josh. 15:34.

III. A town on the line of Ephraim
and Manasseh, Josh. 16:8.

IV. A descendant of Caleb, 1 Chr.
2:43.

TARES, a noxious plant of the grass
family, supposed to mean the darnel,
the "infelix lolium" of Virgil, now
called Siwan or Zowan by the Arabs.
It grows among the wheat everywhere
in Palestine, and bears a great resem
blance to it while growing, so much so
that before they head out the two plants
449

TAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TEA

can hardly be distinguished. The grains
are found two or three together in a
dozen small husks scattered on a rather
long head. The Arabs do not separate
the darnel from the wheat, unless by
means of a fan or sieve after threshing,
Matt. 13 : 25-30. If left to mingle with
the bread, it occasions dizziness, and
often acts as an emetic.

TAR'GET, 1 Sam. 17:6, a small round
shield. The same word in verse 45 is
translated a shield, and elsewhere a jav
elin. See ARMOR.

TAR'SHISH, I., the second son of Ja-
van, Gen. 10:4.

II. Tartessus, an ancient city between
two mouths of the Guadalquiver, in the
south of Spain. It was a Phoenician col
ony, and was the most celebrated empo
rium in the west to which the Hebrews
and Phoenicians traded. That Tarshish
was situated in the west is evident from
Gen. 10:4, where it is joined with Elisha,
Kittim, and Dodanim. See also Psa.
72 : 10. According to Ezek. 38 : 13, it
was an important place of trade ; accord
ing to Jer. 10 : 9, it exported silver, and
according to Ezek. 27 : 12, 25, silver, iron,
tin, and lead to the Tyrian markets.
They embarked for this place from Jop-
pa, Jonah 1:3, 4. In Isa. 23:1, 6, 10, it
is evidently represented as an important
Phoenician colony. It is named among
other distant states, in Isa. 66 : 19. All
these notices agree with Tartessus.

In some of these passages, however,
Tarshish may be used as a general ex
pression, applicable to all the distant
shores of Europe ; and thus the custom
may have arisen of designating as ' ' ships
of Tarshish ' ' any large merchant ships
bound on long voyages in any direction.
The English term Indiaman is very sim
ilarly used. Whether the ships fitted out
by Solomon at Ezion-geber on the Red
sea, sailed around Africa to Tarshish in
Spain, or gave the name of Tarshish to
some place in India or Ethiopia, as the
discoverers of America gave it the east
ern names India and Indians, cannot
now be determined, IKin. 10:22 ; 22:48,
49; 2 Chr. 9:21 ; 20:26 ; Isa. 23 : 1, 14 ;
60:9.

TAR'SUS, the name of a celebrated
city, the metropolis of Cilicia, in the
south-eastern part of Asia Minor ; situ
ated six miles from the Mediterranean,
on the banks of the river Cydnus, which
flowed through and divided it into two
450

parts. Tarsus was distinguished for the
culture of Greek literature and philoso
phy, so that at one time, in its schools
and in the number of its learned men, it
was the rival of Athens and Alexandria.
In reward for its exertions and sacrifices
during the civil wars of Rome, Tarsus
was made a free city by Augustus. It
was the privilege of such cities that they
were governed by their own laws anct
magistrates, and were not subjected to
tribute, to the jurisdiction of a Roman
governor, nor to the power of a Roman
garrison, although they acknowledged
the supremacy of the Roman people, and
were bound to aid them against their
enemies. That the freedom of Tarsus,
however, was not equivalent to being a
Roman citizen, appears from this, that
the tribune, although he knew Paul to
be a citizen, of Tarsus, Acts 21 : 39, yet
ordered him to be scourged, 22 : 24, but
desisted from his purpose when he learn
ed that Paul was a Roman citizen, 22:27.
It is therefore probable that the ances
tors of Paul had obtained the privilege
of Roman citizenship in some other way,
Acts 9 : 30 ; 11 : 25 ; 22 : 3. It is now call
ed Tarsous ; and though much decayed
and full of ruins, is estimated to contain
a population in summer of 7,000, and in
winter of 30,000, chiefly Turks. During
the excessive heat of summer, a large
part of the people repair to the high
lands of the interior.

TAR'TAK, an idol, introduced by the
Avites into Samaria, 2 Kin. 17:31.

TARTAN, an Assyrian general, sent
to Jerusalem with Rabshakeh by Sen
nacherib, 2 Kin. 18:17 ; and perhaps the
same who captured Ashdod in the reign
of Sargon, Isa. 20:1.

TAT'NAI, a governor of Samaria un
der Darius, whose administration was
characterized by great justice and mod
eration towards the Jews, Ezra 5 and 6,
B. c. 519.

TAVERNS, THREE, a village thirty-
three miles south of Rome, mentioned
by Cicero, and still called Tre Taverne.
See Arm FORUM.

TEARS. Small urns or lachrymato
ries, of thin glass or simple pottery, and
containing the tears of mourners at fu
nerals, used to be placed in the sepul
chres of the dead at Rome and in Pales
tine, where they are found in great num
bers on opening ancient tombs. This
custom is illustrative of Psa. 56 : 8, which

TEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TEM

shows that God is ever mindful of the
sorrows of his people. In. Rev. 7 : 17 he is
represented as tenderly wiping all tears
from their eyes, or removing for ever all
their griefs.

TE'BETH, Esth. 2:16, the tenth month -
of the Hebrew sacred year, commencing
with the new moon in January.

TEHAPH'NEI-IES. See TAIIAPANES.

TEIL-TREE, the lime or linden. See
OAK.

TEKO'A, Jer. 6 : 1, a city of Judah,
now in ruins, situated on an extended
height, twelve miles south of Jerusalem.
Here originated the wise woman who
was Joab's agent, 2 Sam. 14 : 2, and
Amos the prophet, Amos 1:1.* It was
inhabited by Christians in the time of
the crusades. The wilderness of Tekoa,
mentioned in 2 Chr. 20:20, inclines tow
ards the Dead sea.

TEL-ABIB, a place on the river Che-
bar in Mesopotamia, where a colony of
captive Jews was located, Ezek. 3 : 15.
A town called Thallaba is still found in
that region.

TE'MA, an Ishmaelite tribe and dis
trict, in the north of Arabia Deserta tow
ards Damascus, Gen. 25 : 15. It is asso
ciated with Dedan, Isa. 21 : 14 ; Jer.
25:23, and was famous for its caravans,
Job 6:19. The region is still called Te-
ma by the Arabs.

TE'MAN, south, a city and region in
Eastern Iduixuea, settled by Ternan the
grandson of Esau, Gen. 36 : 11, 15, 42 ;
Amos 1:12; Hab. 3 : 3. The men of
Tcman, Gen. 36 : 34, like others of the
Edornites, had the reputation of great
wisdom, Jer. 49:7, 20 ; Obad. 8, 9. Com
pare the sayings of Eliphaz the Temanite
in the book of Job.

TEM'PLE, a building hallowed by the
special presence of God, and consecrated
to his worship. The distinctive idea of
a temple, contrasted with all other build
ings, is that it is the dwelling-place of a
deity ; and every heathen temple had its
idol, but the true and living God dwelt
" between the cherubim " in the Holy of
Holies at Jerusalem. Hence, figurative
ly applied, a temple denotes the church
of Christ, 2 Tbess. 2:4; Rev. 3 : 12 ; heav
en, Psa. 11:4; Rev. 7:15; and the soul
of the believer, in which the Holy Spirit
dwells, 1 Cor. 3 : 16, 17 ; 6 : 19 ; 2 Cor.
6 : 16.

After the Lord had instructed David
that Jerusalem was the place he had

chosen in which to fix his dwelling, that
pious prince began to realize his design
of preparing a temple for the Lord that
might be something appropriate to His
divine majesty. But the honor was re
served for Solomon his son and successor,
who was to be a peaceful prince, and not
like David, who had shed much blood in
war. David, however, applied himself
to collect great quantities of gold, silver,
brass, iron, and other materials for this
undertaking, 2 Sam. 7 ; 1 Chr. 22.

The place chosen for erecting this mag
nificent structure was mount Moriah,
Gen. 22 . 2, 14 ; 2 Chr. 3 : 1, the summit
of which originally was unequal, and its
sides irregular ; but it was a favorite ob
ject of the Jews to level and extend it.
The plan and the whole model of this
structure was laid by the same divine
architect as that of the tabernacle, name
ly, God himself ; and it was built much
in the same form as the tabernacle, but
was of much larger dimensions. The
utensils for the sacred service were also
the same as those used in the tabernacle,
only several of them were larger, in pro
portion to the more spacious edifice to
which they belonged. The foundations
of this magnificent edifice were laid by
Solomon, in the year B. c. 1011, about
four hundred and eighty years after the
exodus and the building of the taber
nacle ; and it was finished B. c. 1004,
having occupied seven years and six
months in the Imilding. It was dedi
cated with peculiar solemnity to the wor
ship of Jehovah, who condescended to
make it the place for the special mani
festation of his glory, 2 Chr. 5-7. The
front or entrance to the temple was on
the eastern side, and consequently facing
the mount of Olives, which commanded
a noble prospect of the building. The
temple itself, strictly so called, which
comprised the Porch, the. Sanctuary, and
the Holy of Holies, formed only a small
part of the sacred precincts, being sur
rounded by spacious courts, chambers,
and other apartments, which were much
more extensive than the temple itself.
It should be observed that the word
temple does not always denote the cen
tral edifice itself, but in many passages
some of the outer courts are intended.

From the descriptions which are hand
ed down to us of the temple of Solomon,
it is utterly impossible to obtain so accu
rate an idea of its relative parts and their
451

TEM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TEM

respective proportions, as to furnish such
an account as may be deemed satisfac
tory to the reader. Hence we find no
two writers agreeing in their descrip
tions. The following account may give
a general idea of the building.

The Temple itself was seventy cubits
long ; the Porch being ten cubits, 1 Kin.
6:3, the Holy place forty cubits, ver. 17,
and the Most Holy place, twenty cubits,
2 Chr. 3 : 8. The width of the Porch,
Holy, and Most Holy places was twenty
cubits, 2 Chr. 3 : 3, and the height over
the Holy and Most Holy places was thir
ty cubits, 1 Kin. 6:2 ; but the height of
the porch was much greater, being no
less than one hundred and .twenty cu
bits, 2 Chr. 3:4, or four times the height
of the rest of the building. The Most
Holy place was separated from the Sanc
tuary by an impervious veil, Luke 23:45,
and was perhaps wholly dark, 1 Kings
8: 12, but for the glory of the Lord which
filled it. To the north and south sides,
and the west end of the Holy and Most
Holy places, or all around the edifice,
from the back of the porch on one side,
to the back of the porch on the other
side, certain buildings were attached.
These were called side chambers, and
consisted of three stories," each five cu
bits high, 1 Kin. 6:10, and joined to the
wall of the temple without. Thus the
three stories of side chambers, when
taken together, were fifteen cubits high,
and consequently reached exactly to half
the height of the side walls and end of
the temple ; so that there was abun
dance of space above these for the win
dows which gave light to the temple,
ver. 4.

Solomon'^ temple appears to have been
surrounded by two main courts : the in
ner court, that "of the Priests," 1 Kin.
6:36 ; 2 Chr. 4:9; and the outer court,
that "of Israel;" these were separated
by a "middle wall of partition," with
lodges for priests and Levites. for wood,
oil, etc., 1 Chron. 28 : 12. The ensuing
description is applicable to the temple
courts in the time of our Lord.

The "court of the Gentiles" was so
called because it might be entered by
persons of all nations. The chief en
trance to it was by the east or Shushan
gate, which was the principal gate of
the temple. It was the exterior court,
and by far the largest of all the courts
belonging to the temple, and is said to
452

have covered a space of more than four
teen acres. It entirely surrounded the
other courts and the temple itself; and
in going up to the temple from its east
or outer gate, one would cross first this
'court,- then the court of the Women,
then that of Israel, and lastly that of the
Priests. This outmost court was sepa
rated from the court of the women by a
wall three cubits high of lattice work,
and having inscriptions on its pillars Mr-
bidding Gentiles and unclean persons to
pass beyond it, on pain of death, Acts
21 : 28 ; Eph. 2 : 13, 14. From this court of
the Gentiles our Saviour drove the per
sons who had established a cattle-market
in it, for the purpose of supplying those
with sacrifices who came from a distance,
Matt. 21 : 12, 13. We must not overlook
the baautiful pavement of variegated
marble, and the "porches" or covered
walks, with columns supporting mag
nificent galleries, with which this court
was surrounded. Those on the east,
west, and north sides were of the same
dimensions ; but that on the south was
much larger. The porch called Solo
mon's, John 10:23, Acts 3 : 11, was on
the east side or front of this court, and
was so called because it was built by this
prince, upon a high wall rising from the
valley of Kidron.

The "court of the Women," called in
Scripture the "new court," 2 Chr. 20:5,
and the " outer court,'' Ezek, 46:21, sep
arated the court of the Gentiles from the
court of Israel, extending along the east
side only of the latter. It was called the
court of the women because it was their
appointed place of worship, beyond which
they might not go, unless when they
brought a sacrifice, in which case they
went forward to the court of Israel. The
gate which led into this court from that
of the Gentiles, was "the Beautiful
gate" of the temple, mentioned in Acts
3 : 2, 10 ; so called, because the folding-
doors, lintel, and side -posts were all
overlaid with Corinthian brass. The
worshipper ascended to its level by a
broad flight of steps. It was in this
court of the women, called the "treas
ury," that our Saviour delivered his
striking discourse to the Jews, related
in John 8 : 1-20. It was into this court
also that the Pharisee and the publican
went to pray, Luke 18:10-13, and hith
er the lame man followed Peter and
John, after he was cured— the court of

TEM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TEM

the women being the ordinary place of
worship for those who brought no sacri
fice, Acts 3:8. From thence, after pray
ers, he went back with them, through
the "Beautiful gate" of the temple,
where he had been lying, and through
the sacred fence, into the court of the

Gentiles, where, under the eastern piaz
za, or Solomon's porch, Peter preached
Christ crucified. It was in the same
court of the women that the Jews laid
hold of Paul, when they judged him a
violator of the temple by taking Gentiles
within the sacred fence, Acts 21:26-29.

PLAN OF THE TEMPLE IN THE TIME OF CHRIST.

A. The Holy of Holies.

B. The Holy Place.

C. The Altar of Burnt offerings.

D. The brazen Laver.

E. The court of the Priests.

F. The court of Israel.
• G. The gate Nicanor.

H. The court of the Women.

The "court of Israel" was separated
from the court of the women by a wall
thirty-two and a half cubits high on the
outside, but on the inside only twenty-
five. The reason of which difference

I. The gate Beautiful.

J. The court of the Gentiles.

K. The Eastern or Shushaii gate.

L. Solomon's Porch, or colonnade.

M. The Koyal Porch.

N. The outer Wall.

o. Apartments for various uses.

was, that as the rock on which the tem
ple stood became higher on advancing
westward, the several courts naturally
became elevated in proportion. The as
cent into this court from the east was by
453

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BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TEM

a flight of fifteen steps, of a semicircular
form, and the magnificent gate Nicanor.
On these steps the Levites stood in sing
ing the "songs of degrees." The whole
length of the court from east to west was
one hundred and eighty-seven cubits,
and the hreadth from north to south,
one hundred and thirty-five cubits. In
this court, and the piazza which sur
rounded it, the Israelites stood in sol
emn and reverent silence while their sac
rifices were burning in the inner court,
and while the services of the sanctuary
were performed, Luke 1:8-11, 21, 22.

Within this court, and surrounded by
it, was the "court of the Priests;" one
hundred and sixty-five cubits long and
one hundred and nineteen cubits wide,
and raised two and a half cubits above
the surrounding court, from which it
was separated by pillars and a railing.
Within this court stood the brazen altar
on which the sacrifices Avere consumed,
the molten sea in which the priests

washed, and the ten brazen lavers for
washing the sacrifices ; also the various
utensils and instruments for sacrificing,
which are enumerated in 2 Chr. 4. It is
necessary to observe here, that although
the court of the Priests was not accessi
ble to all Israelites, as that of Israel was
to all the priests, yet they might enter
it for three several purposes : to lay their
hands on the animals which they offered,
or to kill them, or to wave some part of
them.

From the court of the Priests, the
ascent to the temple was by a flight of
twelve steps, each half a cubit in height,
which led into the sacred porch. Of the
dimensions of this in Solomon's temple,
as also of the Sanctuary and Holy of Ho
lies, we have already spoken. It was
within the door of the porch, and in the
sight of those Avho stood in the courts
immediately before it, that the two pil
lars, Jachin and Boaz, were placed, 2 Chr.
3;17; Ezek. 40:49.

SIDE VIEW OF THE TEMPLE, IN PART AFTER BR. BARCLAY.

Tn this profile view of the Temple and its precincts from the south, n n is the outer south
ern wall of the temple area ; a is a part of the royal buildings on mount Zion ; b is the Tyro-
poeon bridge, connecting Zion with the south portico of the temple ; o and p are gates lead
ing subterraneously to the area above ; q is a gate to the substructions ; I is the tower Ophel ;
and m the Red-heifer bridge over the Kidron.

Within, towards the north, is shown a section of the temple area ; c representing the west
ern cloister ; d the liil or sacred fence ; e the high wall in the rear of the temple ; / the Holy
House ; g the great altar of burnt offerings ; h a covered colonnade in the court of the priests ;
i the gate Nicanor in front of the court of Israel ; j the gate Beautiful in front of the court of
the women ; and k the eastern cloister, Solomon's porch.

The temple of Solomon retained its
pristine splendor but thirty-three years,
when it was plundered by Shishak king
of Egypt, 1 Kin. 14:25, 26 ; 2 Chr. 12:9.
After this period it underwent sundry
profanations and pillages from Hazael,
Tiglath-pileser, Sennacherib, etc., 2 Kin.
12 ; 16 ; 18 ; and was at length utterly
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar king of
Babylon, B. c. 588, after having stood,
according to Usher, four hundred and
454

twenty-four years, three months, and
eight days.

After lying in ruins for fifty -two years,
the foundations of the second temple
were laid by Zerubbabel, and the Jews
who had availed themselves of the priv
ilege granted by Cyrus and returned to
Jerusalem, Ezra 1:1-4; 2:1; 3 : 8-10.
After various hinderances, it was fin*
ished and dedicated twenty-one years
after it was begun, B. c. 515, Ezra 6:15,

TEM

BIBLE DICTIONARY-

TEM

16. The dimensions of this temple in
breadth and height were double those of
Solomon's. The weeping of the people
at the laying of the foundation, there
fore, Ezra 3 : 12, 13, and the disparaging
manner in which they spoke of it, when
compared with the first one, Hag. 2:3,
were occasioned by its inferiority not in
size, but in glory. It wanted the five
principal things which could invest it
with this : namely, the ark and mercy-
seat, the divine presence or visible glo
ry, the holy fire on the altar, the urim
and thmnmim, and the Spirit of proph
ecy. In the year B. c. 163, this temple
was plundered and profaned by Antio-
chus Epiphanes, who ordered the dis
continuance of the daily sacrifice, offered
swine's flesh upon the altar, and com
pletely suspended the worship of Jeho
vah, 1 Mac. 1:46, 47, etc. Thus it con
tinued for three years, when it was re
paired and purified by Judas Maccaba3us,
who restored the divine worship, and
dedicated it anew.

Herod, having slain all the Sanhe
drim, except two, in the first year of his
reign, B. c. 37, resolved to atone for it
by rebuilding and beautifying the tem
ple. This he was the more inclined to
do, both from the peace which he en
joyed, and the decayed state of the edi
fice. After employing two years in pre
paring the materials for the work, the
temple of Zerubbabel was pulled down,
B. c. 17, and forty-six years before the
first Passover of Christ's ministry. Al
though this temple was fit for divine
service in nine years and a half, yet a
great number of laborers and artificers
were still employed in carrying on the
outbuildings all the time of our Sav
iour's abode on earth. His presence ful
filled the predictions in Hag. 2:9; Mai.
3:1. The temple of Herod was consid
erably larger than that of Zerubbabel,
as that of Zerubbabel was larger than
Solomon's. For whereas the second
temple was seventy cubits long, sixty
broad, and sixty high, this was one hun
dred cubits long, seventy broad, and one
hundred high. The porch was raised to
the height of one hundred cubits, and
was extended fifteen cubits beyond each
side of the rest of the building. All
the Jewish writers praise this temple
exceedingly for its beauty and the cost
liness of its workmanship. It was built
of white marble, exquisitely wrought,

and with stones of large dimensions,
some of them twenty-five cubits long,
eight cubits high, and twelve cubits
thick. To these there is no doubt a ref
erence in Mark 13 : 1 ; Luke 21:5: " And
as he went out of the temple, one of his
disciples saith unto him, Master, see
what manner of stones, and what build
ings are here!" Luke says, "goodly
stones." See a description of the orna
ments of one of its gates under VINE.

This splendid building, which rose like
a mount of gold and of snow, and was
once the admiration and envy of the
world, has for ever passed away. Ac
cording to our blessed Lord's prediction,
that " there should not be left one stone
upon another that should not be thrown
down," Mark 13:2, the whole structure
above ground was completely demol
ished by the Roman soldiers, under Ti
tus, A. D. 70. The temple area is now
occupied by two Turkish mosques, into
which, until recently, neither Jew nor
Christian was permitted to enter. Be
neath the vast area of El-Haram still
exist immense arched ways and vaults
of unknown date ; also a large and deep
well, and other indications that the
temple always possessed a copious and
perennial supply of water, derived per
haps in part from Gihon by Hezekiah's
aqueduct, and in part from Solomon's
pools, and flowing off through the foun
tain of the Virgin and the pool of Siloam.
In the outer walls of the present area are

seen at several places stones of vast size,
evidently belonging to the ancient walls.
455

TEM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TEN

Near the south-west corner certain huge
stones mark the beginning of an arch, a
part of the stately bridge which anciently
connected the temple area with mount
Zion ; and a little north of this spot is
the celebrated wailing-place of the Jews.
See WALL.

In the time of the kings, a regular
guard of Levites was always on duty at
the temple, 1 Chr. 26 ; 2 Chr. 23 : 19.
During the supremacy of the Romans
there was a Roman garrison in the
strong tower of Antonia, which, with its
various courts and fortifications, adjoin
ed the temple area on the north, and
was connected with it by passages both
above and under ground, John 18 : 12 ;
Acts 4:1; 5:26; 21:31-40.

The utmost veneration and love were
always cherished towards the temple by
pious Jews, Psa. 84. All the people also,
from various motives, gloried in it, many
with a bigoted and idolatrous regard.
Hence the charge of blaspheming the
temple, which was found the most effec
tual means of enraging the populace
against Christ and his followers, Matt.
26 : 61 ; 27 : 40 ; John 2 : 19, 20 ; Acts
6:13; 21:27-30.

TEMPT, to make trial of, Luke 10: 25,
and usually to present inducements to
sin. Satan is the great tempter, seeking
thus most effectually to destroy men's
souls, 1 Chr. 21 : 1 ; Job 1 and 2 ; Matt.
4:1 ; 1 Thess. 3:5. Men are also led into
sin by their own evil inclinations and by
other men, James 1 : 14, 15. God, being
holy and desirous of men's holiness, does
not thus tempt them, James 1 : 13 ; but
he makes trial of them, to prove, exer
cise, and establish their graces, Gen.
22:1 ; James 1:2, 3. Christ stands ready
to support his people under any possible
temptation, 1 Cor. 10 : 13 ; Heb. 2 : 18 ;
4:15 ; 2 Pet. 2:19. Yet they are not to
rush into temptation unbidden, Luke
11 : 4. Men tempt God by presumptu
ously experimenting on his providence
or his grace, or by distrusting him, Ex.
17:2,7; Isa. 7:12; Matt. 4*7; Acts
5:9; 15 : 10. Sore afflictions are often
called temptations or trials, as they are
frequently the occasions of sin, Matt.
6:13 ; Luke 8 :13 ; 22 : 28 ; James 1:12 ;
IPet. 1:6,7.

Christ, at the outset of his public
ministry, was violently assailed by the
tempter, who thus displayed his effront
ery and his blindness, hoping perhaps
45G

that the human soul of the Redeemer
would be left unaided by his divinity,
Matt. 4. The temptations are to be un
derstood as real transactions, and not as
visions. The tempter was baffled, and
left him for a season, to meet a like re
buff on every future assault, Luke 4:13:
22 : 53 ; John 14 : 30. The Saviour tri
umphed, and paradise was regained.

TENT. Dwelling in tents was very
general in ancient times among Eastern
nations, Gen. 4:20 ; their way of life be
ing pastoral, locomotion became neces
sary for pasturage, and dwellings adapt
ed for such a life became indispensable,
Isa. 38 : 12. The patriarchs Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob dwelt in tents, Gen.
18:1 ; Heb. 11:9; and on the exodus of
the Israelites from Egypt, throughout
their peregrinations until they obtained
the promised land, and to some extent
afterwards, they adopted the same kind
of habitation. See BOOTHS. Hence the
expression, "Every man to his tents, 0
Israel," etc., Judg. 7 : 8 ; 2 Sam. 20 : 1 ;
2 Kin. 8:21. Indeed, the people of the
East, men, women, and children, lived
very much in the open air, as is obvious
from the New Testament narratives.
And the same is true of them at the
present day. The Midianites, the Phi
listines, the Syrians, the descendants of
Ham, the Hagarites, and the Cushanites
are mentioned in Scripture as living in
tents. But the people most remarkable
for this unsettled and wandering mode
of life are the Arabs, who from the time
of Ishmael to the present have continued
the custom of dwelling in tents. Amid
the revolutions which have transferred
kingdoms from one possessor to anoth
er, these wandering tribes still dwell in
tents, unsubdued and wild as was their
progenitor. This kind of dwelling is
not, however, confined to the Arabs, but
is used throughout the continent of Asia.
The word tent is formed from the Latin,

TEN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TER

" to stretch ;" tents being usually made
of canvas stretched out, and sustained
by poles with cords secured to pegs driv
en into the ground. The "nail of the
tent ' ' with which Jael pierced the head
of Sisera was such a tent-pin, Judg. 4:21.
See also Isa. 3:3:20; 40:22; 54:2. The
house of God, and heaven, are spoken of
in Scripture as the tent or tabernacle of
Jehovah, Psa. 15:1 ; 61 : 4 ; 84:1 ; Heb.
8:2; 9 : 11 ; and the body as the taber
nacle of the soul, taken down by death,
2 Cor. 5:1; 2 Pet. 1 : 13. Says Lord Lind
say, "There is something very melan
choly in our morning flittings. The
tent-pins are plucked up, and in a few
minutes a dozen holes,- a heap or two of
ashes, and the marks of the camels'
knees in the sand, soon to be obliter
ated, are the only traces left of what has
been for a while our home." " Often,"
says M'Cheyne, "we found ourselves
shelterless before being fully dressed.
What a type of the tent of our body!
Ah, how often is it taken down before
the soul is made meet for the inheritance
of the saints in light." A tent is also
put for its inmates, Hab. 3:7; Zech. 12:7.

Tents are of various colors ; black, as
the tents of Kedar, Psa. 120 : 5 ; Song
1:5 ; red, as of scarlet cloth ; yellow, as
of gold shining brilliantly ; white, as of
canvas. They are also of various shapes ;
some circular, others of an oblong figure,
not unlike the bottom of a ship turned
upside down. In Syria, the tents are
generally made of cloth of goats' hair,
woven by women, Exod. 35 : 26. Those
of the Arabs are of black goats' hair.
Some other nations adopt the same kind,
bat it is not common. The Egyptian
and Moorish inhabitants of Askalon are
said to use white tents; and D'Arvieux
mentions that the tent of an Arab emir
he visited was distinguished from the
rest by its being of white cloth. An
Arab sheikh will have a number of tents,
for himself, his family, servants, and vis
itors ; as in patriarchal times Jacob had
separate tents for himself, for Leah, Ra
chel, and their maids, Gen. 31:33 ; Judg.
4 : 17. Usually, however, one tent suf
fices for a family; being divided, if large,
into several apartments by curtains.

TENTH-DEAL, that is, tenth part, cor
responding to the Hebrew assaron, or the
tenth part of an ephah. It may there
fore be the same as the omer, about five
pints, Lev. 23:17.

20

TE'RAH, the son of Nahor, and father
of Nahor, Haran, and Abraham, Gen.
11:24, begat Abraham at the age of sev
enty-two years, in Ur of the Chaldeans.
Upon Abraham's first call to remove
into the land of promise, Terah and all
his family went with him as far as Ha
ran, in Mesopotamia, aboiit u. c. 1918,
Gen. 11:31, 32. He died there the same
year, aged two hundred and seventy-five
years. Scripture intimates plainly that
Terah had fallen into idolatry, or had
for a time mingled some idolatrous prac
tices with the worship of the true God,
Josh. 24 : 2, 14 ; and some think that
Abraham himself at first did the same
thing ; but that afterwards God, being
gracious to him, convinced him of the
vanity of this worship, and that he un
deceived his father Terah.

TERAPHIM, small idols or supersti
tious figures, from the possession, adora
tion, and consultation of which extraordi
nary benefits were expected. See margin
2 Kin. 23 : 24 ; Ezek. 21 : 21. The East
ern people are still much addicted to
this superstition of talismans. The an
cient teraphim appear to have been
household gods, and their worship was
sometimes blended with that of Jeho
vah, Judg. 17. They seem in one case
to have resembled the human form in
shape and size, 1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16. The
images of Rachel, Gen. 31 : 19, 30, were
teraphim. So Judg. 17 : 5 ; 18 : 14, 20 ;
Hos. 3:4.

TER'EBINTH. See OAK.

TER'TIUS, a Christian whom Paul
employed as his amanuensis in writing
the epistle to the Romans, Rom. 16:22.

TER'TULLUS, a Roman orator or ad-
457

TES

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

THE

vocate, whom the Jews employed to
bring forward their accusation against
Paul, before the Roman procurator at
Cassarea, probably because they were
themselves unacquainted with the modes
of proceeding in the Roman courts, Acts
24:1,2.

TES'TAMENT, in Scripture, usually
signifies covenant, and not a man's last
will, Matt. 26 : 28. Both meanings are
blended, however, in Heb. 9 : 16, 17.
Paul speaks of the new testament, or
covenant, in the blood of the Redeemer ;
and calls the law the old covenant, and
the gospel the new covenant, 1 Cor.
11:25; 2 Cor. 3:6, 14; Heb. 7:22; 10;
12:24. See BIBLE, and COVENANT.

TESTIMONY, the whole revelation
of God, testifying to man what he is to
believe, do, and hope, Psa. 19:7; 119:88,
99 ; 1 Cor. 1:6; Rev. 1 : 2. The two
stone tables of the law were a visible
"testimony" or witness of God's cove
nant with his people ; and hence the ark
of the covenant was called sometimes
the testimony, or the ark of the testi
mony, Ex. 25:22; 34:29. See ARK.

TE'TRARCH is strictly the ruler of the
fourth part of a state or province ; but
in the New Testament it is a general
title applied to those who governed any
part of a kingdom or province, with an
authority subject only to that of the Ro
man emperor. Thus Herod the Great
and his brother were at one time, in
early life, constituted tctrarchs of Judea
by Antony. At the death of Herod the
Great, he left half his kingdom to Arche-
laus, with the title of ethnarch ; while
the other half was divided between two
of his other sons, Herod Antipas and
Philip, with the title of tetrarchs. See
HEROD I. and II. In the same manner
Lysanias is also said to have been te-
trarch of Abilene, Luke 3:1. It is Herod
Antipas who is called the tetrarch in
Matt. 14:1 ; Luke 3:19 ; 9:7 ; Acts 13:1.
As the authority of the tetrarch was sim
ilar to that of the king, so the general
term king is also applied to Herod, Matt.
14:9; Mark 6: 14.

THADDE'US, a surname of the apostle
Jude. See JUDAS II.

THAM'MUZ. See TAMMUZ.

THEBES. See AMMON.

THE'BEZ, an Ephraimite town near
Shechem, at the siege of which Abime- '
lech was killed, Judg. 9 : 50-55; 2 Sam.
11:21.

458

THEFT, Ex. 20:15, Prov. 22 : 22, tin
der the Mosaic law, was punished by
exacting a double or a quadruple resti
tution, which was secured if necessary
by the sale of the goods or services of
the thief to the requisite amount, Exod.
22 : 1-8, 23 ; 2 Sam. 12:6; Prov. 6 : 30,
31 ; Luke 19 : 8. A night-robber might
lawfully be slain in the act ; and a man-
stealer was to be punished by death, Ex..
21:16; 22:2.

TUWPR'IL'US, friend of God, an hon
orable person to whom the evangelist
Luke addressed his gospel, and the Acts
of the Apostles, Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1.
We can only say of him, in general, that
most probably he was a man of some
note, who lived out of Palestine, and
had abjured paganism in order to em
brace Christianity.

THESSALO'NIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, I.
and II. These were the earliest of Paul's
epistles,, and were written from Corinth,
in A. D. 52 and 53. In the first epistle,
Paul rejoices over Timothy's good report
of the faith of Christians at Thessaloni-
ca ; and confirms them against the per
secutions and temptations they would
meet, by discussing the miraculous tes
timony of God to the truth of the gos
pel, 1:5-10; the character of its preach
ers, 2:1 to 3:13 ; the holiness of its pre
cepts, 4 : 1-12; and the resurrection of
Christ and his people, 4 : 13 to 5 : 11. The
remainder of the epistle consists of prac
tical exhortations.

In the second epistle, he corrects cer
tain errors into which they were falling,
particularly respecting the second com
ing of Christ. This, he shows, must be
preceded by the career of "the man of
sin," "the son of perdition," "whose
corning is after the working of Satan,
with all power and signs and lying won
ders ;" who usurps divine authority over
the church, and "opposcth and exalteth
himself above all that is called God."
The exact fulfilment in the Romish
church of these predictions, at first so
contrary to human anticipations, proves
that the apostle wrote by inspiration.

THESSALONI'CA, a city and seaport
of the second part of Macedonia, at the
head of the Thermaic gulf. When ^Emil-
ius Paulus, after his conquest of Macedo
nia, divided the country into four dis
tricts, this city was made the capital of
the second division, and was the station
of a Roman governor and quester. It

THE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

THO

was anciently called Therma. It was
inhabited by Greeks, Romans, and Jews,
from among whom the apostle Paul gath
ered a numerous church. There was a
large number of Jews resident in this
city, where they had a synagogue, in
which Paul, A. D. 52, preached to them
on three successive Sabbaths. Some of
the Jews, and many of the Gentiles, em
braced the gospel ; but the rest of the
Jews determined to maltreat the apos
tle, and surrounded the house in which
they believed he was lodging. The
brethren, however, secretly led Paul and
Silas out of the city, towards Berea, and
they escaped from their enemies, Acts
17. Thessalonica, now called Saloniki,
is at present a wretched town, but has a
population of about 70,000 persons, one-
third of whom are Jews.

When Paul left Macedonia for Athens
and Corinth, he left behind him Timo
thy and Silas, at Thessalonica, that they
might confirm those in the faith who
had been converted under his ministry.
He afterwards wrote to the church of
the Thessalonians two epistles. See
PAUL.

THEU'DAS, an insurgent Jew, men
tioned by Gamaliel, A. D. 33, as of the
preceding generation, Acts 5:36, 37, and
therefore not to be confounded with a
Theudas of A. D. 44, mentioned by Jose-
phus. The period following the death
of Herod the Great was full of revolts.
Theudas was also a common name, an
swering to the Hebrew Matthew, under
which name Josephus speaks of an un
successful reformer who was burnt in the
latter part of Herod's reign.

THIGH. The mode of taking an oath,
alluded to in Gen. 24 : 2-9 ; 47 : 29-31,
was significant of the swearer's obliga
tion to obedience. Jacob's thigh was
disabled by the Angel, to show the pa
triarch that his prevalence was through
his faith and prayer, not through force,
Gen. 32 : 25-31. Smiting the thigh was
a gesture of self-condemnation and grief,
Jer. 31:19; Ezek. 21:12. Warriors wore
their swords upon the left thigh, unless
left-handed, in readiness for use, Judg.
3 : 15-21 ; Psa. 45 : 3 ; Song 3:8 ; so too
they may have borne their names and
titles, not only on their shields, but on
their swords, or on the robe or mailed
coat covering the thigh, Rev. 19 : 16.
"Hip and thigh," Judg. 15 :8, seems to
mean utterly and irrecoverably.

THIS'TLES,. and THORNS. Under
these terms, together with brambles,
briers, and nettles, are included numer
ous troublesome plants, many of them
with thorns, well fitted to try the hus
bandman's patience, Gen. 3:18. Plants
of this class were a symbol of desolation,
Prov. 24:31, and were often used as fuel,
Psa. 58:9 ; Eccl. 7:6; Isa. 33:12. They
also served for hedges, Hos. 2:6. A
petty village on the plain of Jericho is
now protected against Arab horsemen by
a hedge of thorny Nubk branches. Dr.
Eli Smith, visiting the plain where Gid
eon once threatened to tear the flesh of
the princes of Succoth with thorns and
briers, noticed such plants there of re
markable size, some of the thistles ris
ing above his head on horseback, Judg.
8:7. Few of the Hebrew terms can
now be affixed with certainty to particu
lar varieties among -the many found in
Syria. The plant of which the thorny

crown of the Saviour was made, with the
design to mock rather than to torture
him, is supposed to have been the Zizy-
phus Spina Christi, a common tree with
dark and glossy leaves, having many
small and sharp spines on its round and
pliant branches, Matt. 27:29 ; John 19:2,
3. Paul's "thorn in the flesh," 2 Cor.
12:7-10, may have been some bodily in
firmity, unfavorable to the success of his
public ministrations. Compare Gal. 4:13,
14; 2 Cor. 10:10.

THOM'AS, the apostle, Matt. 10:3,
called in Greek Didymus, that is, a twin,
John 20:24, was probably a Galilean, as
well as the other apostles ; but the place
of his birth, and the circumstances of his
calling, are unknown, Luke 6 : 13-15.
459

THO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

THR

He appears to have been of an impulsive
character, sincerely devoted to Christ,
ready to act upon his convictions, and
perhaps slow to be convinced, as he at
first doubted our Lord's resurrection,
John 11:16 ; 14:5, 6 ; 20:19-29. Several
of the fathers inform us that he preached
in the Indies ; and others say that he
preached in Cush, or Ethiopia, near the
Caspian sea.

There are nominal Christians in the
East Indies, who bear the name of St.
Thomas, because they report that this
apostle preached the gospel there. They
dwell in a peninsula of the Indus, on this
side the gulf.

THORNS. See THISTLES.

THREE. The phrase, "three days and
three nights," Matt. 12:40, was equiva
lent in Hebrew to the English ' ' three
days ;" the Jews employing the expres-
iion " a day and a night" to denote our
' ' day ' ' of twenty-four hours. Nor did
"three days," 1 Sam. 30:13, literally
"this third day," according to their
usage, necessarily include the whole of

three days, but a part of three days, a
continuous period including one whole
day of twenty-four hours, and a portion
of the day preceding it and the day fol
lowing it. Compare Gen. 7 : 12, 17 ;
ISanT. 30:12, 13.

THRESH'ING was anciently and is
still performed in the East, sometimes
with a flail, Ruth 2 : 17 ; Isa. 28 : 27 ;
sometimes by treading out the grain
with unmuzzled oxen, Deut. 25 : 4, but
more generally by means of oxen drag
ging an uncouth instrument over the
sheaves of grain. See CORN. The in
strument most used in Palestine at this
time is simply two short planks fastened
side by side and turned up in front, like
our common stone-sledge, having sharp
stones or irons projecting from the un
der side, Isa. 28:27 ; 41:15 ; Amos 1 : 3.
The Egyptian mode is thus described by
Niebuhr : ' ' They use oxen, as the an
cients did, to beat out their corn, by
trampling upon the sheaves, and drag
ging after them a clumsy machine. This
machine is not, as in Arabia, a stone cyl

inder, nor a plank with sharp stones, as
in Syria, but a sort of sledge, consisting
of three rollers fitted with irons, which
turn upon axles. A farmer chooses out
a level spot in his fields, and has his corn
carried thither in sheaves, upon asses or
460

dromedaries. Two oxen are then yoked
in a sledge ; a driver gets upon it, and
drives them backward and forward upon
the sheaves ; and fresh oxen succeed in
the yoke from time to time." By this
operation, the straw is gradually chop-

THR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TIB

ped fine and the grain released. Mean
while the whole is repeatedly turned
over by wooden pitchforks with three or
more prongs, and in due time thrown
into a heap in the centre of the floor.
The machine thus described is called a
noreg, and answers to the Hebrew rnorag
mentioned in 2 Sain. 24 : 22 ; 1 Chron.
21:23.

When the grain is well loosened from
the straw by the treading of oxen, with
or without one of the instruments above
mentioned, the whole heap is next
thrown with forks several yards against
the wind, which blosving away the chaff,
the grain falls into a heap by itself, 2 Kin.
13:7 ; and if necessary, the process is re
peated. For this purpose the threshing-
floors are in the open air, Judg. 6 : 37,
and often on high ground, like that of
Araunah on mount Moriah, 1 Chr. 21 : 15,
that the wind may aid more effectually
in winnowing the grain, Jer. 4 : 11, 12,
which is afterwards sometimes passed
through a sieve for farther cleansing.
The ground is prepared for use as a
threshing-floor by being smoothed off,
and beaten down hard. While the wheat
was carefully garnered, the straw and
chaff were gathered up for fuel ; a most
instructive illustration of the day of
judgment, Matt. 3:12.

THRONE, an established emblem of
kingly dignity and power, used by sove
reigns on all state occasions. That of
Solomon was of ivory, overlaid with
gold ; having six broad steps, every one

fuarded by a golden lion at each end,
Kin. 10:18-20. Heaven is called God's
throne, and the earth his footstool, Isa.
G6 : 1 . His throne is also sublimely de
scribed as everlasting, and as built upon
justice and equity, Psa. 45:6 ; 97:2. See
also Isa. 6 : 2-4 ; Ezek. 1. Christ is on
the throne for ever, as the King of heav
en, Psa. 110:1 ; Heb. 1:8; Rev. 3 : 21 ;
and his faithful disciples will partake of
his kingly glory, Luke 22:80 ; Rev. 4:4 ;
5:10. He forbade men lightly to swear by
heaven or its throne, as they were thus
irreverent to God, Matt. 5:34 ; 23:22.

THUM'MIM. See URIM.

THUN'DER and lightning are signifi
cant manifestations of the power of God,
and emblems of his presence, Ex. 19: 16 ;
1 Sam. 2:10; 12:17; Psa. 18:13. Thun
der is poetically called "the voice of the
Lord" in the sublime description of a
thunder-storm in Psalm 29 :

" The voice of the Lord is upon the waters ;
The God of glory thundereth ;
The Lord is upon many waters.
The voice of the Lord is powerful ;
The voice of the Lord is full of majesty.
The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars ;
Yea, the Lord .breaketh the cedars of Leba
non," etc.

See also Job 37:1-5 ; 40 : 9 ; Jer. 10:13.
In illustration of Psa. 29:9, Moffat, while
describing the thunder-storms of South
Africa, says that the antelopes flee in
consternation ; and that he has observed
the Beclmanas starting off early on the
morning following such a storm in quest
of young antelopes prematurely born. In
Psa. 78 : 48, " hot thunderbolts ' ' means
lightning.

THYATT'RA, a city of Lydia, in Asia
Minor, a Macedonian colony, anciently
called Pelopia and Euhippia, now Ak-his-
sar. It was situated on the confines of
Lydia and Mysia, near the river Lycus,
between Sardis and Pergamos, It was
the seat of one of "the seven churches,"
Rev. 1 : 11 ; 2 : 18, 24. The art of dye
ing purple was particularly cultivated at
Thyatira, as appears from an inscription
recently found there ; and it still sends
to Smyrna, sixty miles south-west, large
quantities of scarlet cloth, Acts 16 : 14.
Ak-hissar is a poor town, with six thou
sand inhabitants, chiefly Turks.

THY'INE-WOOD, Rev. 18:12, the
wood of the Thyia or Thuja Articulata
of Linnasus, an aromatic evergreen tree,
resembling the cedar, and found in Lib
ya, near mount Atlas. The wood was
used in burning incense, and under the
name of citron- wood was highly prized
by the Romans for ornatnental wood
work. It yields the sanderach resin of
commerce.

TIBE'RIAS, a city of Galilee, founded
by Herod Antipas, and named by him in
honor of the emperor Tiberius. A more
ancient and greater city, perhaps Chin-
neroth, seems previously to have flour
ished and gone to ruin near the same
site, on the south. Tiberias was situated
on the western shore of the lake of Gen-
nesareth, about two hours' ride from the
place where the Jordan issues from the
lake. In the vicinity of the city were
hot springs, which were much celebrat
ed. The lake is also sometimes called,
from the city, the sea of Tiberias, John
6:1, 23; 21:1. See SEA IV. After the
destruction of Jerusalem, Tiberias was
celebrated as the seat of a flourishing
461

TIB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TIM

school of Jewish learning. The cru
saders held it for a time, and erected a
church, in which the Arabs have since
housed their cattle. Modern Tubariyeh
lies on a narrow undulating plain be
tween the high table-land and the sea.
It was half destroyed by an earthquake
in 1837, and has a population of only
twenty-five hundred souls, nearly one-
third of whom are Jews. The walls are
little more than heaps of ruins, the cas
tle is much shattered, and the place has
an aspect of extreme wretchedness and
filth. As the Arabs say, "The king of
the fleas holds his court at Tubariyeh."
South of the town are numerous remains
of the ancient city or cities, extending
for a mile and a half, nearly to the hot
springs. The waters of these springs are
nauseous and salt, and too hot for im
mediate use, 136° to 144° ; but the baths
are much resorted to for the cure of rheu
matic diseases, etc.

TIBE'RIUS, CLAU'DIUS DRU'SUS NE'RO,
the second emperor of Rome, was the
son of Livia, and ste'pson of Augustus ;
and being adopted by that emperor, he
succeeded to his throne, A. ». 14. He
was at first moderate and just, but soon
became infamous for his vices and crimes,
and died A. D. 37, after a cruel reign of ]
twenty-two and a half years. It was in
the fifteenth year of his reign that John
the Baptist commenced his ministry;
and the crucifixion of Jesus took place
in the third or fourth year after, Luke
3:1. This emperor is several times cas
ually mentioned under the title of Cae
sar, Luke 20:22-25; 23:2; John 19:12.
His subjects were commanded to pay
divine worship to his images.

TIB'NI, an unsuccessful competitor
with Omri the general, for the throne of
Israel, during three years after the death
of Elah, IKin. 16:18-23.

TI'DAL, apparently the chief of sev
eral allied tribes, with whom he joined
Chedorlaomer in the invasion of the vale
of Siddim, mount Seir, etc., and was de
feated by Abraham, Gen. 14:1-16.

TIG'LATH-PILE'SER, king of Assyria,
was invited by Ahaz king of Judah to
aid him against the kings of Syria and
Israel, 2 Kin. 16 : 7-10. This he did, but
exacted also a heavy tribute from Ahaz,
so as to distress him without helping
him, 2 Chr. 28:20, 21. From the king
dom of Israel, also, he carried off the j
inhabitants of many cities captive, and 1
402

S laced them in various parts of his king-
om, B. c. 740, 1 Chr. 5 : 26 ; 2 Kin.
15 : 29, thus fulfilling unconsciously the
predictions of Isaiah, 7:17 ; 8:4. He is
supposed to be meant by Jareb, the plead
er, in Hos. 5:13 ; 10:6. He reigned nine
teen years at Nineveh, and was succeeded
by his son Shalmaneser.

TILE, a broad and thin brick, usually
made of fine clay, and hardened in the
fire. Such tiles were very common in
the region of the Euphrates and Tigris,
(see BABYLON,) and offered to the exiled
prophet Ezekiel the most natural and
obvious means of depicting the siege
of Jerusalem, Ezek. 4 : 1. Great num
bers of similar rude sketches of places,
as well as of animals and men, are found
on the tiles recently exhumed from the
ancient mounds of Assyria, interspersed
among the wedge-shaped inscriptions
with which one side of the tile is usually
crowded. At Nineveh Layard found a
large chamber stored full of such in
scribed tiles, like a collection of histor
ical archives, Ezra 6:1. They are usually
about a foot square, and three inches
thick.

TIM'BREL, an instrument of music,
early and often mentioned in Scripture,
Gen. 31 : 27 ; Job 21 : 12. The Hebrews
called it toph, under which name they
comprehended all kinds of drums, ta
bors, and tambourines. We do not find
that the Hebrews used it in their wars,
but only at their public rejoicings, Ex.
15:20 ; Isa. 24:8 ; and it was commonly
employed by the women, Psa. 68:25. It
consisted, and still consists, of a small
circular rim or hoop, over which a skin
is drawn. The rim is also hung with
small bells The timbrel is used as an
accompaniment to lively music, being
shaken and beaten with the knuckles in
time. After the passage of the Red sea,
Miriam, sister of Moses, took a timbrel,
and began to play and dance with the
women, Exod. 15 : 20. The daughter of
Jcphthah came to meet her father with
timbrels and other musical instruments,
Judg. 11:34. See Music.

TIME. Besides the ordinary uses of
this word, the Bible sometimes employs
it to denote a year, as in Dan. 4 : 16 ; or
a prophetic year, consisting of three hun
dred and sixty natural years, a day be
ing taken for a year. Thus in Dan. 7 : 25;
12:7, the phrase " a time, times, and the
dividing of a time ' ' is supposed to mean

TIM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TIR

three and a half prophetic years, or 1.260
natural years. This period is elsewhere
paralleled by the expression, "forty-two
months," each month including thirty
years, Rev. 11:2, 3; 12:6, 14; 13:5.

TIM'NA, a secondary wife of Eliphaz
the son of Esau, a name which recurs in
the records of the Idumasan tribes, Gen.
36:12, 22, 40; 1 Chr. 1:36, 51.

TIM'NAH, TIM'NATH, and THIM'-
NATHAH, an ancient city of the Ca-
naanites, Gen. 38:12-14; on the borders
of Judah and Dan after the conquest,
Josh. 15 : 10 ; 19:43. It was for a long
time subject to the Philistines, and Sam
son's wife was a Timnite, Judg. 14:1-5 ;
2 Chr. 28 : 18. Its deserted site, now
called Tibneh, lies three miles south
west of Zorah.

TIM'NATH-SE'RAH, or TIM'NATH-HE'-
RES, Judg. 2 : 9, a town in Ephraim, which
yielded to Joshua a home, an income,
and a burial-place, Josh. 19:50; 24:30.
The site the Jewish leader is supposed
to have chosen, now called Tibneh, lies
in a rough and mountainous region on
the road from Gophna to Antipatris.

TIM'OTHY, a disciple of Paul. He
was of Derbe or Lystra, both cities of
Lycaonia, Acts 16:1 ; 14: 6. His father
was a Greek, but his mother a Jewess,

2 Tim. 1:5 ; 3:15. The instructions and
prayers of his pious mother and grand
mother, and the preaching of Paul dur
ing his first visit to Lystra, A. D. 48, re
sulted in the conversion of Timothy and
his introduction to the ministry which
he so adorned. He had witnessed the
sufferings of Paul, and loved him as his
father in Christ, 1 Tim. 1:2; 2 Tim.

3 : 10, 11. When the apostle returned
to Lystra, about A. n. 51, the brethren
spoke highly of the merit and good dis
position of Timothy; and the apostle
determined to take him along with him,
for which purpose he circumcised him at
Lystra, Acts 16 : 3. Timothy applied him
self to labor in, the gospel, and did Paul
very important services through the
whole course of his preaching. Paul
calls him not only his dearly beloved
son, but also his brother, the companion
of his labors, and a man of God ; observ
ing that none was more united with him
in heart and mind than Timothy, Rom.
16:21; 1 Cor. 4:17; 2 Cor. 1:1; 1 Tim.
1 : 2, 18. Indeed, he was selected by
Paul as his chosen companion in his
journeys, shared for a time his impris

onment at Rome, Heb. 13 : 23, and was
afterwards left by him at Ephesus, to
continue and perfect the work which
Paul had begun in that city, 1 Tim. 1:3 ;
3 : 14. He appears to have possessed in
a very high degree the confidence and
affection of Paul, and is therefore often
mentioned by him in terms of warm
commendation, Acts 16 : 1 ; 17 : 14, 15 ;
18:5; 19:22; 20:4; 2 Tim. 3:10; 4:5.

EPISTLES TO TIMOTHY. The first of
these Paul seems to have written sub
sequently to his first imprisonment at
Rome, and while he was in Macedonia,
having left Timothy at Epliesus, 1 Tim.
1:2, A. D. 64. The second appears to
have been addressed to Timothy in
north-western Asia Minor, during Paul's
second imprisonment and in anticipation
of martyrdom, A. D. 67. This dying
charge of the faithful apostle to his be
loved son in the gospel, the latest fruit
of his love for him and for the church,
we study with deep emotions. Both epis
tles are most valuable and instructive
documents for the direction and admo
nition of every Christian, and more es
pecially of ministers of the gospel. With
the epistle to Titus, they form the three
" pastoral epistles," as they are called.

TIN, a metal known and used at an
early period, Num. 31 : 22, and bronght
by the Tyrians from Tarshish, Ezek.
27: 12. In Isa. 1 : 25 it means the alloy
of lead, tin, and other base admixtures
in silver ore, separated from the pure
silver by smelting.

TIPH'SAH, the ancient Thapsacus, an
important city on the western bank of
the Euphrates, which constituted the
north-eastern extremity of Solomon's
dominions, 1 Kin. 4 : 24. The ford at
this place being the last one on the Eu
phrates towards the south, its possession
was important to Solomon in his design
to attract the trade of the East to Pales
tine. Hence the building of Tadmor on
the desert route. Perhaps the same city
is meant in 2 Kin. 15 : 16, though some
understand here a city of the same name
near Samaria.

TI'RAS, a son of Japheth, supposed to
have been the forefather of the ancient
Thracians, Gen. 10:2.

TIRES, or "little moons," are thought
to have been ornaments for the neck,
worn not by women only, Isa. 3 : 18, but
by men, and even on the necks of cam
els, Judg. 8 : 21, 26. Some suppose the
463

TIR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TIT

tire, in Ezek. 24:17, was an ornamented
headdress.

TIRHA'KAH, king of Ethiopia, or
Gush, and of Egypt. This prince, at the
head of a powerful army, attempted to
relieve Hezekiah, when attacked by Sen
nacherib, 2 Kin. 19 : 9, but the Assyrian
army was routed before he came up, Isa.
37:19, B. c. 712. He is undoubtedly the
Taracus of Manetho, and the Tearcho of
Strabo, the third and last king of the
twenty-fifth or Ethiopian dynasty. It is
supposed that he is the Pharaoh intend
ed in Isa. 30:2 ; and that Isa. 19 depicts
the anarchy which succeeded his reign.
He was a powerful monarch, ruling both
Upper and Lower Egypt, and extending
his conquests far into Asia and towards
the "pillars of Hercules" in the west.
His name and victories are recorded on
an ancient temple at Medinet Abou, in
Upper Egypt ; whence also the repre
sentation above given of his head was
copied by Eosselini.

TIRSHA'THA, perhaps meaning se
vere or august, a title of honor borne
by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah as Persian
governors of Judea, Ezra 2 : 63 ; Neh.
7:65.

464

TIR'ZAH, pleasant, Song 6 : 4, a city of
the Canaanites, Josh. 12 : 24, and after
wards of the tribe of Manasseh or Ephra-
im ; and the royal seat of the kings of
Israel from the time of Jeroboam to the
reign of Omri, who built the city -of Sa
maria, which then became the capital of
this kingdom, 1 Kin. 15 : 21, 33 ; 16 : 6,
23 ; 2 Kin. 15:14, 16. Its exact location
is unknown.

TISH'BITE, from Tishbe in the tribe
of Naphtali, where Elijah was born,
1 Kin. 17 : 1. It is mentioned in one of
the apocryphal books.

TISH'RI, or TIS'RI, the first month of
the Jewish civil year, and the seventh
of the ecclesiastical ; called, in 1 Kin.
8 : 2, Ethanim, which see ; and answer
ing nearly to our October. On the first
day of Tishri the feast of Trumpets oc
curred; on the tenth, the great day of
Expiation ; and on the fifteenth, the feast
of Tabernacles commenced.

TITHE, a tenth, the proportion of a
man's income devoted to sacred purposes
from time immemorial, Gen. 14 : 20 ;
28 : 22. This was prescribed in the Mo
saic law, Num. 31 : 31. A twofold tithe
was required of each Jewish citizen. The
first consisted of one-tenth of the prod
uce of his fields, -trees, flocks, and herds,
to be given to God as the sovereign Pro
prietor of all things and as the King of
the Jews, Lev. 27: 30-32 ; 1 Sam. 8 : 15,
17. The proceeds of this tax were de
voted to the maintenance of the Levites
in their respective cities, Num. 18 : 21-
24. A person might pay this, tax in
money, adding one -fifth to its estimated
value. The Levites paid a tenth part of
what they received to the priests, Num.
18:26-28. The second tithe required of
each landholder was one-tenth of the
nine parts of his produce remaining after
the first tithe, to be expended at the
tabernacle or temple in entertaining the
Levites, his own family, etc., changing it
first into money, if on account of his re
moteness he chose to do so, Deut. 12 : 17-
19, 22-29 ; 14:22-27. Every third year a
special provision was made for the poor,
either out of this second tithe or in addi
tion to it, Deut. 14:28, 29. These tithes
were not burdensome ; but the pious Is
raelite found himself the richer for their
payment, though it does not seem to
have been enforced by any legal penal
ties. The system of tithes was renewed
both before and after the captivity,

TIT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TOL

2Chr. 31:5, 6, 12; Neh. 10:37; 12:44;
13 : 5 ; but they were not always regu
larly paid, and hence the divine blessing
was withheld, Mai. 3 : 8-12. The Phar
isees were scrupulously exemplary in
paying their tithes, but neglected the
more important duties of love to God
and man, Matt. 23:23.

The principle of the ancient tithes,
namely, that ministers of the gospel and
objects of benevolence should be pro
vided for by the whole people of God,
according to their means, is fully recog
nized in Scripture as applicable to the
followers of Christ. He sent his servants
forth, two and two, without provisions
or purses, to receive their support from
the people, since ' ' the laborer is worthy
of his hire," Matt. 10:9-14 ; Luke 10:4-
8, 16. Paul also reasons in the same
way, 1 Cor. 9 : 13, 14 ; Gal. 6 : 6. For
purposes of piety and beneficence, he
directed the Corinthians, and virtually
all Christians, to lay aside from their
income, on the first day of the week, as
the Lord had prospered them, 1 Cor.
16 : 2. There is no reason to doubt that
the early Christians gave more freely of
their substance than did the ancient
Jews, Acts 4:34-36 ; 2 Cor. 8:1-4.

TIT'TLE, a very small particle ; liter
ally, a small horn ; the minute tip at
the extremity of some Hebrew letters,
Matt. 5:18. In transcribing the Hebrew
Scriptures, the Jews exacted the utmost
accuracy. Every page and every line
must contain just so much ; and the
most trivial defect vitiated the whole
roll, and compelled the scribe to begin
his task anew. Yet the extreme care
thus expressed for the perfect integrity
of the letter of God's word is but a feeble
illustration of the Saviour's care for the
same word — every truth, every threaten
ing, and every promise has the most per
fect guarantee possible : " It is easier for
heaven and earth to pass, than one tittle
of the law to fail," Luke 16: 17.

TI'TUS, a distinguished Christian min
ister of Greek origin, Gal. 2:3; con
verted under the preaching of Paul, Tit.
I : 4, whose companion and fellow-laborer
he became, 2 Cor. 8:23. He joined Paul
and Barnabas in the mission from Anti-
och to Jerusalem, Acts 15:2 ; Gal. 2:1;
and subsequently was sent to Corinth
and labored with success, 2 Cor. 8:6;
12:18. He did not rejoin the apostle at
Troas, as was expected, but at Philippi,
20*

2 Cor. 2:12, 13 ; 7:6; and soon after re
sumed his labors at Corinth in connec
tion with a general effort for the relief
of poor Christians in Judea, taking with
him Paul's second epistle, 2 Cor. 8 : 6,
16, 17. Some eight or ten years later,
we lind him left by the apostle at Crete,
to establish and regulate the churches of
that island, Tit. 1 : 5. Here he received
the EPISTLE TO TITUS from Paul, then at
Ephesus, inviting him to Nicopolis, Tit.

3 : 12 ; whence he went into the neigh
boring Dalmatia, before Paul was finally
imprisoned at Rome, 2 Tim. 4:10. Tra
dition makes him labor for many years
in Crete, and die there at an advanced
age. His character seems to have been
marked by integrity, discretion, and a
glowing zeal. He was trusted and be
loved by Paul, whose epistle to him is
similar in its contents to the first epistle
to Timothy, and was probably written
not long after it, A. D. 05.

TOB, a district beyond Jordan, where
Jephthah took refuge when expelled
from Gilead, Judg. 11:3, 5. Its location
is not known.

TOBI'AH, an Ammonite prince, in
league with Sanballat and the Samari
tans against the pious Jews, who were
rebuilding the ruined temple, Neh. 2: 10;

4 : 3. His threats and treachery were
employed in vain. During Nehemiah's
absence, Tobiah was unlawfully estab
lished by some of the chief men of Ju-
dah, his relatives, in a fine apartment of
the new temple ; but was ignominiously
expelled on the governor's return, Neh.
6:17-19; 13:1-9.

TOGAR'MAH, a descendant of Ja-
pheth, Gen. 10 : 3, supposed to have
given his name to the region of Asia
afterwards called Armenia, Ezek. 38:15,
16. It was celebrated for its horses and
mules ; and the men of Togarmah, like
the modern Armenians, were an indus
trious, peaceable, and trafficking people,
Ezek. 27:14.

TOI, king of Hamath in Syria, sent
his son to rejoice with David on his vic
tories over Hadadezer king of Zobah,
2 Sam. 8:9-11; 1 Chr. 18:9.

TO'LA, I., the eldest son of Issachar,
and head of a family, Gen. 46: 13 ; Num.
26:23.

II. Of the tribe of Issachar, judge of
Israel, at Shamir in mount Ephraim, for
twenty-three years after the death of
Abimelech, Judg. 10:1, 2.
4G5

TOM

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TRA

TOMB. See SEPULCHRE.

TO'PAZ, a precious stone of wine-yel
low color, with occasional pale tinges of
green or red. It was one of the twelve
gems in the high - priest' s breastplate,
Exod. 28 : 17 ; 39 : 10, and was a highly
prized product of Gush, or Southern Ara
bia, Job 28:19; Ezek. 28:13.

TO'PHET. See HINNOM.

TORMENT'OKS. The Greek word
usually denotes men who had charge of
instruments of torture, by which unwill
ing witnesses were compelled to testify,
and the agonies of execution in some
cases were protracted. The same men,
however, were keepers of prisons and
jails ; and it is probably with reference
only to their office as jailers that the
word is used in Matt. 18:34.

TOIl'TOISE, Lev. 11:29. The Hebrew
word rather denotes a species of lizard,
so named ID. the original for its slowness
of motion.

TOWERS were erected not only in the
outer walls and on the heights within
cities, Judg. 9 : 47-49, Psa. 48:12, Luke
13 : 4, but along the frontiers of a coun
try, at points where the approach of an
enemy could be descried at a distance,
Judg. 9:17; Isa. 21:6-9; Ezek. 33:2-6.
A tower afforded a refuge to the sur
rounding inhabitants, in case of inva
sion ; and often, when most of a city
was subdued, the tower or citadel re
mained impregnable. So God is a strong
and safe protector of his people, Psa.
18 : 2 ; 61 : 8 ; Prov. 18 : 10. A slight
tower or look-out was often erected for
the keeper of a vineyard or flock, 2 Chr.
26:10; Isa. 5:2; Mic. 4:8; Matt. 21:33;
4G6

and travellers in Palestine see them in
use at this day.

TRACHONI'TIS, in the time of Christ,
was, as its name imports, a rugged prov
ince, lying on the north-east border of
Palestine, south of Damascus, between
the mountains of Arabia Deserta on the
east, and Iturea, Auranitis, and Batanea
on the Avest and south, Luke 3:1. Herod
the Great subdued the robbers that in
fested it ; and after his death it was gov
erned by Philip his son, and then by
Herod Agrippa.

TRADI'TION, Col. 2 : 8, Tit. 1 : 14, a
doctrine, sentiment, or custom not found
in the Bible, but transmitted orally from
generation to generation from some pre
sumed inspired authority. In patriar
chal times, much that was valuable and
obligatory was thus preserved. But tra
dition has long been superseded by the
successive and completed revelations of
God's will which form the inspired Scrip
tures, the only perfect and sufficient rule
of belief and practice. With this, even
before the time of the Saviour, Isa. 8 : 20,
all traditions were to be compared, as
being of no value if they conflicted with
it, added to it, or took from it, Rev.
22:19. The Jews had numerous unwrit
ten traditions, which they affirmed to
have been delivered to Moses on mount
Sinai, and by him transmitted to Joshua,
the judges, and the prophets. After their
wars with the Romans under Adrian and
Severus, in view of their increasing dis
persion over the earth, the Jews desired
to secure their traditions by committing
them to writing. Accordingly Rabbi
Judah "the Holy," composed the Mish-
na, or second law, the most ancient col
lection of the Hebrew traditions, about
A. D. 190-220. To this text two com
mentaries were afterwards added : the
Gemara of Jerusalem, probably about
A. D. 370 ; and the Gemara of Babylon,
A. D. 500 ; forming, with the Mishna,
the Talmud of Jerusalem and that of
Babylon. The contents of these volu
minous works poorly remunerate the
student for the laborious task of reading
them. Our Saviour severely censured
the adherents of such legendary follies
in his own day, and reproached them
with preferring the traditions of the
elders to the law of God itself, and su-
perstitiously adhering to vain obser
vances while they neglected the most
important duties, Matt. 15 : 1-20 ; Mark

TRA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TRE

7 : 1-13. The traditions of the Romish
church, with less apology than the an
cient Jews had before the New Testament
was written, are still more in conflict
with the word of God, and still more
deserving of the Saviour's condemna
tion.

In 2 Thess. 2 : 15 ; 3:6, "tradition "
means inspired instructions from the lips
of those who received them from God,
and were authorized to dispense them in
his name. These apostolic sayings were
obligatory only on those who received
them as inspired directly from the apos
tles. Had any of them come down to
our times, the only means of endorsing
them must be by showing their agree
ment with the word of God, since inspi
ration and miracles have ceased.

TRANCE, a state of the human sys
tem distinguished from dreaming and
revery ; it is one in which the bodily
senses are locked up and almost discon
nected from the spirit, which is occupied
either with phantasms, as in trances pro
duced by disease, or, as in ancient times,
with revelations from God. Numerous
instances are mentioned in Scripture : as
that of Balaam, Num. 24:4, 16 ; those of
Peter and Paul, Acts 10: 10; 22:17; 2Cor.
12 : 1-4. Compare also Gen. 2 : 21-24 ;
15:12-21; Job 4: 13-21.

TRANSFIGURATION, Matt. 17:1-9;
2 Pet. 1 : 16-18. This remarkable event
in the life of Christ probably took place
on Hermon or some other mountain not
far from C;csarea Philippi ; the tradition
which assigns it to Tabor not being sus
tained. See TABOR. The whole form and
raiment of the Saviour appeared in super
natural glory. The Law and the Prophets,
in the persons of Moses and Elijah, did
homage to the Gospel. By communing
with Christ on the theme most moment
ous to mankind, his atoning death, they
evinced the harmony that exists between
the old and new dispensations, and the
sympathy between heaven and earth ;
while the voice from heaven in their
hearing gave him honor and authority
over all. Besides its great purpose, the
attestation of Christ's Messiahship and
divinity, this scene demonstrated the
continued existence of departed spirits
in an unseen world, furnished in the
Saviour's person an emblem of human
ity glorified, and aided in preparing both
him and his disciples for their future
trials.

TREASURES. Kings were wont to
store their possessions and guard what
they most valued in well-fortified cities,
hence called treasure-cities, Ex. 1 : 11 ;
1 Chr. 27 : 25 ; Ezra 5 : 17. "Treasures
in the field," Jer. 41:8, were provisions,
etc., buried, as is the custom in many
parts of the world, in subterranean pits.
Numerous ruined granaries of this kind
are still found in the vicinity of Beth-
shean. The "pilgrim fathers" in like
manner found heaps of corn buried in
the ground by the Indians. In conse
quence also of the great insecurity of
property in the East, it seems to have
been usual from the earliest times to
hide in the ground gold and jewels;
and the owners being killed or driven
away, or forgetting the place of depos
it, these hidden treasures remain till
chance or search brings them to light.
They are much sought for by the Arabs
at this day, and are believed by them to
be the object travellers from the West
have in view in exploring ancient ruins,
Job 3: 21; Prov. 2:4; Matt. 13:44. But
a few years since, some workmen dig
ging in a garden at Sidon, discovered
several copper pots, filled with gold coin
from the mint of Philip of Macedon and
his son Alexander, unmixed with any of
later date. This lost treasure, worth
many thousands of dollars, had remain
ed apparently undisturbed over two
thousand years.

TREES were frequently used as types
of kings, or men of wealth and power,
Psa. 37: 35 ; Isa. 2 : 13 ; Dan. 4 : 10-26 ;
Zech. 11:1, 2. The "tree of knowledge
of good and evil ' ' bore the forbidden
fruit, by eating of which Adam fatally
increased his knowledge — of good by its
loss, of sin and woe by actual experi
ence, Gen. 2:9, 17. The "tree of life"
may have been both an assurance and a
means of imparting life, a seal of eternal
holiness and bliss, if man had not sin
ned. Compare Rev. 22:2.

TRENCH, a passage of approach to
the walls of a besieged city, like a deep
ditch ; the earth thrown up constituting
a wall. The Redeemer, weeping over
Jerusalem a few days before he was cru
cified under its walls, said, "The daya
shall come upon thee, that thine ene
mies shall cast a trench about thee, and
compass thee round, and keep thee in on
every side," Luke 19 : 43. The Romans
fulfilled this prediction by enclosing the
467

TRE

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TRO

entire city of Jerusalem by a wall, that
the Jews might neither escape nor be
relieved from without. In 1 Sam. 26 : 5,
"trench" appears to mean the circle
formed by camp equipage. See CAMP.

TRES'PASS, an injury done to an
other, with more or less culpability.
The Mosaic law required a trespasser not
only to make satisfaction to the person
injured, but by an offering at the altar
to reconcile himself to the divine Gov
ernor, Lev. 5 ; 6:1-7; Psa. 51:4. Christ
repeatedly declares, that in order to be
forgiven of God, we must be forgiving
to men, Matt. 6 : 14, 15, and thut no
brother must have aught against us,
Matt. 5:23, 24.

TRIBE. Jacob having twelve sons,
who were heads of so many families,
which together formed a great nation,
each of these families was called a tribe.
But this patriarch on his death -bed
adopted Ephraim and Manasseh, the two
sons of Joseph, and would have them
alsp to constitute two tribes in Israel,
Gen. 48 : 5. Instead of twelve tribes,
there were now thirteen, that of Joseph
being two. However, in the distribu
tion of lands by Joshua under the order
of God, they reckoned but twelve tribes
and made but twelve lots ; for the tribe
of Levi, being appointed to the sacred
service, had no share in the distribution
of the land, but received certain cities to
dwell in, with the first-fruits, tithes, and
oblations of the people. Each tribe had
its own leaders and tribunals ; and the
whole twelve, in their early history,
constituted a republic somewhat resem
bling the United States. In the division
made by Joshua of the land of Canaan,
Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh had
their lot beyond Jordan, east ; all the
other tribes, and the remaining half of
Manasseh had their distribution on this
side the river, west.

The twelve tribes continued united as
one state, one people, and one mon
archy, till after the death of Solomon,
when ten of the tribes revolted from the
house of David, and formed the kingdom
of Israel. See HEBREWS.

TRIB'UTE. Every Jew throughout
the world was required to pay an annual
tribute or capitation-tax of half a shekel,
about twenty-five cents, in acknowledg
ment of God's sovereignty and for the
maintenance of the temple service, Ex.
30:12-15. It was with reference to this
468

that Christ says, in effect, Matt. 17 : 25,
26, "If this tribute be levied in the
ame of TUB FATHER, then I, THE SON,
am free. ' ' In other New Testament pas
sages, tribute means the tax levied by
the Romans. On the question of paying
tribute to foreigners and idolaters, Matt.
22:16-22, Christ gave a reply which nei
ther party could stigmatize as rebellious,
or as unpatriotic and irreligious. By
themselves using Cassar's currency, both
parties acknowledged the fact of his su
premacy. Christ warns them to render
to all men their dues ; and above all, to
regard the claims of Him whose super
scription is on every thing, 1 Cor. 10:81;
IPet. 2:9, 13.

TRO'AS, a maritime city of Mysia, in
the north-west part of Asia Minor, situ
ated on the ^Egean coast, at some dis
tance south of the supposed site of an
cient Troy. The adjacent region, includ
ing all the coast south of the Hellespont,
is also called Troas, or the Troad. The
city was a Macedonian and Roman colo
ny of much promise, and was called Al
exandria Troas. The Turks call its ruins
Eski Stamboul, the old Constantinople.
Its remains, in the centre of a forest of
oaks, are still grand and imposing. The
apostle Paul was first at Troas for a short
time in A. D. 52, and sailed thence into
Macedonia, Acts 16 : 8-11. At his sec
ond visit, in A. D. 57, he labored with
success, 2 Cor. 2 : 12, 13. At his third
recorded visit he tarried but a week ; at
the close of which the miraculous rais
ing of Eutychus to life took place, Acts
20:5-14, A. D. 58. See also 2 Tim. 4:13.

TROGYL'LIUM, the name of a town
and promontory of Ionia, in Asia Minor,
between Ephesus and the mouth of the
Meander, opposite to Samos. The prom
ontory is a spur of mount Mycale, Acts
20:15.

TROOP, Isa. 65:11. See GAD III.

TROPH'IMUS, a disciple of Paul, a
Gentile and an Ephesian by birth, came
to Corinth with the apostle, and accom
panied him in his whole journey to Je
rusalem, A. D. 58, Acts 20:4. When the
apostle was in the temple there, the Jews
laid hold of him, crying out, "He hath
brought Greeks into the temple, and
hath polluted this holy place ;" because,
having seen him in the city accompa
nied by Trophimus, they imagined that
he had introduced him into the temple.
Some years afterwards, Paul writes that

TRO

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TYP,

he had left him sick at Miletus, 2 Tim.
4 : 20. This did not occur at Paul's for
mer visit to Miletus, since Trophimus
went with him to Jerusalem ; nor on
the voyage to Rome, for they did not go
near Miletus. It is therefore one of the
circumstances which prove that Paul, was
released, and revisited Asia Minor, Crete,
Macedonia, and perhaps Spain, before his
second imprisonment and death. Of
Trophimus nothing farther is known.

TROW, an old word for think, Luke
17:9.

TRUM'PET. The Lord commanded
Moses to make two trumpets of beaten
silver, for the purpose of calling the
people together when they were to de
camp, Num. 10 : 2. They used these
trumpets to proclaim the beginning of
the civil year, of the sabbatical year,
Lev. 23 : 24, Num. 29 : 1, and of the
jubilee, Lev. 25:9, 10. See Music.

The feast of Trumpets was kept on
the first day of the seventh month of the
sacred year, which was the first of the
civil year, called Tishri. The beginning
of the year was proclaimed by sound of
trumpet, Lev. 23 : 24 ; Num. 29:1 ; and
the day was kept solemn, all servile
business being forbidden. In addition
to the daily and the monthly sacrifices,
Num. 28:11-15, a solemn holocaust was
offered in the name of the whole nation,
of a bullock, a ram, a kid, and seven
lambs of the same year, with offerings
of flour and wine, as usual with these
sacrifices. Scripture does not mention
the occasion of appointing this feast.

TRYPHE'NA, and TRYPHO'SA, fe
male disciples at Rome, apparently sis
ters, and very useful in the work of
evangelization, Rom. 16:12.

TU'BAL, a son of Japheth, Gen. 10:2 ;
supposed to have been the originator of
the Tybareni, who occupied the north
eastern part of Asia Minor. They were
a warlike people, and brought slaves and
copper vessels to the market of Tyre,
Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 27:13; 32:26; 38:2;
39:1.

TU'BAL -CAIN, son of Lamech and
Zillah, inventor of the art of forging
metals, Gen. 4:22.

TUR'TLE-DOVE, or TURTLE, the Co-
lumba Turtur ; a distinct bird from the
common dove or pigeon, smaller and
differently marked, and having a soft
and plaintive note, Isa. 59 : 11 ; Ezek.
7:16. It is a bird of passage, Jer. £ : 7,

\

leaving Palestine Tor a short trip to the
south, and returning early in spring,
Song 2 :, 12. It is timid and fond of se*
elusion, and pines in captivity, Psa. 11:1.
The law allowed it as a burnt or sin-
offering by the poor, Lev. 1 : 14 ; 5:7;
Matt. 21:22, and in several cases of pu
rification, etc., Lev. 12:6-8; 14:22;
Num. 6:10 ; Luke 2:24. Before the giv
ing of the law, Abraham offered birds,
which were a turtle and a pigeon ; and
when he divided the other victims he
left the birds entire, Gen. 15:9.

TYCH'ICUS, a disciple employed by
the apostle Paul to carry his letters to
several churches. He was of the prov
ince of Asia, and accompanied Paul in
his journey from Corinth to Jerusalem,
Acts 20:4. He carried the epistle to the
Colossians, that to the Ephesians, and the
first to Timothy. The apostle calls him
his dear brother, a faithful minister of
the Lord, and his companion in the ser
vice of God, Eph. 6:21, 22 ; Col. 4:7, 8 ;
2 Tim. 4:12, and ha'd intentions of send
ing him into Crete, in the absence of
Titus, Tit. 3:12.

TYPE, in Greek tupos, a word denot
ing some resemblance, and translated
"figure" in Rom. 4:15, "ensample" in
Phil. 3: 17, "manner" in Acts 23.: 25,
and "form" in Rom. 6:17. So also
Moses was to make the tabernacle ac
cording to the type or model he had
seen in the mount, Acts 7 : 44. In the
more general use of the word, a scrip
tural type is a prophetic symbol, "a
shadow of good things to come," Heb.
469

TYR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

TYR

10:1, "but the body is Christ," Col.
2 : 17. The typical character of the old
dispensation is its most distinguishing
feature. For example, the paschal lamb
and all the victims sacrificed under the
law were types of the Lamb of God, and
illustrated his great atonement ; show
ing that guilt deserved death, and could
only be atoned for by the blood of an
acceptable sacrifice. But they were also
intended to foretell the coining of their
great Antitype.

The Old Testament types include per
sons, officers, objects, events, rites, and
places. Thus Adam and Melchizedek,
the prophetic and the priestly office,
manna and the brazen serpent, the smit
ten rock and the passage over Jordan,
the Passover and the Day of Atonement,
Canaan and the cities of refuge are scrip
tural types of Christ.

However striking the points of resem
blance which an Old Testament event or
object may present to something in the
New Testament, it is not properly a type
unless it was so appointed by God, and
thus has something of a prophetic char
acter. Due care should therefore be
taken to distinguish between an illus
tration and a type.

TYRAN'NUS, the name of a person at
Ephesus, in whose school Paul publicly
proposed and defended the doctrines of
the gospel, Acts 19 : 9. By some he is
thought to have been a Greek sophist, a
teacher of rhetoric or philosophy, con
verted- to Christianity ; while others sup
pose him to have been a Jewish doctor
or rabbi, who had a public school.

TYRE, or TY'RUS, a rock, the celebrated
emporium of Phoenicia, the seat of im
mense wealth and power, situated on the
coast of the Mediterranean, within the
limits of the tribe of Asher, as assigned
by Joshua, Josh. 19:29, though never re
duced to subjection. Tyre was a "daugh
ter of Zidon," but rapidly gained an
ascendency over this and all the other
cities of Phoenicia, which it retained with
few exceptions to the last. It is men
tioned by neither Moses nor Homer ; but
from the time of David onward, reference
is frequently made to it in the books of
the Old Testament. There was a close
alliance between David and Hiram king
of Tyre, which was afterwards continued
in the reign of Solomon ; and it was from
the assistance afforded by the Tynans,
both in artificers and materials, that the
470

house of David, and afterwards the tem
ple, were principally built, 2 Sam. 5:11;
1 Kin. 5 ; 1 Chr. 14 ; 2 Chr. 2:3; 9 : 10.
The marriage of Ahab king of Israel with
Jezebel, a royal princess of Phoenicia,
brought great guilt and endless misfor
tunes on the ten tribes ; for the Tyrians
were gross idolaters, worshippers of Baal
and Ashtoreth, and addicted to all the
vices of heathenism. Secular history in
forms us that Tyre possessed the empire
of the seas, and drew wealth and power
from numerous colonies on the shores of
the Mediterranean and Atlantic. The in
habitants of Tyre are represented in the
Old Testament as filled with pride and
luxury, and all the sins attendant on
prosperity and immense wealth ; judg
ments are denounced against them in
consequence of their idolatry and wick
edness ; and the destruction of their city
by Nebuchadnezzar is foretold, which is
also described as accomplished, Isa. 23:13;
Ezek. 26:7; 27; 28:1-19; 29:18. After
this destruction, as it would seem, the
great body of the inhabitants withdrew
to "insular Tyre," on an island opposite
the former city, about thirty stadia from
the main land. This had been a sort of
port or suburb of the main city, but was
soon enlarged into a new Tyre, and be
came opulent and powerful ; it was for
tified with such strength, and possessed
resources so abundant, as to be able to
withstand the utmost efforts of Alexan
der the Great for the space of seven
months." It was at length taken by him
in 332 B. c., having been first united to
the mainland by an immense causeway,
made of the ruins of the old city, the
site of which was thus laid bare, in re
markable fulfilment of prophecy : ' ' And
they shall lay thy stones and thy timber
and thy dust in the midst of the water ;"
"and thou shalt be no more; though
thou be sought for, yet shalt thou never
be found again," Ezck. 26:12, 21. The
ships of Tyre returned from long voyages
to find it tiot only taken but ' ' devoured
with fire," Isa. 23 : 1, 14; Zech. 9 : 4.
After many subsequent reverses of for
tune, and various changes of masters,
Tyre at last fell under the dominion of
the Romans, and continued to enjoy a
degree of commercial prosperity, though
the deterioration of its harbor, and the
rise of Alexandria and other maritime
cities, have made it decline more and
more. Our Saviour once journeyed into

ULA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

UNI

the region of Tyre and Sidon, Matt.
15:21 ; and a Christian church was here
established before A. D. 58, Acts 21:3-7.
Compare Matt. 11 : 21, 22. The church
prospered for several centuries, and coun
cils were held here ; and during this pe
riod Tyre was still a strong fortress, as
it was also in the age of the crusaders,
by whom it was only taken twenty-live
years after they had gained Jerusalem.
Since its reconquest by the Turks, it has
been in a ruinous condition, and often
almost without inhabitants. At present
it is a poor town, called Sur, slightly
defended by its w^alls, and having a pop
ulation of less than three thousand. It
occupies the east side of what \vas for
merly the island, one mile long and half
a mile from the shore, thus enclosing
two so-called harbors separated by Alex
ander's causeway, which is now a broad
isthmus. The only real harbor is on the
north ; but even this is too shallow to
admit any but the smallest class of ves
sels. It is lilled and the north coast of
the island lined Avith stone columns,
whose size and countless number evince
the former magnificence of this famous
city. But its old glory is gone for ever,
and a few fishermen spread their nets
amid its ruins, in the place of the mer
chant princes of old.

U.

U'LAI, or EUL/E'US, a river which ran
by the city Shushan, in Persia, on the
bank of which Daniel had a famous vis
ion, Dan. 8:2, 16. It was the Choaspes of
the Greeks, and is now called the Kerk-
hah ; but appears to have had in ancient
times a second channel, still traceable,
nine hundred feet wide and twenty feet
deep, and flowing along the east side of
Shushan. The two channels emptied
their waters through the river now call
ed the Karun into the Shat-el-Arab, the
united stream of the Euphrates and Ti
gris, twenty miles below their junction
at Korna.

UN'BELIEF of the testimony of God
makes him a liar, and is a sin of the
greatest enormity. It is the work of a
depraved and guilty heart ; for no one
without this bias could reject the abun
dant witness God furnishes of the truth
of his word, Psa. 14 : 1. Especially is

unbelief towards an offered Saviour an
unspeakable crime, justly sealing the
condemnation of him who thus refuses
to be saved, John 5:18 ; 1 John 5:10.

UNCLEAN'. See CLEAN.

UNC'TION, anointing, 1 John 2:20, 27,
the special communication of the influ
ence of the Holy Spirit by Christ to be
lievers, leading them into all truth and
holiness.

UNDERGIRD', passing a cable sev
eral times under and around a ship and
tightening it on deck, to prevent the
working and parting of the timbers and
planks in a gale, Acts 27 : 17. The pro
cess is called frapping, and has been re
sorted to in various instances in modern
times.

U'NICORN, one-horned, corresponding
to the word Monoceros. by which the
original Hebrew REEM is translated by
the Seventy. The Hebrew word means
erect, and has no reference to the. number
of horns. Most interpreters now under
stand it of the wild buffalo of the East
ern continents, the Bos Bubalus of Lin
naeus, resembling the American buffalo,
but having larger horns and no dewlap.
This animal has the appearance of un
common strength. The bulk of his
body, and his prodigious muscular limbs,
denote his force at the first view, Num.
23:22. His aspect is ferocious and ma
lignant, and at the same time stupid.
His head is of a ponderous size ; his eyes
diminutive; and what serves to render
his visage still more savage, are the tufts
of frizzled hair which hang down from
his cheeks and the lower part of his
mouth, Job 39 : 9-12 ; Psa. 22:21.

Wild buffaloes occur in many parts of
Africa and India, where they live in
great troops in the forests, and are re
garded -as excessively fierce and danger
ous animals. The hunters never venture
in any numbers to oppose these ferocious
animals face to face ; but conceal them
selves in the thickets or in the branches
of the trees, whence they attack the
buffaloes as they pass along.

In Egypt, as also in Southern Europe,
the buffalo has been partially domesti
cated in comparatively modern times.
Travellers also find it in parts of Syria,
Persia, and India. It is less docile than
the ox, retaining a remnant of ferocity
and untractability, together with a wild
and lowering aspect. It is commonly
driven and guided by means of a ring in
471

UPH

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

UZ

the nose. To the ancient Hebrews, how
ever, it seems to have been known only
in its wild state, savage, ferocious, and
often immensely large.

UPHAK/SIN, and they are dividing, a
Chaldee word, an active plural form
with the conjunction prefixed : while
PERES or PHARES, from the same root, is
a passive participle, and means divided,
Dan. 5:25, 28.

U'PHAZ, a region producing fine gold,
Jer. 10:9 ; Dan. 10:5. In Hebrew it dif
fers from Ophir by only one letter ; and
it is thought to denote the same region.

UR, the country of Terah, and the
birthplace of Abraham, Gen. 11:28, 31 ;
15: 7. It is usually called "Ur of the
Chaldees," Neh. 9:7; Acts 7:4 ; and is
located, with strong probability, in the
north-west part of Mesopotamia. The
city of Orfah, to which the Jews make
pilgrimages as the birthplace of Abra
ham, is a flourishing town of 30,000
inhabitants, seventy-eight miles south
west of Diarbekir. Some, however, place
Ur in Lower Chaldea, at extensive ruins
now called Warka, in latitude 31° 19' N.,
longitude 45° 40' E.

UR'BAN, a Roman disciple, Paul's
companion in Christian labors, Rom.
16:9.

URI'AH, a Hittite in David's army,
renowned for his valor. To save Bath-
sheba Uriah's wife from death for adul
tery, and secure her for himself, David
caused Uriah to be exposed to death,
2 Sam. 11 ; 12:9 ; 23:29 ; 1 Kin. 15:5.

URI'JAH, I. , a high-priest in the time
of king Ahaz. He is called a faithful
witness by Isaiah, 8:2; but erred in con
structing and using at the king's request
an altar unlike that prescribed in the
law, Ex. 27:1-8.; 38:1-7; 2 Kin. 16:9-
12.

II. A faithful prophet, from Kirjath-
jearim in Judah, in the time of Jehoia-
kim. He confirmed the predictions of
Jeremiah against Judah ; and having
fled to Egypt for refuge from the en
raged king, and been sent back by Pha-
raoh-necho on demand, he was wicked
ly slain and dishonorably buried, Jer.
26:20-23. Compare 2 Kin. 24:4.

U'RIM AND THUM'MIM, lights and
perfections, or light and truth ; a divinely
appointed means of ' ' inquiring of the
Lord," its name being expressive per
haps of the truth of his revelations. It
would appear, though not certainly, to
472

have been made known to the Jews ai
some time prior to its first mention in
Scripture, Ex. 28:30. It had some con
nection with the high-priest's breast"
plate, Lev. 8 : 8, and perhaps is to be
understood as present when the ephod
is mentioned, being worn on the outside
of it, Num. 27 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 23 : 9, 11 ;
2 Sam. 2 : 1. It is spoken of in the fol
lowing additional passages, Deut. 33 : 8 ;
Josh. 7:6, 15 ; 1 Sam. 28:6 ; and last of
all in Ezra 2 : 63 ; Neh. 7 : 65. Some think
it was the precious stones on the sacred
breastplate, which made known the di
vine will by casting an extraordinary
lustre. Compare Ex. 39:8-14 ; Lev. 8:8.
Others assert that they were the words
Manifestation and Truth, written upon
two precious stones, or upon a plate of
gold. Various in fact are the conjec
tures upon this subject, and Moses has
nowhere spoken of the Urirn and Thum-
mim in such terms as to remove the
obscurity. When this oracle was to be
used in inquiring of the Lord, if at Jeru
salem, the high-priest put on his robes,
and going into the Holy Place, stood
before the curtain that separated the
Holy Place from the Most Holy Place ;
then, turning his face directly towards
the ark and the mercy-seat, upon which
the divine presence rested, he proposed
the subject respecting which he desired
" light and truth." See BREASTPLATE.

US'URY, as employed in our version
of the Bible, means only interest. When
our translation was made, the word usury
had not assumed the bad sense which it
now has. The Jews might require inter
est of foreigners, Deut. 23 : 19, 20, but
were forbidden to receive it from each
other, Ex. 22 : 25, Psa. 15 : 5 ; being in
structed to lend money, etc., in a spirit
of brotherly kindness, "hoping for noth
ing again," Deut. 15:7-11 ; Luke 6:33-
35. The exacting of usury is often re
buked, Neh. 5:7, 10; Prov. 28:8; Ezek.
22:12-14. The Mosaic code was adapted
to a non -commercial people, but its prin
ciples of equity and charity are of per
petual and universal obligation.

UZ, the land in which Job dwelt, Job
1:1 ; Jer. 25:20 ; Lam. 4:21. The Sev
enty call it Ausitis. It appears to have
been a region in Arabia Deserta, between
Palestine, Idumasa, and the Euphrates,
and most probably not far from the bor
ders of Idumasa. It is uncertain whether
its inhabitants were descendants of Uz

UZA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

VEI

the son of Aram, Huz the son of Nahor,
or Uz the Horite, Gen. 10 : 23 ; 22 : 21 ;
36 : 28. They appear to have had much
knowledge of the true God and the prin
ciples of virtue and religion.

U'ZAL, a son of Joktan, located in
Arabia Felix, Gen. 10:27.

UZ'ZAH, a son of Abinadab, who fell
dead while conducting the ark from Kir-
jath-jearim towards Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6 ;
1 Chr. 13. In his person God chastised
the prevalent irreverence, which was in
timated in the rude jolting along of the
ark by oxen, exposed both to sight and
to touch, while the law required it to
be carefully covered by the priests, and
then borne by staves on the shoulders of
the Levites, who were not to look upon
or touch the ark itself on pain of death,
Ex. 25:14; Num. 4 : 5, 15, 19, 20. Per
haps Uzzah was not even a Levite. Com
pare 1 Chr. 15:2, 13.

UZZI'AH, or AZARIAH, king of Judah.
See AZARIAH.

V.

VAL'LEY. With respect to the gen
eral features of the Holy Land, see CA
NAAN ; and for descriptions of some of its
numerous valleys, see JERUSALEM, JEZ-
REEL, JORDAN, REPHAIM, SHECHEM, and
SODOM. "The valley of the shadow of
death," is an expression denoting an
extremely perilous and cheerless condi
tion of the soul, Psa. 23 : 4, and may
have been suggested by the psalmist's
experience with his flock in some of the
deep, narrow, and dark ravines of Syria.
Thus the entrance to Petra is by a long
winding defile, between rugged preci
pices in some spots not more than twelve
or fourteen feet apart and two or three
hundred feet high, and almost excluding
the light of day. See view in SELA. A
similar pass south of mount Carmel is
now known as the "Valley of Death-
shade."

VAN'ITY does not usually denote, in
Scripture, self-conceit or personal pride,
2 Pet. 2 : 18, but sometimes emptiness
and fruitlessness, Job 7:3; Psa. 144 : 4 ;
Eccl. 1. It often denotes wickedness,
particularly falsehood, Deut. 32:21 ; Psa.
4:2; 24:4; 119:37, and sometimes idols
and idol-worship, 2 Kin. 17 : 15 ; Jer.
2:5; 18 : 15 ; Jonah 2:8. Compare Paul' s
expression, "they turned the truth of

God into a lie," Eom. 1:25. "In vain,"
in the second commandment, Ex. 20 : 7,
is unnecessarily and irreverently. ' ' Vain
men," 2 Sam. 6 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 7, are
dissolute and worthless fellows.

VASH'TI, the queen of Persia, di
vorced by Ahasuerus or Xerxes her hus
band for refusing to appear unveiled be
fore his revelling company, Esth. 1.

VEIL, an indispensable part of the
outdoor dress of Eastern ladies, who
live secluded from the sight of all men
except their own husbands and their
nearest relatives. If an Egyptian lady is
surprised uncovered, she quickly draws
her veil over her face, with some excla
mation like, "0 my misfortune." To
lift or remove one's veil was to insult
and degrade her, Gen. 24:65; Song 5:7;
1 Cor. 11:5, 10. The custom of wearing
veils, however, has not been prevalent
at all times. Sarah the wife of Abra
ham, and Rebekah and her companions
at the well do not appear to have worn
them, Gen. 12:14, 15 ; 24:16. Compare
also Gen. 38 : 14, 15 ; Prov. 7 : 13. See
ABIMELECH.

Veils were of different kinds. Those
now worn in Syria and Egypt may be
divided into two classes, the one large
and sometimes thick, the other small
and of lighter materials. The usual
indoor veil is of thin muslin, attached
to the headdress, and falling over the
back, sometimes to the feet. A similar
veil is added to the front of the head
dress on going abroad, partially cover
ing the face and hanging low. The
other veil, to be worn in the street, is a
473

YEN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

VIN

large mantle or sheet, of black silk, lin
en, or some coarse material, so ample as
to envelope the whole person and dress,
leaving but one of the eyes exposed,
Song 4:9. Such was the veil worn by
Ruth, 3 : 15, translated ' ' mantle ' ' in Isa.
3:22. Many women wear no other veil
than this. The Greek word translated
"power" in 1 Cor. 11 : 10, probably
means a veil, as a token of her hus
band's rightful authority and her own
subordination. This was to be worn in
their Christian assemblies "because of
the angels ;" that is, because of the pres
ence either of true angels, or of the offi
cers of the church, who being unaccus-
tpmed to see the unveiled faces of wom
en, might be distracted by them in the
discharge of their public duties.

For the "veil of the temple," see TAB
ERNACLE and TEMPLE.

VEN'GEANCE, in Deut. 32 : 35, Rom.
12 : 19, Heb. 10 : 30, Jude 7, means re
tributive justice — a prerogative of God,
with which those interfere who seek to
avenge themselves. So also in Acts
28 : 4 ; though many suppose that the
islanders meant the goddess of justice,
Dike, whom the Greeks and Romans
regarded as a daughter of Jupiter, and
feared as an independent, just, and un
appeasable deity.

VERMILION, a brilliant red color,
resembling scarlet, Jer. 22 : 14 ; Ezek.
23 : 14. The vermilion now used is a sul-
phuret of mercury.

VETCH'ES. See FITCHES.

VIALS. See CENSER.

VINE. Of this valuable and familiar
plant there are several varieties, the nat
ural products of warm climates, where
also it has been cultivated from the ear
liest times. Hence the early and fre
quent mention of its products in Scrip
ture, Gen. 9 : 20 ; 14 : 18 ; 19 : 22 ; Job
1 : 18. The grape-vine grew plentifully
in Palestine, Deut. 8 : 8, and was partic
ularly excellent in some of the districts.
The Scriptures celebrate the vines of Sib-
mah and Eshcol ; and profane authors
mention the excellent wines of Gaza, Sa-
repta, Lebanon, Sharon, Ascalon, and
Tyre. See SOREK. The grapes of Egypt,
Gen. 40 : 11, being small, we may eas
ily conceive of the surprise which was
occasioned to the Israelites by witness
ing the bunch of grapes brought by the
spies to the camp, from the valley of
Eshcol, Num. 13 : 23. The account of
Moses, however, is confirmed by the tes
timony of several travellers ; and even
474

in England a bunch of Syrian grapes has
been produced which weighed nineteen
pounds, was twenty -three inches in
length, and nineteen and a half in its
greatest diameter. At the present day,
although the Mohammedan religion does
not favor the cultivation of the vine,
there is no want of vineyards in Pales
tine. Besides the large quantities cf
grapes and raisins which are daily sent
to the markets of Jerusalem and other
neighboring places, Hebron alone, in the
first half of the eighteenth century, an
nually sent three hundred camel loads,
or nearly three hundred thousand pounds
weight of grape juice, or honey of raisins,
to Egypt.

In the East, grapes enter very largely
into the provisions at an entertainment,
and in various forms contribute largely
to the sustenance of the people. See
GRAPES. To show the abundance of
vines which should fall to the lot of

VIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

VIN

Judah in the partition of the promised
land, Jacob, in his prophetic benedic
tion, says of this tribe, he shall be found

Binding his colt to the vine,

And to the choice vine the foal of his ass ;

Washing his garments in wine,

His clothes in the blood of the grape.

Gen. 49:11.

In many places the vines spread over the
ground and rocks unsupported. Often,
however, they are trained upon trellis-
work, over walls, trees, arbors, the
porches and walls of houses, and at
times within the house on the sides of
the central court. Thus growing, the
vine became a beautiful emblem of do
mestic love, peace, and plenty, Psa.
128:3; Mic. 4:4.

The law enjoined that he who planted
a vine should not eat of the produce of
it before the fifth year, Lev. 19 : 23-25.
Nor dkl they gather their grapes on the
sabbatical year; the fruit was then left
for the poor, the orphan, and the stran
ger, Ex. 23 : 11 ; Lev. 25 : 4, 5, 11. See
also Lev. 19 : 10 ; Dent. 24 : 21. At any
time a traveller was permitted to gather
and eat grapes in a vineyard, as he pass
ed along, but was not permitted to carry
any away, Dcut. 23 : 24. Another gen
erous provision of the Mosaic code ex
empted from liability to serve in war a
man who, after four years of labor and
of patience, was about to gather the first
returns from his vineyard, Deut. 20:6.

Josephus describes a magnificent and
costly vine of pure gold, with precious
stones for grapes, which adorned the
lofty eastern gate of the Holy Place. It
was perhaps in view of this that our Sav
iour said, "I am the true Vine;" and
illustrated the precious truth of his one
ness with his people, John 15:1-8.

In the expression, "The vine of Sod
om," Deut. 32 : 32, there does not seem
to be an allusion to any then existing
degenerate species of vine. The writer
means rather to say that their vine, that
is figuratively their corrupt character,
instead of yielding good grapes, bears
only poisonous fruit, like that for which
the shores of the Dead sea have always
been famed— siich as ' ' the apples of Sod
om," for example, said to be beautiful
without, but nothing but shreds or ashes
within.

For the "wild grapes" in Isa. 5:2, 4,
see under GRAPES.

The Jews planted their VINEYARDS

most commonly on the side of a hill or
mountain, Jer. 31 : 5, (see MOUNTAIN,)
the stories being gathered out, and the
space hedged round with thorns, or wall
ed, Isa. 5:1-6; Psa. 80 ; Matt. 21 : 33.
Vineyards were sometimes rented for a
share of their produce, Matt. 21 : 33, 34 ;
and from other passages we may perhaps
infer that a good vineyard consisted of a
thousand vines, and produced a rent of
a thousand silverlings, or shekels of sil
ver, Isa. 7 : 23, and that it required two
hundred more to pay the dressers, Song
8 : 11, 12. In these vineyards the keep
ers and vine-dressers labored, digging,
planting, propping, and pruning or purg
ing the vines, John 15 : 2, gathering the
grapes, and making wine. They formed
a distinct class among cultivators of the
ground, and their task was sometimes
laborious and regarded as menial, 2 Kin.
25 : 12 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 10 ; Song 1:6; Isa.
61:5. Scripture alludes to the fragrance
of the "vines with the tender grapes,"
Song 2:13, and draws from the vineyard
many illustrations and parables, Judg.
9:12; Matt. 20 : 1 ; 21 : 28. The vineyard
of Naboth, 1 Kin. 21, has become a per
petual emblem of whatever is violently
taken from the poor by the rich or the
powerful. The deserted hut or tower,
in which a watchman kept guard during
the season of ripe grapes, Psa. 80:12, 13,
Song 2 : 15, becomes, when all are gath
ered, an apt image of desolation, Isa.
1:8. A beautiful allegory in Psalm 80
represents the church as a vineyard,
planted, defended, cultivated, and wa
tered by God.

The VINTAGE followed the wheat har
vest and the threshing, Lev. 26:5 ; Amos
9 : 13. The ' ' first ripe gi-apes ' ' were gath
ered in June, or later on elevated ground,
Num. 13:20; and grapes continued to
be gathered for four months afterwards.
The general vintage, however, was in
September, when the clusters of grapes
were gathered with a sickle, and put
into baskets, Jer. 6:9, carried and thrown
into the wine-vat or wine-press, where
they were probably first trodden by men,
and then pressed, Rev. 14:18-20. It was
a laborious task, lightened with songs,
jests, and shouts of mirth, Jer. 25 : 80;
48:33. It is mentioned as a mark of
the great work and power of the Messi
ah, that he had trodden the figurative
wine-press alone, and of the people there
was none with him, Isa. 63 : 1-3 ; Rev.
475

VIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

VUL

19 : 15. The vintage was a season of
great mirth, Isa. 16 : 9, 10, and often of
excesses and idolatry, Judg. 9:27 ; while
the mourning and languishing of the
vine was a symbol of general distress,
Isa. 24 : 7 ; Hab. 3 : 17 ; Mai. 3 : 11. Of
the juice of the squeezed grapes were
formed wine and vinegar. See PRESS.

Grapes were also dried into raisins. A
part of Abigail's present to David was
one hundred clusters of raisins, 1 Sam.
25 : 18 ; and when Zibah met David, his
present contained the same quantity,
2 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 30 : 12 ; 1 Chron.
12 : 40. Kespecting other uses of the
fruits of the vine, see GRAPES, HONEY,
VINEGAR, and WINE.

VIN'EGAR, poor or sour wine, the prod
uce of the second or acetous fermenta
tion of vinous liquors. The term some
times designates a thin, sour wine, much
used by laborers and by the Roman sol
diers, Num. 6:3 ; Ruth 2: 14 ; 2Chr. 2:10;
John 19:29. See GALL. In other places
it denotes the common sharp vinegar,
which furnished the wise man with two
significant illustrations, Prov. 10 : 26 ;
25 : 20.

VINE'YARD. See VINE.

VI'OL, Isa. 5:12, Amos 6:5, a string
ed instrument of music, resembling the
psaltery. See Music.

VI' PER, a genus of serpents noted for
the virulence of their poison, which is
said to be one of the most dangerous in
the animal kingdom. Hence the viper
is a symbol of whatever is most evil and
destructive, Job 20 :.16 ; Isa. 30 : 6. As
such the term was applied by Christ and
by John to certain classes of the Jews,
476

Matt, 3:7; 12 : 34 ; 23 : 33 ; Luke 3 : 7.
Paul's escape from the bite of a viper in
Malta led the people to believe that he
was a god in human form, Acts 28 : 3.
A species of viper in Northern Africa,
though little more than a foot long, is
called the most formidable serpent there;
and Hasselquist speaks of a viper in Cy
prus, whose bite produces a universal
gangrene, and occasions death within a
few hours. See SERPENTS.

VIS'ION, a supernatural presentation
of certain scenery or circumstances to
the mind of a person either while awake
or asleep, Isa. 6 ; Ezek. 1 ; Dan. 8 ; Acts
26:13. See DREAM.

VOW, a promise made to God of do
ing some good thing or abstaining from
some lawful enjoyment, under the influ
ence of gratitude for divine goodness, of
imminent danger, the apprehension of
future evils, or the desire of future bless
ings. To fulfil a vow binding one to sin,
was to add sin to sin ; but no considera
tions of inconvenience or loss could ab
solve one from a vow, Psa. 15 : 4 ; Mai.
1 : 14. Jacob, going into Mesopotamia,
vowed the tenth of his estate, and prom
ised to offer it at Beth-el, to the honor
of God, Gen. 28 : 20-22. Moses enacted
several laws for the regulation and exe
cution of vows. ' ' If thou shalt forbear
to vow, it shall be no sin in thee ; that
which is gone out of thy lips thou shalt
keep and perform," Deut. 23:21,23;
Eccl. 5:4, 5. The vows of minors, etc.,
were not binding without the consent of
the head of the family, Num. 30. A
man might devote himself or his chil
dren to the Lord, Num. 6:2. Jephthah
devoted his daughter, Judg. 11 : 30-40 ;
and Samuel was vowed and consecrated
to the service of the Lord, 1 Sam. 1:11,
27, 28. If men or women vowed them
selves to the Lord, they were obliged to
adhere strictly to his service, according
to the conditions of the vow; but in
some cases they might be redeemed,
Lev. 27. These self-imposed services
were more in keeping with the ancient
dispensation, in which outward sacrifices
and observances had so large a share,
than with enlightened Christianity. See
COR BAN, and NAZARITES.

VUL'GATE is the name of the Latin
version of the Scriptures used by the
church of Rome. The Old Testament
was a very close translation of the Greek
Septuagint, not of the Hebrew. It was

YUL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WAL

made at a very early period by an un
known author. A part of this version
was afterwards -revised by Jerome, and
some of the books retranslated from the
Hebrew.

- ;

VUL'TUKE, a large bird of prey, be
longing to the genus hawks, and includ
ing a great many species. It is pro
nounced unclean by Moses, Lev. 11 : 14 ;
Deut. 14:13. See' BIRDS. The vulture
has a naked or downy head, a bare neck
and long wings, and is disgusting to
every sense, especially to the smell. It
is a carrion bird, though not exclusive
ly, and has extraordinary powers of vis
ion. Scarcely can an exhausted camel
fall on its route and die, before numbers
of these filthy scavengers show them
selves in the distance, hastening to the
spot, Job 28: 7.

W.

WA'FER, a thin cake made of fine
flour, Exod. 16 : 31, and used in various
offerings, anointed with sweet oil, Exod.
29:2, 23; Lev. 2:4; 7:12; Num. 6:15.

WAGES. The law and the gospel
both require the full and prompt pay
ment of a just equivalent for all services
rendered according to agreement, Lev.
19 : 13 ; Jer. 22 : 13 ; Jas. 5 : 4. Eternal
death is the wages or just recompense of
sin ; while eternal life is not a recom
pense earned by obedience, but a sove
reign gift of God, Rom. 6:22, 23.

WAG'ONS were sent by Joseph to con

vey his father's family into Egypt. The
same vehicle, translated ' ' cart " in 1 Sam.
6:7, was employed to transport some of
the sacred utensils, Num. 7:3, 6, and in
one instance the ark itself. In these lat
ter cases it was drawn by oxen. It was
probably of simple structure, with two
solid wheels. Such carts are sometimes
used in Syria in removing agricultural
produce, Amos 2:3 ; but vehicles of any
kind are little used, and travellers and
merchandise aie borne on the backs of
camels, horses, and mules. See CART.

WALK is often figuratively used to
denote a man's mode of life, or his spir
itual character, course, and relations,
Ezek. 11:20. He may walk as a carnal,
or as a spiritual man, Rom. 8:1; with
God, or in ignorance and sin, Gen. 5:24;
1 John 1 : 6, 7 ; in the fire of affliction,
Isa. 43:2, or in the light, purity, and joy
of Christ's favor here and in heaven, Psa.
89:15; Rev. 3:4.

WALLS. The walls of dwellings in
the East were of very different mate
rials, from mere clay, or clay and peb
bles, to durable hewn stone. See the
latter part of the article HOUSE. As to
city walls, see BABYLON, CITY, and JERU-
477

WAN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WAN

SALEM. The accompanying cut shows a
portion of the western wall of the sacred
area, Haram-es-Sherif, at Jerusalem.
The huge stones in its lower part are
believed by the Jews, and with good
reason, to have formed a part of the
substructions of their ancient temple,
and to be near the site of the Holy of
Holies. Hence they assemble here every
Friday, and more or less on other days,
to weep and wail with every token of
the sorest grief, and to pray for the com
ing of the Messiah. In former years they
had to pay a large price for this melan
choly privilege. A little beyond this
spot, towards the south, is the fragment

of an immense arch of forty-one feet
span, one of five or six which supported
a lofty causeway, from mount Zion to
the temple area at its southern porti
co, 1 Kin. 10:5 ; 1 Chr. 26:16, 18. Some
of the stones in this part of the wall are
twenty to twenty-five feet long.

WAN'DERINGS OF THE ISRAELITES.
See EXODUS. The following tabular view
of their various encampments, so far as
they are recorded in Exodus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy, is from Dr. Robin
son's Biblical Researches. The "great
and terrible wilderness " between mount
Sinai and Palestine is still known by the
Arabs as Et-Tyh, or the Wanderings.

I. FROM EGYPT TO SINAI.

EXODUS XII. -XIX.

From Rameses, 12 : 37.

1. Succoth, 12:37.

2. Etham, 13:20.

3. Pihahiroth, 14:2.

4. Passage through the Red sea, 14 :22 ; and

three days' march into the desert of
Shur, 15:22.

5. Marah, 15 :23.

6. Elim, 15 :27.

S. Desert of Sin, 16:1.

11. Rephidim, 17:1.

12. Desert of Sinai, 19:1.

NUMBERS XXXIII.

From Rameses, verse 3.
Succoth, ver. 5.
Etham, ver. 6.
Pi-hahiroth, ver. 7.

Passage through the Red sea, and three days'
march iu the desert of Etham, ver. 8.

Marah, ver. 8.
Elim, ver. 9.
By the Red sea, ver. 10.
Desert of Sin, ver. 11.
Dophka, ver. 12.
Alush, ver. 13.
Rephidim, ver. 14.
Desert of Sinai, ver. 15.

II. FROM SINAI TO KADESH THE SECOND TIME

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

23!
24.
15.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
81.
32.
33.
34.
35.

NUMBERS X.-XX.

From the desert of Sinai, 10 : 12

Taberah, 11:3; Deut. 9 : 22.

Kibroth hattaavah, 11 :34.

Hazeroth,ll:35.

Kadesh, in the desert of Paran, 12:16;
13 : 26 ; Deut. 1 : 2, 19. Hence they turn
back and wander for thirty-eight years,
Num. 14 : 25-o6.

NUMBERS XXXIII.

Return to Kadesh, flam. 20 jl.
478

From the desert of Sinai, ver. 16.

Kibroth-hattaavah, ver. 16.
llazeroth, ver. 17.

Rithma, ver. 18.
Rimmon parez, ver. 19.
Libnah, ver. 20.
Kissah, ver. 21.
Kehelathah, ver. 22.
Mount Shapher, ver. 23.
Haradah, ver. 24.
Makheloth, ver. 25.
Tahath, ver. 26.
Tarah, ver. 27.
Mithcah, ver. 28.
Hashmonah, ver. 29.
Moseroth, ver. 30.
Bene-jaakan, ver. 31.
Hor-hagidgad, ver. 32.
Jotbathah, ver. 33:
Ebronah, ver. 34.
Ezion gaber, ver. 35.
Kadesh, ver. 36.

WAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WAR

III. FROM KADESH TO THE JORDAN.

NUMBERS XX., XXI ; DEUT. I., II., X.

From Kadesh, Num. 20 : 22.

36. Beeroth Beene-jaakan, Deut. 10 :6.

37. Mount Hor, Num. 20:22; or Mosera,

Deut. 10 : 6 ; where Aaron died.

38. Gudgodah, Deut. 10:1.

39. Jotbath, Deut. 10 :7.

40. Way of the Red sea, Num. 21 :4 ; by Elath

and Ezion-gaber, Deut. 2 :8.
41.
42.

43. Oboth,Num. 21:10.

44. Ije abarim, Num. 21 :11.

45. The brook Zered, Num. 21:12; Deut.

2:13,14.

46. The brook Arnon, Num. 21:13; Deut.

2:24.
47.
48.

49. Beer (well) in the desert, Num. 21 :16,18.

50. Mattanah, 21:18.

51. Nahaliel, 21:19.

52. Bamoth, 21 :19.

53. Pisgah, put for the range of Abarim, of

which Pisgah was part, 21 : 20.

54. By the way of Bashan to the plains of

Moab by Jordan, near Jericho, Num.
21 : 33 ; 22 : 1.

NUMBERS XXXIII.

From Kadesh, ver. 37.
Mount Hor, ver. 37.

Zalmonah, ver. 41.

Punon, ver. 42.

Oboth, ver. 43.

Ije abarim, or lira, ver. 44, 46.

Dibon-gad, ver. 45 ; now Dhiban.
Almon-diblathaim, ver. 46.

Mountains of Abarim, near to Nebo, ver. 47.

Plains of Moab by Jordan, near Jericho,
ver. 48.

SIEGE OF A CITY : FROM THE NIMROUD PALACE, NINEVEH.

WAR, one of the evil fruits of the
fall, and an appalling manifestation of
the depravity of mankind, Gen. 6 : 11-
13 ; Isa. 9:5; Jas. 4:1, 2, often rendered
apparently inevitable by the assaults of
enemies, or commanded by God for their
punishment. See AMALEKITES and CA
NAAN. By this scourge, subsequently to
the conquest of Canaan, God chastised
both his own rebellious people and the
corrupt and oppressive idolaters around
them. In many cases, moreover, the
issue was distinctly made between the
true God and idols ; as with the Philis
tines, 1 Sam. 17 : 43-47 ; the Syrians,
1 Kin. 20 : 23-30 ; the Assyrians, 2 Kin.
19 : 10-19, 35 ; and the Ammonites, 2 Ohr.

20 : 1-30. Hence God often raised up
champions for his people, gave them
counsel in war by TJrim and by proph
ets, and miraculously aided them in
battle.

Before the period of the kings, there
seems to have been scarcely any regular
army among the Jews ; but all who
were able to bear arms were liable to be
summoned to the field, 1 Sam. 11 : 7.
The vast armies of the kings of Judah
and Israel usually fought on foot, armed
with spears, swords, and shields ? having
large bodies of archers and slingers, and
comparatively few chariots and horse
men. See ARMS. The forces were ar
ranged in suitable divisions, with officers
479

WAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WAR

Sf tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. , Judg.
20:10 ; 1 Chr. 13:1 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 5. The
Jews were fully equal to the nations
around them in bravery and the arts of
war ; but were restrained from wars of
conquest, and when invaders had been
repelled the people dispersed to their
homes. A campaign usually commenced
in spring, and was terminated before win
ter, 2 Sam. 11:1 ; 1 Kin. 20:22. As the
Jewish host approached a hostile army,
the priests cheered them hy addresses,
Deut. 20 : 2 ; 1 Sam. 7 : 9, 13, and by in
spiring songs, 2 Chr. 20:21. The sacred
trumpets gave the signal for battle, Num.

10 : 9, 10 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 12-15 ; the archers
and slingers advanced first, but at length
made way for the charge of the heavy*,
armed spearmen, etc., who sought to ter
rify the enemy, ere they reached them,
by their aspect and war-cries, Judg. 7 : 18-
20; 1 Sam. 17:52; Job 39: 25; Isa. 17:12,
13. The combatants were soon engaged
hand to hand ; the battle became a series
of duels ; and the victory was gained by
the obstinate bravery, the skill, strength,
and swiftness of individual warriors,
1 Chr. 12:8 ; Psa. 18:32-37. See Paul's
exhortations to Christian firmness, tmder
the assaults of spiritual foes, ICor. 16:13 ;

THE CATAPULT, A MACHINg FOR THROWING HEAVY DARTS.

Eph. 6 : 11-14 ; 1 Thess. 3:8. The bat
tles of the ancients were exceedingly san
guinary, 2 Chr. 28 : 6 ; few were spared
except those reserved to grace the tri
umph or be sold as slaves. A victorious
army of Jews on returning was welcom
ed by the whole population with every
demonstration of joy, 1 Sam. 18 : 6, 7.
The spoils were divided after reserving
an oblation for the Lord, Num. 31 : 50;
Judg. 5 : 30 ; trophies were suspended in
public places ; eulogies were pronounced
in honor of the most distinguished war
riors, and lamentations over the dead.

In besieging a walled city, numerous
towers were usually erected around it
for throwing missiles; catapults were
prepared for hurling large darts and
stones. *' Large towers were also con
structed and mounds near to the city
walls, and raised if possible to an equal
or greater height, that by casting a mov
able bridge across access to the city might
480

be gained. The battering-ram was also
employed to effect a breach in the wall ;
and the crow, a long spar with iron claws

WAR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WAT

at one end and ropes at the other, to pull
down stones or men from the top of the
wall. These and similar modes of as
sault the besieged resisted by throwing
down darts, stones, heavy rocks, and
sometimes boiling oil; by hanging sacks
of chaff between the battering-ram and
the wall; by strong and sudden sallies,
capturing and burning the towers and
enginery of the assailants, and quickly
retreating into the city, 2 Chr. 26: 14, 15.
The modern inventions of gunpowder,
rifles, bombs, and heavy artillery have
changed all this. See BATTERING-RAM.

As the influence of Christianity dif
fuses itself in the world, war is becom
ing less excusable and less practicable ;
and a great advance may be observed
from the customs and spirit of ancient
barbarism towards the promised univer
sal supremacy of the Prince of peace,
Psa. 46:9; Isa. 2:4; Mic. 4:3.

' ' Wars of the Lord ' ' was probably the
name of an uninspired book, long since
lost, containing details of the events
alluded to in Num. 21:14, 15.

WARD, or GUARD. To put ' ' in ward ' '
was to place under guard, or in confine
ment, Gen. 40 : 3 ; Lev. 24 : 12. Ward
also seems to mean a guard-room, Neh.
12 : 25, Isa. 21:8, and the guards them
selves, Acts 12 : 10, or any small baud,
IChr. 25:8; 26:16.

WASH'ING. Various ceremonial wash
ings were enjoined in the Mosaic law,
both upon priests, Exod. 30 : 19-21, and
upon others. Lev. 12-15 ; Heb. 9 : 10.
These were significant of spiritual purifi
cation through the Saviour's blood, Tit.
3 : 5, Rev. 1 : 5, as well as of that holi
ness without which none can see God.
To these the Jews added other tradi
tional ablutions, Mark 7 : 2-4 ; and re
garded it as an act of impiety to neglect
them, as Christ frequently did, Luke
11 : 38. The washing of the hands be
fore and after meals, Matt. 15 : 2, called
for by their custom of feeding themselves
with their fingers, is still practised in
Syria. See cut in BED. Where there is
a servant in attendance, he pours water
from a pitcher over his master's hands,
holding also a broad vessel underneath
them, 2 Kin. 3:11 ; Psa. 60:8. See FOOT
and SANDALS. ' ' Washing the hands ' '
was a protestation of innocence, Deut.
21 : 6 ; Matt. 27 : 24 ; and has given rise
to the proverbial saying common among
us, "I wash my hands of that."
21

WATCH, a division of the night. See
HOURS.

WATCH'ER, Dan. 4:13, 17, 23, a figu
rative designation of heavenly beings,,
apparently angels, as seen by Nebuchad
nezzar in his dream.

WATCH'MEN are of as early a date as
cities, robbers, and wars, Exod. 14 : 24 ;
Judg. 7: 19. Jerusalem and other cities
had regular guards night and day, Song
3:1-3 ; 5:7, to whose hourly cries Isaiah
refers in illustration of the vigilance re
quired by God in his ministers, Isa. 21:8,
11, 12 ; 62 : 6. At this day the watch
men of Jerusalem "keep not silence,"
nor do they ' ' hold their peace day nor
night;" especially at night and when
danger is apprehended, they are reqiiir-
ed to call to each other every few min
utes, and the cry passes from one to
another entirely around the city walls.
Those of Sidon also do the same. Watch
men always had a station at the gate of
a city and in the adjacent tower, 2 Sam.
18:24-27 ; 2 Kin. 9:27 ; also on hill-tops
overlooking a large circuit of terraced
vineyards, whence they could " see eye
to eye," and ' ' lift up the voice ' ' of warn
ing or of cheer, Isa. 52 : 7, 8 ; and their
responsible office, requiring so much vig
ilance and fidelity, illustrates that of
prophets and ministers, Jer. 6:17; Ezek.
33:1-9; Heb. 13:17.

WATER. See CISTERNS, and WELLS.
In Isaiah 35 : 7, the Hebrew word for
"parched ground" that shall become a

rl of water, is the same with the Ara-
term for the mirage, a peculiar opti
cal illusion by which travellers in hot
and dry deserts think they see broad
lakes and flowing waters ; they seem to
discern the very ripple of the waves, and
the swaying of tall trees on the mar
gin in the cool breeze ; green hills and
houses and city ramparts rise before the
astonished sight, recede as the traveller
advances, and at length melt away in
the hot haze. Not so the blessings of
the gospel ; they are no alluring mock
ery, but real waters of everlasting life,
Isa. 55 : 1 ; John 4 : 14 ; Rev. 22 : 1. Com
pare Isa. 29:8; Jer. 15:18.

WATER-SPOUTS are well-known phe
nomena in the Levant, and are supposed
to be produced by whirlwinds. A dense,
black, funnel-shaped cloud is seen de
pending from the sky, and sometimes
moving rapidly over the sea, from which
at times a similar cone ascends to meet
481

WAX

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WEL

the upper one. Where they unite, the
column may be three or four feet thick ;
and when they break, torrents of water
descend. The word occurs in Psa. 42:7,
where, however, the psalmist probably
alludes to cataracts of water.

WAX, to grow or become, Ex. 22:24;
Isa. 50:9; Luke 13:19.

WEA'SEL, one of the unclean ani
mals, Lev. 11 : 29. Several varieties of
weasels are found in and around Pales
tine ; but in the verse above probably
the common mole is intended.

WEAV'ING, an art very early prac
tised by all nations, and exhibited on
the ancient monuments of Egypt, Gen.
41 : 42. See FLAX. It is usually per
formed by women, 2 Kin. 23 : 7 ; Prov.
31:13, 19. The distaff, the shuttle, and
the weaver's beam and pin are men
tioned, Judg. ^ : 14 ; 1 Sam. 17:7 ; Job
7:6; Prov. 31 : 19. The Jews say that
the high-priest's tunic was made with
out a needle, being "woven from the
top throughout ;" thus also "the High-
priest of our profession" was clothed,
John 19:23.

WED'DING. See MARRIAGE.

WED'DING -GAR'HENT. See GAR
MENTS.

WEEKS, or successive periods of seven
days each, were known from the earliest
times among nations remote from each
other in Europe, Asia, and Africa, Gen.
29:27. See SABBATH. The Hebrews had
only numeral names for the days of the
week, excepting the Sabbath ; the names
now current among us being borrowed
from Saxon mythology. The Jews called
Sunday "one of the Sabbath," that is,
the first day of the week. Monday was
"two of the Sabbath." A prophetic
week and a week of years were each
seven years ; and a week of sabbatical
years, or forty-nine years, brought round
the year of jubilee. In John 20:26, the
disciples are said to have met again after
' ' eight days, ' ' that is, evidently after a
week, on the eighth day after our Lord's
resurrection. See THREE.

For the ' ' Feast of Weeks, ' ' see PENTE
COST.

WEEPING. -See FUNERAL.

WEIGHTS. The Hebrews weighed all
the gold and silver they used in trade.
The shekel, the half shekel, the maneh,
the talent, are not only denominations
of money, of certain values in gold and
silver, but also of certain weights. The
482

weight "of the sanctuary," or weight
of the temple, Ex. 30:13, 24 ; Lev. 5:5;
Num. 3 : 50 ; 7 : 19 ; 18 : 16, was perhaps
the standard weight, preserved in some
apartment of the temple, and not a dif
ferent weight from the common shekel ;
for though Moses appointed that all
things valued by their price in silver
should be rated by the weight of the
sanctuary, Lev. 27 : 25, he makes no dif
ference between this shekel of twenty
gerahs and the common shekel. Eze-
kiel, 45 ; 12, speaking of the ordinary
weights and measures used in traffic
among the Jews, Bays that the shekel
weighed twenty gerahs: it was there
fore equal to the weight of the sanctu
ary. See the TABLES OP WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES at the end of the volume.

WELLS and SPRINGS. By those liv
ing in a temperate climate, where the
well or the aqueduct furnishes to every
house a supply of water practically inex
haustible, no idea can be formed of the
extreme distress caused by thirst, and of
the luxury of relieving it by drinking
pure water — a luxury which is said to
excel all other pleasures of sense. One
must reside or travel in a Syrian climate
to realize the beauty and force of the
allusions of Scripture to "water out of
the wells of salvation," "cold water to
a thirsty soul," " the fountain of living
waters," and many others. The digging
of a permanent well or the discovery of
a spring was a public benefaction, and
its possession was a matter of great im
portance. Its existence at a given spot
decided the nightly resting-place of car
avans, the encampment of armies, and
the location of towns, 1 Sam. 29 : 1 ;
2 Sam. 2 : 13. Hence BEER, the Hebrew
name for a well or spring, forms a part
of many names of places, as Beeroth,
Beer-sheba. See also EN. So valuable
was a supply of water, that a field con
taining a spring was a princely dowry,
Judg. 1 : 13-15, and a well was a matter
of strife and negotiation between differ
ent tribes. Thus we read that Abraham,
in making a treaty with king Abimelech,
' ' reproved him because of a well of wa
ter which Abimelech' s servants had vio
lently taken away," and the ownership
of the well was sealed to Abraham by a
special oath and covenant, Gen. 21 : 25-
31. A similar transaction occurred dur
ing the life of Isaac, Gen. 26 : 14-33. In
negotiating with the king of Edom for a

WEL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WEL

THE WELL OR FOUNTAIN AT NAZARETH.

passage through his territory, the Israel
ites said, "We will go by the highway ;
and if I and my cattle drink of thy wa
ter, then I will pay for it," Num. 20:17-
19. Still stronger is the expression in
Lam. 5:4: "We have drunk our own
water for money ;" that is, we bought it
of our foreign rulers, though we are the
natural proprietors of the wells that fur
nished it. The custom of demanding
pay for water of the traveller is still
found in some parts of the feast ; while
in many other towns a place is provided
where cold water and sometimes bread
are offered gratuitously to the stranger,
at the expense of the village, or as an
act of charity by the benevolent, Mark
9 : 41. In case of a hostile invasion,
nothing could more effectually harass
an advancing army or the besiegers of a
city, than to fill with stones the wells on
which they relied, 2 Kin. 3 : 25 ; 2 Chr.
32:3.

Wells are sometimes found in Pales
tine furnished with a well-sweep and
bucket, or a windlass ; and in some cases
there were steps leading down to the
water, Gen. 24:15, 16; but usually the
water is drawn with pitchers and ropes ;
and the stone curbs of ancient wells bear
the marks of long use. They were often
covered with a large flat stone, to ex

clude the flying sand and secure the wa
ter to its owners, and also for the secu
rity of strangers, who were liable to fall
into them unawares — a mischance which
very often occurs in modern Syria, and
against which the beneficent law of Mo
ses made provision, Ex. 21:33, 34. This
stone was removed about sunset, when
the females of the vicinity drew th^ir
supply of water for domestic use, and
the flocks and herds drank from the
stone troughs which are still found be
side almost every well. At this hour,
the well was a favorite place of resort,
and presented a scene of life and gayety
greatly in contrast with its ordinary
loneliness, Gen. 24:11-28; 29:1-10; Ex.
2 : 16-19 ; 1 Sam. 9 : 11. Wells, howev
er, were sometimes infested by robbers,
Judg. 5 : 11 ; and Dr. Shaw mentions a
beautiful spring in Barbary, the Arabic
name of which means, "Drink, and
away !" a motto which may well be in
scribed over even the best springs of
earthly delight. See CISTERN.

The cut above given presents a view of
"The Fountain of the Virgin " at Naza
reth, so called from the strong probabil-
ity that the mother of our Lord was
wont to draw water from it, as the wom
en of Nazareth do at this day. It is a
copious spring, just out of the village ;
483

WHA

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WHE

and the path that leads to it is well
worn, as by the feet of many genera
tions. All travellers in Palestine men
tion the throngs of females that resort
to it, with their pitchers or goat-skins
on the shoulder or head, and loitering
to gossip or gaily returning in compa
nies of two or three. Every day wit
nesses there what might almost be de
scribed in the very words of Gen. 24:11 :
' ' And he made his camels to kneel down
without the city, by a well of water, at
the time of the evening, even the time
that women go out to draw water. And
behold, Kebekah came out, with her
pitcher tfpon her shoulder ; and she
went down to the well, and filled her
pitcher, and came up." It is an un
common sight to see ' ' a man bearing a
pitcher of water," Mark 14:13.

Jacob's well, at the eastern entrance
of the charming valley of Shechem, is
still in existence, though now little used
and often nearly dry. It is covered by
a vaulted roof, with a narrow entrance
closed by a heavy rock. Around it is a
platform, and the remains of a church
built over the spot by the empress Hele
na. Close at hand is mount Gerizim,
which the woman of Sychar no doubt
glanced at as she said, "Our fathers
worshipped in this mountain." On the
west is the broad and fertile plain of
Mukhiia, where the fields were "white
already to the harvest." The woman
intimated that the well was "deep,"
aifd had no steps. Actual measurement
shows it to be seventy-five feet deep, and
about nine feet in diameter. Dr. Wil
son, in 1842, sent down with ropes a Jew
named Jacob, to explore the well and
recover a Bible dropped into it by Rev.
Mr. Bonar three years before. This was
found, almost destroyed by lying in wa
ter. As the traveller stands by this ven
erated well and thinks of the long series
of men of a hundred nations and gen
erations who have drunk of its waters,
thirsted again, and died, he is most for
cibly affected by the truth of Christ's
words to the Samaritan woman, and
made to feel his own perishing need of
the water " springing up into everlast
ing life," John 4.

WHALE, the largest known inhabit
ant of the sea, Job 7 : 12, put by our
translators for a Hebrew word including
all the huge marine monsters, as in Gen.
1 : 21. In Ezek. 32 : 2, referring to Egypt
484

and the Nile, it doubtless means the
crocodile ; as also in Psa. 74 : 13 ; Isa.
27 : 1 ; 51 : 9 ; Ezek. 29 : 3, where it is
translated ' ' dragon . ' ' The ' ' great fish ' '
that swallowed Jonah cannot be named
with certainty. The Greek word in
Matt. 12 : 40 being also indeterminate.
Whales, however, were anciently found
in the Mediterranean, and sharks of the
largest size.

JTRITICUM COMPOSITFM.

WHEAT is the principal and most
valuable kind of grain for the service of
man, and is produced in almost every
part of the world, Gen. 30 : 14 ; Deut.
8:8; Judg. 6:11; Matt. 13 : 25 ; 1 Cor.
15 : 37. It is often intended where the
word corn is used. See CORN. The
Egyptian wheat, Triticum Compositum,
has six or seven ears on one head ; so
that it presented its usual appearance in
this respect in Pharaoh's dream, Gen.
41 : 5-7. The " meat-offerings" of the
Mosaic service, Lev. 2, were all made of
wheaten flour.

WHEEL, Psa. 83:13, translated "roll
ing thing" in Isa. 17 : 13. Mr. Thom
son, for many years a missionary in
Syria, thinks the wild artichoke may
here be referred to. This plant sends out
numerous stalks or branches of equal

WHI

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WIN

length in fill directions, forming a globe
a foot in diameter. These globes become
rigid and light as a feather in autumn,
and thousands of them fly rolling and
bounding over the plains, the sport of
every wind. This "rolling thing" fur
nishes the modern Arabs with a current
proverb and a curse.

WHIRL' WINDS were very frequent in
the deserts of Arabia, Job 87 : 9 ; 38 : 1 ;
Nah. 1:3, and travellers in the East have
encountered many. Most of them are
not formidable, Isa. 17 : 13 ; but one now
and then occurs, sudden, swift, and aw
ful in its devastating course ; houses and
trees are 110 obstruction in its way, and
the traveller is buried alive .under the
pillar of sand it raises and bears along,
like a water-spout at sea, Job 1:19; Isa.
21 : 1. The sudden and resistless judg
ments of God are well compared to
whirlwinds, Psa. 58:9; Prov. 1:27; Isa.
66 : 15. One of the Hebrew words thus
translated sometimes denotes only a pow
erful and tempestuous gust of wind, Jer.
23:19; 30:23; Zech. 9:14. See WINDS.

WID'OW. A custom was prevalent
in patriarchal times, Gen. 38, and was
afterwards confirmed by the Mosaic law,
Deut. 25 : 5-10, that a widow without
children, in order to preserve the family
name and inheritance, should marry the
brother of her deceased husband ; or, he
failing, his nearest kinsman, Ruth 3:12,
13 ; 4:1-11 ; Matt. 22:23-30. The high-
priest was forbidden to marry a widow,
Lev. 21 : 14. The humanity and justice
of true religion are shown in the Bible,
as might be expected, by numerous indi
cations that God and the friends of God
sympathize with the sorrows, supply
the wants, and defend the rights of the
widow, Exod. 22 : 22-24 ; Deut. 16 : 11 ;
24:17,19; Psa. 68:5; Isa. 1:17; 10:2;
Jer. 22 : 3 ; Matt. 23 : 14. The apostolic
church was not negligent in providing
for widows, Acts 6 : 1-3 ; 1 Tim. 5 : 16 ;
and James makes this duty an essential
part of true piety, Jas. 1 : 27. Heathen
ism, on the contrary, makes those who
have been slaves to a husband's caprices
during his life, either victims upon the
funeral pile at his death, or forlorn and
hopeless sufferers under destitution and
contempt. The duties of Christian wid
ows are specified in 1 Tim. 5:3-16.

WILDERNESS. See DESERT.

WILLOW, a very common tree, which
grows in marshy places, Job 40 : 22, Isa.

44 : 4, with a leaf much like that of the
olive. God commanded the Hebrews to
take branches of the handsomest trees,
particularly of the willows of the brook,
and to bear them in their hands before
the Lord, as a token of rejoicing, at the
feast of Tabernacles, Lev. 23 : 40. The
"weeping willow," memorable in con
nection with the mourning Hebrew cap~
tives, Psa. 137 : 2, is a native of Babylo
nia, and hence is named Salix Babylonk
ca. The "brook of the willows," Isa.
15 : 7, on the southern border of Moab,
flows into the south-east extremity of
the Dead sea.

WIM'PLE, a veil or hood; but the
Hebrew signifies, properly, a broad and
large mantle or shawl. See VEIL. Thus,
in Ruth 3 : 15, Boaz gives Ruth six meas
ures of barley, which she carries away
in her mantle, rather than veil, as in the
English translation. So in Isa. 3:22.

WINDS, Matt. 24:31. The winds
which most commonly prevail in Pales
tine are from the western quarter, more
usually perhaps from the south-west,
Luke 12:54. Not unfrequently a north
wind arises, Job 37 : 9, which, as in an
cient days, is still the sure harbinger of
fair weather ; illustrating the truth of
the observation in Prov. 25:23, "The
north wind driveth away rain." For the
tempestuous wind called EUROCLYDOX,
see that article.

But the wind most frequently men
tioned in the Bible is the ' ' east wind, ' '
which is represented as blasting and
drying up the fruits, Gen. 41 : 6 ; Ezek.
17:10 ; 19 : 12, and also as blowing with
great violence, Psa. 48:7 ; Ezek. 27:26;
Jonah 4:8. It is also the "horrible tem
pest," literally the glow-wind, of Psa.
11 : 6. This is a sultry and oppressive
wind blowing from the south-east, and
prevailing only in the hot and dry
months of summer. Coming thus from
the vast Arabian desert, it seems to in
crease the heat and drought of the sea
son, and produces universal languor
and debility. Rev. Dr. Eli Smith, who
experienced its effects during the sum
mer, at Beyrout, describes it as possess
ing the same qualities and characteris
tics as the Sirocco, which he had felt at
Malta, and which also prevails in Sicily
and Italy ; except that the Sirocco, in
passing over the sea, acquires great damp
ness. This wind is called by the Arabs
the Simoom, by the Turks the Samiel,
485

WIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WIN

and by the Egyptians the Camsin ; and
has long been regarded as a pestilen
tial wind, suddenly overtaking travellers
and caravans in the deserts, and almost
instantly destroying them by its poison
ous and suffocating breath. But late
and judicious travellers find no evidence
that this wind is laden with any poison
ous influence. It is indeed oppressively
hot and dry, rapidly evaporating the
water in the ordinary skin bottles, stop
ping the perspiration of travellers, dry
ing up the palate and the air passages,
and producing great restlessness and ex
haustion. As it often blows with a ter
rible roaring and violence, it carries dust
and fine sand high up into the air, so
that the wrhole atmosphere is lurid, and
seems in a state of combustion, and the
sun is shorn of his beams, and looks like
a globe of dull smouldering fire. Both
men and animals are greatly annoyed by
the dust, and seek any practicable shel
ter or covering. The camels turn their
backs, and hide their heads from it in
the ground. It is often accompanied by
local whirlwinds, which form pillars of
sand and dust, rising high above the
ground and moving with swiftness over
the plain. Such a tempest may have
suggested some features in the prophetic
descriptions of the day of God's power :
' ' wonders in the heavens and in the earth,
blood and fire and pillars of smoke : the
sun shall be turned into darkness, and
the moon into blood," Joel 2 : 80, 31 ;
Acts 2: 19, 20.

Dr. Thomson describes another vari
ety of hot winds or siroccos, often more
overwhelming than those just mention
ed. The sky is covered with clouds, and
pale lightnings play through the air ; but
there is no rain, thunder, or wind. The
heat, however, is intolerable ; every trav
eller seeks a refuge, the birds hide them
selves in the thickest shades, the fowls
pant under the walls with open mouths,
and no living thing is in motion.

WINE. The vine being natural .to
the soil of Canaan and its vicinity, wine
was much used as a beverage, especially
at festivals, Esth. 1:7 ; 5:6; Dan. 5 : 1-
4 ; John 2:3. As one of the staple prod
ucts of the Holy Land, it was employed
for drink-offerings in the temple service,
Ex. 29 : 40 ; Num. 15 : 4-10 ; it was in
cluded among the "first-fruits," Deut.
18 : 4, and was used in the celebration of
the Passover, and subsequently of the
486

Lord's supper, Matt. 26:27-29. Togeth
er with corn and oil it denoted all tem
poral supplies, Psa. 4:7; Hos. 2:8; Joel
2:19.

The word "wine" in our Bible is the
translation of as many as ten different
Hebrew words and two Greek words,
most of which occur in but a few in
stances. The two most frequently used,
Yayin and its Greek equivalent Oinos,
are general terms for all sorts of wine,
Neh. 5 : 18. Without minute details on
this subject, we may observe that ' ' wine ' '
in Scripture denotes,

1. The pure juice of the grape, fer
mented, and therefore more or less in
toxicating, but free from drugs of any
kind, and not strengthened by distilled
liquors.

2. Must, the fresh juice of the grape,
unfermented or in process of fermenta
tion. For this the Hebrew employs the
word firosh, English version, new wine.
Wine, as a product of agriculture, is com
monly mentioned by this name along
with corn and oil, Gen. 40 : 11 ; Exod.
22:29; Deut. 32:14; Luke 5:37, 38.

3. Honey of wine, made by boiling
down must to one-fourth of its bulk.
This commonly goes, in the Old Testa
ment, by the name debhash, honey; and
only the context can enable us to deter<
mine whether honey of grapes or of bees
is to be understood, Num. 18:12; Prov.
9:2, 5.

4. Spiced wine, made stronger and
more inviting to the taste by the ad
mixture of spices and other drugs, Song
8:2.

5. Strong drink, Hebrew shechar. This
word sometimes denotes pure, strong
wine, as Num. 28 : 7 ; or drugged wine,
as Isa. 5 : 22 ; but more commonly wine
made from dates, honey, etc., and gen
erally made more inebriating by being
mingled with drugs.

See also, in connection with this arti
cle, FLAGON, MYRRH, and VINEGAR.

The "wine of Helbon" was made in
the vicinity of Damascus, and sent from
that city to Tyre, Ezek. 27 : 19. It re
sembled the "wine of Lebanon," famous
for its excellence and fragrance, Hosea
14:7. See HELBON.

Great efforts have been made to dis-
• tinguish the harmless from the intoxi
cating wines of Scripture, and to show
that inspiration has in all cases approved
the former alone, and condemned the

WIN

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WIT

iatter, directly or indirectly. It is not
necessary, however, to do this in order
to demonstrate that so far as the use of
wine leads to inebriation it is pointedly
condemned by the word of God. Sin
and shame are connected with the first
mention of wine in the Bible, and with
many subsequent cases, Gen. 9 : 20;
19 : 31-36 ; 1 Sam. 25 : 36, 37 ; 2 Sam.
13:28; 1 Kin. 20:12-21; Esth. 1:10,11;
Dan. 5:23 ; Kev. 17: 2. It is character
ized as a deceitful mocker, Prov. 21 : 1 ;
as fruitful in miseries, Prov. 23 : 29-35 ;
in woes, Isa. 5 : 22 ; in errors, Isa. 28 : 1-
7 ; and in impious folly, Isa. 5 : 11, 12 ;
56 : 12 ; Hos. 4 : 11. The use of it is in
some cases expressly forbidden, Lev.
10:9; Num. 6:3; and in other cases is
alluded to as characteristic of the wick
ed, Joel 3:3; Amos 6 : 6. Numerous
cautions to beware of it are given, 1 Sam.
1:14; Prov. 23:31; 31:4, 5; 1 Tim. 3:3;
and to tempt others to use it is in one
passage made the occasion of a bitter
curse, Hab. 2 : 15. On the other hand,
whatever approval was given in Pales
tine to the moderate use of wine, can
hardly apply to a country where wine
is an imported or manufactured article,
often containing not a drop of the juice
of the grape ; or if genuine and not com
pounded with drugs, still enforced with
distilled spirits. The whole state of the
case, moreover, is greatly modified by
the discovery of the process of distilling
alcohol, and by the prevalence of appall
ing evils now inseparable from the gen
eral use of any intoxicating drinks. Dan
iel and the Rechabites saw good reason
for total abstinence from wine, Jer.
35 : 14 ; Dan. 1:8; and the sentiment of
Paul, on a matter involving the same
principles, is divinely commended to
universal adoption, Rom. 14 : 21 ; 1 Cor.
8:13.

For "wine -press," see PRESS, and
VINE.

WIN'NOW. See FAN, and THRESH
ING.

WINTER. See CANAAN.

WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. See MAGI,

and STAR.

WIST, knew ; the past tense, from an
obsolete present wis, Ex. 16 : 15. Wot
and wotteth, meaning know and know-
eth, Gen. 21 : 26 ; 39 : 8, and to wit,
meaning to know, Gen. 24 : 21, are also
from the same Saxon root. "Do you
to wit," 2 Cor. 8:1, means, make you

to know, or inform you. "To wit," iu
2 Cor. 5:19, means, that is to say.

WIT. See WIST.

WITCH and WIZ'ARD. Our best ex
position of these terms as found in the
Bible is in the narrative of the witch of
Endor. She was widely known as " one
that had a familiar spirit " or an attend
ant demon, and was thereby professedly
able to summon departed souls from the
spirit world and converse with them.
From this it appears that the essential
character of witchcraft was a pretended
commerce ivith demons and the spirits of the
departed. In this respect it is identical
with modern witchcraft and with spirit
ualism ; and all the condemnation pro
nounced against witchcraft in the Bible
falls equally on these and every similar
system of professed commerce with ghosts
and demons.

To this practice the ancient witches
and wizards joined the arts of fortune-
telling and divining, and a professed
knowledge and control of the secret
powers of the elements, heavenly bodies,
etc. In order to give color and conceal"
ment to their pretended commerce with
spirits, they made use of drugs, fumiga
tions, chemical arts, incantations, and
every mysterious device to awe and im
pose upon a superstitious people. Their
unlawful arts were near akin to the oth
ers forbidden in Dent. 18 : 10, 11 : " There
shall not be found among you any one
that makcth his son or his daughter to
pass through the fire, or that useth divi
nation, or an observer of times, or an
enchanter, or a witch, or a charmer, or
a consulter with familiar spirits, or a
wizard, or a necromancer." It would
appear from this catalogue that all forms
of superstition were as prevalent in the
East in the days of Moses as they now
are. Those familiar with the Syria and
Arabia of our days inform us that old
and young of all sects universally be
lieve in the potency of "the evil eye,"
of incantations, charms, amulets, ser«
pent-charming, and exorcism ; and that
these superstitions exert a prodigious
influence on oriental life. Even modern
mesmerism has its counterpart among
the pretended magic arts of the East,
practised, like many other existing su
perstitions, from time immemorial.

Such follies and knaveries are all
strictly forbidden in the Bible, and many
of them in the Jewish dispensation were
487

WIT

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

WOM

punishable with death. They are all
idolatrous — ignoring the only true God,
and seeking help from foreign sources.
They are sure to prevail in proportion as
men lose a calm trust in the Almighty,
and an intelligent loving obedience to
his will. He that fears God needs fear
nothing else ; while he that, like king
Saul, departs from God, finds help and
comfort nowhere. See ENDOR, and SOR
CERER.

WITHE, Judg. 10:7, a band made by
plaiting together willow or some other
pliable twigs or stalks.

WITNESS, one who testifies to any
fact from his own personal knowledge.
Under the Mosaic law, two witnesses
under oath were necessary to convict a
person charged with a capital crime,
Num. 35 : 30 ; and if the criminal was
stoned, the witnesses were bound to cast
the first stones, Deut. 17 : 6, 7 ; Acts
7 : 58. The Greek word for witness is
MARTYR, which see. The apostles were
witnesses, in proclaiming to the world
the facts of the gospel, Acts 1 : 8, 22 ;
2:32; 2 Pet. 1:12, 16-18; and Christ is
a "faithful witness," in testifying to
men of heavenly things, John 3 : 12 ;
Rev 1:5. The heroes of the ancient
church are "witnesses" to the power of
true faith, Heb. 12:1.

WOE is sometimes used in our Bibles
where a softer expression would be at
least equally proper: "Woe to such a
one !" is in our language a threat or im
precation of some calamity, natural or
judicial, to befall a person ; but this is
not always the meaning of the word in
Scripture. We find the expression, "Woe
is me !" that is, Alas for my sufferings !
and, "Woe to the women with child, and
those who give suck !" that is, Alas for
their redoubled sufferings in times of
distress ! If in the denunciatory lan
guage of Christ, we should read, "Alas
for thee, Chorazin ! Alas for thee, Beth-
saida!" we should do no injustice to the
general sentiments of the passage.

Yet in many cases the word woe is
used in a fuller and more awful sense,
expressing an inspired denunciation and
foreshadowing of God's wrath upon sin
ners ; as when we read, ' ' Woe to those
who build houses by unrighteousness, and
cities by blood;" woe to those who are
"rebellious against God," etc., in numer
ous passages, especially of the Old Testa
ment, Hab. 2:6, 9, 12, 15, 19 ; Zeph. 3:1.
488

WOLF, a ferocious wild animal, the
Canis Lupus of Linn;cus, belonging to
the dog genus. Indeed, it closely resem
bles the dog ; and it is only by a few
slight differences of shape that they are
distinguished. Wolves never bark, but
only howl. They are cruel, but cow
ardly animals; they fly from man, ex
cept when impelled by hunger ; in which
case they prowl by night in great droves
through- villages, and destroy any per
sons they meet, Jer. 5:6; Ezek. 22:27 ;
Hab. 1:8. They are swift of foot, strong
enough to carry off a sheep at full speed,
and an overmatch for ordinary dogs. In
severe winters, wolves assemble in large
troops, join in dreadful bowlings, and
make terrible devastations. They are
the peculiar object of terror to shep
herds, as the defencelessness and timid
ity of the sheep render it an easy prey
to wolves, Luke 10 : 3 ; John 10 : 12.
So persecutors and false teachers have
been "grievous wolves" to the flock of
Christ, Matt. 10 : 16 ; Acts 20 : 29. The
wolf inhabits the continents of Europe,
Asia, Africa, and America. Driven in
general from the populous parts of the
country, he is yet everywhere found in
large forests and mountainous regions.

WOMAN is spoken of in Scripture
as the beloved and honored companion
and helpmeet, not the servant, of man,
Gen. 2:23, 24, created as the neces
sary completion of man, Gen. 2 : 18 ;
and though subordinate in sphere, Gen.
3 : 16 ; 1 Cor. 11 : 3, 8, 9 ; 14 : 34, 35 ;
1 Tim. 2 : 11-14, yet specially qualified
for that sphere, and as necessary in it as
man in his. Man and woman are indeed
essentially one, the natural qualities of
each so responding to those of the other
as to lay the foundation of the most ten
der and abiding unity. The Bible thus

WOR

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

wop

raised the Jewish woman high above the
women of heathenism ; and the Old Tes
tament contains some of the finest por
traitures of female character. But still
greater is the contrast between the wom
en of heathenism and those of Christian
ity : the former with mind and soul un
developed, secluded, degraded, the mere
toys and slaves of their husbands ; the
latter educated, refined, ennobled, cheer
ing and blessing the world. Christianity
forbids a man to have more than one
wife, or to divorce her for any cause but
one, Matt. 5 : 32 ; 19:3-9 ; declares that
bond and free, male and female, are all
one in Christ, Gal. 3 : 28 ; and that in
heaven they are no more given in mar
riage, but are as the angels of God, Matt.
22 : 33. If woman was first in the Fall,
she was honored in the exclusive par
entage of the Saviour of mankind ; and
women were the truest friends of Christ
while on earth. The primal curse falls
•with heaviest weight on woman ; but
the larger proportion of women in our
churches may indicate that it was the
purpose of God to make his grace to
man "yet more abound" to her who
\vas the first in sinning and suffering.

In the East, women have always lived
in comparative seclusion, not appearing
in public unless closely veiled, not min
gling in general society, nor seeing the
men who visit their husbands and broth
ers, nor even taking their meals with the
men of their own family. Their seclu
sion was less in the rural districts than
in towns, and among the Jews than
among most other nations. They were
chiefly engaged in domestic duties, Prov.
31 ; among which were grinding flour,
baking bread, making cloth, needlework,
etc. The poor gleaned the remnants of
the harvest ; the daughters of the patri
archs joined in tending their fathers'
flocks, Gen. 29 : 9 ; Ex. 2 : 16 ; and fe
males of all classes were accustomed to
draw water for family use, bearing it in
earthen pitchers on their shoulders often
for a considerable distance, Gen. 24 : 15-
20; John 7: 28.

WORD, one of the titles of the second
person of the Trinity, indicating perhaps
that by his acts and teachings God is re
vealed, somewhat as thought is by words,
1 John 1:1; 6:7; Rev. 19 : 13. " The
word of the Lord ' ' was a common phrase
in the Old Testament, always denoting
gome revelation of Jehovah. Long be-
21*

fore the coming of Christ, the Jewish par-
aphrasts of the Bible used "THE WORD"
in the passages where JEHOVAH occurred
in the original ; and the term was famil
iar to Jewish writers as the name of a
divine being, the Son of God. To show
its true meaning and "its application to
our Saviour, was of great importance to
John, the last of the inspired writers, in
whose later years certain errors as to the
person of Christ, borrowed from Eastern
philosophy, had begun to creep into the
Christian church. He describes "THE
WORD " as a personal and divine Being,
self-existent, and coexistent from eter
nity with the Father, yet distinguished
from him as THE SON, the creator of all
created things, the source of all life and
light to men, and in the fulness of time
incarnate among men, John 1 : 1-3, 14.
John's gospel is full and clear respecting
the divinity of Christ, John 20:31.

WORLD, the earth on which we dwell,
1 Sam. 2:8; its inhabitants, John 3:16,
or a large number of them, John 12 : 19.
In several places it is equivalent to
"land," meaning the Roman empire, or
Judea and its vicinity, Luke 2:1; 4:3;
Acts 11 : 28. It also denotes the objects
and interests of time and sense, Gal. 6 : 14 ;
1 John 2: 15.

WORM' WOOD, Lam. 3:15, an intense
ly bitter and poisonous plant, a symbol
for whatever is nauseous and destructive,
Deut. 29 : 18 ; Jer. 9 : 15. The fruits of
vicious indulgence are ' ' bitter as worm
wood," Prov. 5:3; and injustice and
oppression are like wormwood and gall,
Amos 5:7; 6 : 12. The Chaldee para
phrase calls it " the wormwood of death.' '
In Rev. 8 : 10, 11, the star called Worm
wood seems to denote a mighty prince,
or power of the air, the instrument, in
its fall, of sore judgments on large num
bers of the wicked. Compare Dan. 10:20,
21; Isa. 14:12.

WOR'SHIP or GOD, both spiritual and
visible, private and public, by individ
uals, families, and communities, is not
only a self-evident duty for all who be
lieve in God, but is abundantly com
manded in his word. See PRAYER. The
stated assembling of all people for united
worship on the Sabbath, in continuance
of the temple and synagogue services
enjoined by God and practised by Christ,
is a most manifest duty. The very name
church, meaning assembly, implies it;
and the preaching of the gospel, the
489

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ZAA

great means for promoting Christianity,
requires it. The directions of Paul, not
to forsake the "assembling of ourselves
together," to read his epistles "in all
the churches," and to join in "psalms
and hymns and spiritual songs," and his
rules for securing the highest spiritual
edification of all when they came to
gether in the church, all indicate the
established law of Christianity.

"Worship" is sometimes used of the
form of homage paid by subjects to
kings, or of honor to one held entitled
to it, Dan. 2 : 46 ; Luke 14 : 10. In the
East, this is still often rendered by pros
trating the body and touching the fore
head to the ground, Gen. 33 : 3 ; Matt.
18:26.

" Will- worship," Col. 2 : 23, is a term
descriptive of such forms of adoration
and service as are not prescribed in God's
word, but are offensive in his sight.
Such are the masses and penances of
Popery.

WRIT'ING. See BOOK.

Y.

YEAR. The Hebrews always had
years of twelve months. But at the
beginning, as some suppose, they were
solar years of twelve months, each
month having thirty days, excepting
the twelfth, which had thirty-five days.
We see, by the enumeration of the days
of the deluge, Gen. 7 and 8, that the
original year consisted of three hundred
and sixty-five days. It is supposed that
they had an intercalary month at the
end of one hundred and twenty years,
tit which time the beginning of their
year would be out of its place full thir
ty days. Subsequently, however, and
throughout the history of the Jews, the
year was wholly lunar, having alter
nately a full month of thirty days, and
a defective month of twenty-nine days,
thus completing their year in three hun
dred and fifty-four days. To accommo
date this lunar year to the solar year,
{365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 47.7
seconds,) or the period of the revolution
of the earth around the sun, and to the
return of the seasons, they added a whole
month after Adar, usually once in three
years. This intercalary month they call
Ve-adar. See MONTH.
490

The ancient Hebrews appear to have
had no formal and established era, but
to have dated from the most memorable
events in their history ; as from the ex
odus out of Egypt, Exod. 19 : 1 ; Num.
33 : 38 ; 1 Kin. 6:1; from the erection of
Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 8:1; 9 : 10 ;
arid from the Babylonish captivity, Ezek.
33:21 ; 40:1. See SABBATICAL YEAR, and
JUBILEE.

The phrase, "from two years old and
under," Matt. 2: 16, that is, "from a
child of two years and under, ' ' is thought
by some to include all the male children
who had not entered their second year ;
and by others, all who were near the
beginning of their second year, within a
few months before or after. The cardi
nal and ordinal numbers are often used
indiscriminately. Thus in Gen. 7:6, 11,
Noah is six hundred years old, and soon
after in his six hundredth year ; Christ
rose from the dead "three days after,"
Matt. 27 : 63, and "on the third day,"
Matt. 16 : 21 ; circumcision took place
when the child was "eight days old,"
Gen. 17 : 11, and "on the eighth day,"
Lev. 12:3. Compare Luke 1 : 59 ; 2:21.
Many slight discrepances in chronology
may be thus accounted for.

YES'TERDAY and TO-DAY, in Heb.
13 : 8, are used in a general sense for
time past and present. Christ is eter
nally the same. The life and knowledge
of man are comparatively only ' ' of yes
terday," Job 8:9.

YOKE, a symbol of subjection and
servitude, 1 Kin. 12:4; an iron yoke,
of severe oppression, Deut. 28:48. The
ceremonial law was a yoke, a burden
some restriction, Acts 15 : 10 ; Gal. 5:1.
The withdrawing or breaking of a yoke
denoted a temporary or an unlimited
emancipation from bondage, Isa. 58 : 6,
Jer. 2:20, and sometimes the disowning
of rightful authority, Jer. 5 : 5. The
iron yoke imposed by our sins, none but
God can remove, Lam. 1 : 14 ; but the
yoke of Christ's service is easy and light,
Matt. 11:29, 30.

Z.

Z A AN AN, Mic. 1 : 11, supposed to be
the same as Zenan, Josh. 15 : 37, a town
in the plain country of Judah.

ZAANAN'NIM, Josh. 19 : 33, a town
in the north of Naphtali, near Kedesh

ZAB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

2A.Il

and the foot of Anti- Lebanon, Judg.
4:11.

ZA'BAD, the name of four persons,
IChr. 2:36; 7:21; 2 Chr. 24:26; Ezra
10 : 27.

ZA'BUD, a son of Nathan the prophet,
the confidential friend and adviser of
king Solomon, probably having shared
with him the instructions of the vener
able prophet, 1 Kin. 4:5.

ZACCHE'US, just, from the Hebrew
Zaccai, Neh. 7 : 14, a worthy tax-gatherer
at Jericho, who in order to see Christ
took a position in a sycamore-tree, by
which He was about to pass. The Sav
iour drawing near and knowing his
heart, called him to come down, and
proposed to become his guest. As he
held office under the llomans, he was
called ' ' a sinner ' ' by the Jews, Luke
19 : 1-10. He showed sincere penitence
and faith in the Saviour, who in turn
promised him salvation as a child of
Abraham by faith, Gal. 3 : 7, as he also
seems to have been by birth. The
"house of Zaccheus" now shown on
tho plain of Jericho is probably the
remnant of a fort built in the tenth cen
tury, or even more recently.

ZACHAPJ'AH king of Israel succeeded
his father Jeroboam II., 773 B. c., and
reigned six months. He did evil in the
sight of the Lord, and Shallum son of
Jabesh conspired tigainst him, killed him
in public, and reigned in his stead. Thus
was fulfilled what the Lord had foretold
to Jehu, that his children should sit on
the throne of Israel to the fourth gen
eration, 2 Kin. 14:i9; 15:8-11.

ZACHARI'AS, I., a person mentioned
in Matt. 23 : 35, Luke 11 : 51, and most
probably designating the son of the high-
priest Jehoida, or Barachias, who was
stoned to death by order of king Joash
for publicly rebuking the king, his court,
and the people for then, growing corrup
tions, 2 Chr. 24 : 20-22. Some suppose
the prophet Zechariah to be intended ;
but history gives no account of his death.
Others refer it to a Zacharias the son of
Baruch, who was put to death just be
fore the destruction of Jerusalem ; but
it seems unnatural and unnecessary to
suppose that Christ here spoke prophet
ically.

II. A priest belonging to the eighth
course or class, called that of Abia, 1 Chr.
24, the husband of Elisabeth, and father
of John the Baptist. His residence, when

not on duty, was in the hill -country
south of Jerusalem. He is known to us
by his pious and blameless life ; his vis
ion of Gabriel in the temple, promising
him a son in his old age ; his hesitancy
in believing, for which he was visited by
a temporary dumbness ; his miraculous
restoration at the circumcision of his
son ; and his noble and prophetic song
of praise, Luke 1:5-25, 57-79.

ZA'DOK, the son of Ahitub, and father
of Ahimaaz, high-priest of the Jews in
the reigns of Saul and David. See ABIA-

THAR.

Others of this name are mentioned in
2 Kin. 15 : 33 ; 1 Chr. G : 12 ; Ezra 7:2;
Neh. 3:4; 13:13.

ZAL'MON, or SALMON, Hebrew Tzal-
mon, a height in Samaria near Shechem,
Judg. 9 : 48, perhaps a part of mount
Ebal ; apparently the same that in Psa.
68:14 is spoken of as covered with new-
fallen snow.

ZALMUN'NA and ZE'BAII, Midiariit-
ish kings, defeated and slain by Gideon,
Judg. 8:5.

ZAMZUM'MIM, a race of giants east
of the Jordan, defeated by Chedorlao-
mer, Gen. 14 : 5, and exterminated by
the Ammonites, who possessed their ter
ritory until themselves subdued by Mo
ses, Deut. 2:20, 21. See AMMONITES, and
ZUZIM.

ZANO'AH, the name of two towns in
Judah, Josh. 15 : 34, 56. The inhabit
ants of one of them aided in rebuilding
Jerusalem, Neh. 3:13; 11:30.

ZAPH'NATH-PAANE'AH, saviour of
the world, an Egyptian name given by
Pharaoh to Joseph, in commemoration
of the salvation wrought through him,
Gen. 41:45.

ZA'RED. See ZERED.

ZAR'EPHATH, Obad. 20, a Phoenician
seaport on the Mediterranean between
Tyre and Zidon, usually subject to Tyre.
During a famine in Israel, the prophet
Elijah resided here, with a widow whose
cruse of oil and barrel of flour were sup
plied and whose child was restored to
life by miracle. Her noble faith in God
is worthy of everlasting remembrance ;
and her generous self-forgetfulncss, of
universal imitation, 1 Kings 17 : 9-24.
The place was afterwards called by the
Greeks Sarepta, Luke 4 : 26, and is now
known as Sarafend, a large village on
the hills adjoining1 the seacoast.

ZAR'ETAN, called also Zartanah and
491

ZEB

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ZED

Zarthan, 1 Kin. 4 : 12 ; 7: 46 ; a town on
the west side of the Jordan, near Betli-
shean and north of Succoth. The reflux
of the Jordan at the crossing of the Is
raelites was marked as far north as Zare-
tan, Josh. 3:16. See ZEIIEDA.

ZEB'EDEE, the husband of Salome,
and father of James and John the apos
tles. He was a fisherman in comfortable
circumstances, on the Avest shore of the
sea of Galilee, and readily spared his two
sons at the call of the Saviour, Mark
1:19, 20. His wife also attended Christ,
and ministered to him of her substance.
See SALOME. His son John was person
ally known to the high-priest, and was
charged by the dying Saviour with the
care of His mother, John 18 : 15, 16 ;
19 : 26.

ZEBO'IM, I., one of the four royal cit
ies in the vale of Siddim, destroyed by
fire from heaven. See SODOM. Eusebius
and Jerome mention a town by this name
in their day, on the western shore of the
Dead sea.

II. A valley and town of the Benja-
mites, east of Michmash, 1 Sam. 13 : 18 ;
Neh. 11:34. '

ZE'BUL,. a governor of the city of
Shechem, who labored adroitly to pre
serve the city for Abimelech his master,
the son of Gideon, Judg. 9.

ZEB'ULUN, I., or ZABULON, Eev. 7:8,
the sixth son of Jacob and Leah, born in
Mesopotamia, Gen. 30 : 20. Moses gives
us few particulars respecting him. His
tribe was respectable for numbers, Num.
1 : 30 ; 26 : 26 ; and its portion in the
Holy Land accorded with the prediction
of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 13, extending from
the Mediterranean sea at Carmel to the
sea of Gennesaret, between Issachar on
the south, and Naphtali and Asher on
the north and north-west, Josh. 19 : 10.
His posterity are often mentioned in con
nection with Issachar, his nearest broth
er, Deut. 33 : 18. They were entangled
with the Phoenicians on the west, Judg.
1:30, Isa. 8 : 23, and took part with Ba
rak and Gideon in the defence of the
country against its oppressors, Judg.
4 : 10 ; 5 : 18 ; 6 : 35. Elon, one of the

1'udges of Israel, was a Zebulunite, Judg.
2: 11, 12. The inhabitants of this region
in the time of Christ were highly favored
by his instructions — Nazareth and Cana,
Capernaum, Magdala, and Tiberias being
all in these limits.

II. A city in the border of Asher, but
492

probably belonging to Zebulun, Josh=
19:27.

ZECHARIAH, I., son of Berechiah,
and grandson of Iddo the priest ; called
the son of Iddo in Ezra 5:1; 6 : 14, and
his successor in the priesthood, Neh.
12:4, 16, perhaps because Berechiah was
then dead. ? Zechariah is the eleventh of
the minor prophets. He returned from
Babylon with Zerubbabel, and began to
prophesy while yet yoimg, Zech. 2:4, in
the second year of Darius son of Hystas-
pes, B. c. 520, in the eighth month of
the holy year, and two months after
Haggai. These two prophets, with unit
ed zeal, encouraged the people to resume
the work of the temple, which had been
discontinued for some years, Ezra 5:1.

Zechariah' s prophecies concerning the
Messiah are more particular and ex
press than those of most other prophets,
and many of them, like those of Dan
iel, are couched in symbols. The book
opens with a brief introduction ; after
which six chapters contain a series of
visions, setting forth the fitness of that
time for the promised restoration of Is
rael, the destruction of the enemies of
God's people, the conversion of heathen
nations, the advent of Messiah the
Branch, the outpouring and blessed in
fluences of the Holy Spirit, and the im
portance and safety of faithfully adher
ing to the service of their covenant God.
Chapter 7 relates to commemorative ob
servances. Chapters 9-11 predict the
prosperity of Judah during the times of
the Maccabees, together with the fate of
Persia and other adjacent kingdoms.
The remaining three chapters describe
the future destiny of the Jews, the siege
of Jerusalem, the triumphs of Messiah,
and the glories of the latter day when
' ' Holiness to the Lord ' ' shall be inscrib
ed on all things.

II. A wise and faithful prophetic coun
sellor of king Uzziah, whose death was
the beginning of calamities to Judah,
2 Chr. 26 : 5, 16, perhaps the same who
was the father-in-law of Ahaz, 2 Chr.
28:27; 29:1.

III. A son of Jeberechiah, associated
with Urijah the high-priest by Isaiah as
a "faithful witness," Isa. 8:1; 2 Chr.
29:13.

. IV. A son of Jehoiada. See ZACIIA-

RIAS I.

ZEDEKIAH, I., the twentieth and
last king of Judah, son of Josiah and

ZEL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ZEP

Hamutal, and uncle to Jeconiah his
predecessor, 2 Kin. 24:17, 19 ; Jer. 52:1.
When Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem,
he carried Jeconiah to Babylon, with his
wives, children, officers, and the best
artificers in Judea, and put in his place
his uncle Mattaniah, whose name he
changed to Zedekiah, and made him
promise with an oath that he would
maintain fidelity to him. He was twen
ty-one years old when he began to reign
at Jerusalem, and he reigned there elev
en years. He did evil in the sight of the
Lord, committing the same crimes as
Jehoiakim, 2 Kin. 24 : 18-20 ; 2 Chron.
36 : 11-13. Compare Jer. 29 : 16-19 ; 34 ;
38:5; Ezck. 17:12, 14, 18. In the ninth
year of his reign, he revolted against
Nebuchadnezzar, trusting to the support
of Pharaoh-hophra king of Egypt, which
proved ineffectual, and despising the
faithful remonstrances of Jeremiah, Jer.
37 : 2, 5, 7-10. In consequence of this
the Assyrian marched his army into Ju
dea, and took all the fortified places. In
the eleventh year of his reign, on the
ninth day of the fourth month, (July,)
Jerusalem was taken, 588 B. c. The king
and his people endeavored to escape by
favor of the night; but the Chaldean
troops pursuing them, they were over
taken in the plain of Jericho. Zedekiah
was taken and carried to Nebuchadnez
zar, then at Riblah, in Syria, who re
proached him with his perfidy, caused
his children to be slain before his face,
and his own eyes to be put out ; and
then loading him with chains of brass,
he ordered him to be sent to Babylon,
2 Kin. 25 ; Jer. 39 ; 52 ; Ezek. 19. All
these events remarkably fulfilled the
predictions of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, in
the chapters previously referred to.
Compare also, with respect to Zedeki
ah 's blindness, Jer. 34:3; Ezek. 12:13.

II. A false prophet, exposed by Mica-
iah when urging Ahab to fight with the
Syrians, 1 Kin. 22 : 11-37. His fate is
foreshadowed in ver. 25.

III. Another false prophet, denounced
by Jeremiah, Jer. 29:21, 22.

ZELOPH'EHAD, a descendant of Jo
seph, whose death in the wilderness,
leaving five daughters and no sons, led
to the establishment of a law that in
such cases daughters should inherit the
patrimony of their father ; but they were
not to marry out of their tribe, Num.
26:33; 27:1-11; Josh. 17:3,4.

ZELO'TES, a zealot; in general, one
passionately and fanatically ardent in
any cause. After the time of Christ,
the name Zelota? was commonly applied
to an association of private individuals
who without authority or law sought to
enforce their own views of the law. In
their opinion it was a high crime to pay
tribute to the Romans, and rebellion was
the duty of every patriotic Jew. Begin
ning with moderation, they became more
and more violent ; and during the Roman
war and the siege of Jerusalem by Titus,
their excesses and crimes under the pre
text of zeal for the Lord are described by
Josephus as truly appalling ; so that they
acquired the appropriate name of Sicarii,
or assassins. As the germ of this body
seems to have existed in our Lord's day,
some suppose that the apostle Simon Ze-
lotes was so called from his having once
belonged to it. The name Canaanite, or
more properly Cananite, from the He
brew kana, has the same meaning with
Zelotes, Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18. Little
moi'e is known respecting Simon.

ZE'NAS, a pious lawyer, and a friend
of Paul, who, writing from Nicopolis
during the last year of his life, com
mends him and Apollos, then at Crete
on a journey, to the kind offices of Titus,
Tit. 3 : 13. His name is Greek, and his
profession may have been Greek civil
law, rather than Jewish law.

ZEPHANI'AH, I., a Kohathite, in the
seventh generation from Levi, 1 Chron.
6:36.

II. A priest, high in the sacred order,
during the troublous times of king Zed
ekiah, who often communicated with
Jeremiah by his agency. He was among
the captives slain by the king of Babylon
at Riblah, 2 Kin. 25 : 18-21 ; Jer. 21 : 1 ;
29:25, 29; 37:3; 52:24-27.

III. The ninth in order of the minor
prophets, of the tribe of Simeon. He
prophesied in the early part of king Jo-
siah's reign, before the reforms of that
good king were instituted, 2 Chr. 34 : 3 ;
Zeph. 1 : 4, 5. This would fix his date
about 630 B. c., and the destruction of
Nineveh, foretold in Zeph. 2: 13, occur
red in 625 B. c. His prophecy contains
two oracles, in three chapters, directed
against idolaters in Judah, against sur
rounding idolatrous nations, and against
wicked rulers, priests, and prophets. It
closes with cheering promises of gospel
blessings. His style and manner are

493

ZEP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ZIK

like those of Jeremiah, during whose
early years they were contemporary. His
subsequent history is unknown.

ZEPHATH, a Canaanitish city after
wards called Hormah, one of the "utter
most cities of Judah southwards," after
wards assigned to Simeon, Josh. 12 : 14 ;
15:30 ; 19 : 4. The name is supposed to
be traceable in Sufah, a long and rough
pass leading from the south up into the
mountains of Judah. It was at Zephath
that the Israelites were repulsed in at
tempting to ascend from Kadcsh, Num.
14 : 40-45 ; 21 : 3 ; Deut. 1 : 44 ; Judg.
1:17.

ZEPHATHAH, a valley near Mare-
shah, south-west of Jerusalem, where
Asa defeated Zerah the Cushite, 2 Chr.
14 : 10.

ZE'RAH, I., the son of Reuel, and
grandson of Esau, Geu. 30:13, 17.

II. Son of Judah and Tamar, Gen.
38:30 ; called Zara in Matt. 1:3.

III. Son of Simeon, and founder of the
Zarhites, Num. 26 : 13 ; called Zohar in
Gen. 40:10.

IV. A Cushite king who invaded Ju
dah with an immense army in the reign
of Asa, 2 Chr. 14:0-13. It is not agreed
by interpreters whether he came from
Southern Arabia or from Egypt and
Ethiopia. Many, however, follow Cham-
pollion, who identifies him with Osor-
chon and Osoroth of the Egyptian monu
ments and history, the son and successor
of Shishak.

ZE'IIED, or ZARED, a brook, or the val
ley through which it flows into the south
east part of the Dead sea, probably by
Kir Moab, now Kerak, Num. 21 : 12 ;
Deut. 2:13, 14.

ZEIIE'DA, or ZERED'ATIIAII, a city of
Manasseh, near Beth-shean, 1 Kings
11:26 ; 2 Chr. 4:17 ; supposed to be the
same with Zere'rath, Judg. 7 : 22, and
perhaps ZARETA.N.

ZE'llESH, the wife of Haman, haughty
and revengeful like him, and destined to
see him and her ten sons hanging on the
gallows she had designed for Mordecai
the servant of God, Esth. 5: 10-14 ; 6:13 ;
7:10; 9:13.

ZERUB'BABEL, or ZOROB'ABEL, son of
Salathiel, of the royal race of David,
called " Sheshbazzar the prince of Ju
dah" in Ezra 1 : 8. Zerubbabel, as his
name imports, was born in Babylon, and
was the leader of the first colony of Jews
which returned from the Babylonish cap-
494

tivity, 536 B. c. Cyrus committed to his
care the sacred vessels of the temple,
with which he returned to Jerusalem,
Ezra 1 : 11. He is always named first,
as being chief of the Jews that returned
to their own country, Ezra 2:2; 3:8;
5:2; Hag. 1:1; 2:1-9, 21-23. He laid
the foundations of the temple, Ezra 3 : 8,
9, Zech. 4 : 9, and restored the worship
of the Lord, and the usual sacrifices.
When the Samaritans offered to assist in
rebuilding the temple, Zerubbabel and
the principal men of Judah refused them
this honor, since Cyrus had granted his
commission to the Jews only, Ezra 4 : 2,
3. They procured from the Persian court
an order that the work should cease ;
and it was not resumed until the second
year of Darius son of Hystaspes, 521 B. c.
We know nothing further of his history,
except that from him both Joseph and
Mary descended, Matt. 1 : 13 ; Luke 3 : 27-

ZERUI'AH, sister of David, and moth
er of his famous generals, Joab, Abishai,
and Asahel, 1 Chr. 2 : 16. Her husband,
is unknown.

ZI'BA, a rich steward of Saul, whom
David charged with similar duties tow
ards Mephibosheth, son of Jonathan,
2 Sam. 9 : 2-10. By a false representa
tion David was induced to transfer to
Ziba the lands he had given to Mephib
osheth, but afterwards divided them be
tween the two, being convinced that he
had acted hastily, and unable to decide
with certainty for either, 2 Sani. 16:1-4;
19:24-30.

ZICH'RI, a valiant Ephraimite prince,
general of Pekah king of Israel in the
war with Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28:7. He is per
haps the man called " Tabeal's son," Isa.
8:6, whom Ilezin and Pekah proposed to
make king of Judah.

ZI'DON. See SIDON. The word Zido-
nians often includes all the Phoenicians,
as well as the inhabitants of Zidon.

ZIF, the second month of the Hebrew
year, also called lyar, and nearly corre
sponding to our May, 1 Kin. 6:1.

ZIK'LAG, a city of Judah and Simeon,
on the borders of the Philistines, Josh.
15:31 ; 19:5, who held it until the time
of Saul, when Achish king of Gath gave
it to David. Hither many other refu
gees from Judah resorted, and David
was thus enabled to aid Achish, and to
chastise the Amalekites who had sacked
Ziklag during his absence, 1 Sam. 27 : 1-
6; 30; Neh. 11:28.

ZIL

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ZIO

ZIL'LAH, Gen. 4:19. See LAMECII.

ZIL'PAH, the maid of Leah, who be
came the secondary wife of Jacob, and
the mother of Gad and Asher, Gen.
29:24; 30:9-13.

ZIM'EI, I., a prince of the tribe of
Simeon, slain by Phinehas for his heav
en-daring crime on the plains of Moab,
Num: 25:14.

II. A general of half the cavalry of
Elah king of Israel. He rebelled against
his master, killed him, and usurped his
kingdom. He cut off the whole fam
ily, not sparing any of his relations or
friends ; whereby was fulfilled the word
of the Lord denounced to Baasha the fa
ther of Elah, by the prophet Jehu. Zim-
ri reigned but seven days ; for the army
of Israel, then besieging Gibbethon, a

city of the Philistines, made their gen
eral, Omri, king, and came and besieged
Zimri in the city of Tirzah. Zimri, see
ing the city on the point of being taken,
burned himself in the palace with all its
riches, 1 Kin. 16:1-20; 2 Kin. 9:31.

III. Others of this name are mentioned
inlChr. 2:6; 8:33-36.

ZIN, a desert on the south border of
Canaan, and the west of Edom, Num.
34 : 1-4. It formed part of the great wil
derness of Paran, Num. 13 : 26 ; and in
its north-east corner was Kadesh-barnea,
memorable for the death of Miriam, the
mission of the twelve spies into Canaan,
the murmuring of the Israelites, the rock
flowing with water, and the unholy pas
sion of Moses, Num. 13 : 21 ; 20 : 1-13 ;
27:14.

MOUNT ZION; WITH THE MOSQUE OF DAVID, PART OF THE SOUTH WALL OF THE CITY, AND THE

VALLEY OF HINNOM.

ZI'ON, or SIGN in the New Testament,
the highest and southernmost mount of
Jerusalem, rising about twenty-live hun
dred feet above the Mediterranean, and
from two to three hundred feet above
the valleys at its base. It was separated
from Akra on the north and Moriah on
the north-west by the valley Tyropoeon ;
and had the valley of Gihoii on the west,
495

that of Hinnom on the south, and that
of the Kidron on the south-east. It was
a fortified town of the Jebusites till sub
dued by David, and thenceforward was
often called "the city of David," 2 Sam.
5:7; 1 Kin. 8:1. He seems to have
greatly delighted in its beauty and
strength, and to have loved it as a type
of the church of the Messiah : " Beauti-

ZIP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ZOH

ful for situation, the joy of the whole
earth, is mount Zion, on the sides of
the north, the city of the great King."
"Walk about Zion, and go round about
her ; tell the towers thereof ; mark ye
well her bulwarks ; consider her palaces,
that ye may tell it to the generation fol
lowing : " " The kings were assembled,
they passed by together ; they saw it,
and so they marvelled ; they were troub
led, and hasted away," Psa. 48:2, 12, 13.
A mosque near its southern brow now
covers the "tomb of David" so called,
most jealously guarded by the Moham
medans, 1 Kin. 2 : 10 ; 1 1 : 43 ; 22 : 50.
This mount, together with Moriah and
Ophel, was enclosed by the first wall,
and fortified by citadels, 1 Chr. 11 : 5.
Upon it were erected the magnificent
palaces of Solomon and long afterwards
of Herod. It was finely adapted for the
purposes of military defence, and so
strongly was it fortified at the time of
its capture by the Eomans, that the em
peror exclaimed, " Surely we have had
God for our aid in the war ; for what
could human hands or machines do.
against these towers?" Great changes
have occurred on its surface, and a con
siderable portion of it lies outside of the
modern wall on the south, and is occu
pied by cemeteries, or "ploughed as a
field," according to Jer. 26 : 18 ; Micah
3 : 12. Two rabbis, we are told, ap
proaching Jerusalem, observed a fox
running upon the hill of Zion, and Rab-
bi Joshua wept, but Rabbi Eliczer laugh
ed. " Wherefore dost thou laugh ?" said
he who wept. ' ' Nay, wherefore dost
thou weep?" demanded Eliezer. "I
weep," replied the Rabbi Joshua, "be
cause I see what is written in the Lam
entations fulfilled ; because of the mount
of Zion, which is desolate, the foxes walk
upon it." "And therefore," said Rabbi
Eliezer, "do I laugh; for when I see
with my own eyes that God has fulfilled
his threatenings to the very letter, I have
thereby a pledge that not one of his
promises shall fail ; for He is ever more
ready to show mercy than judgment."

"Zion," and "the daughter of Zion,"
are sometimes used to denote the whole
city, including especially Moriah and the
temple, Psa. 2:6; 9:11; 74:2; Isa. 1:8;
Joel 2 : 23, and sometimes figuratively
for the seat of the true church on earth
and in heaven, Jer. 8 : 19 ; Heb. 12 : 22 ;
Rev. 14:1. See JERUSALEM.
496

ZIPH, a city of Judah, four miles
south-east of Hebron ; near it \vere wild
fastnesses in which David for a long time
lay hid, 1 Sam. 23:14, 15.

ZIPPORAH, daughter of Jethro, wife
of Moses, and mother of Eliezer and Ger-
shom. When Moses fled from Egypt into
Midian, and there stood up in defence of
the daughters of Jethro, priest or prince
of Midian, against shepherds who would
have hindered them from watering their
flocks, Jethro took him into his house,
and gave him his daughter Zipporah in
marriage, Ex. 2:15-22; 4:25; 18:2-4.

ZIZ, THE CLIFF OF, the pass near Enge-
di, by which the Moabites and Ammon
ites ascended from the shore of the Dead
sea, having followed the southern and
western coast to this point, 2 Chr. 20:16.
The same route is still traversed by the
Arabs.

ZO'AN, a very ancient city of Lower
Egypt, Num. 13 : 22, on the east side of
the Tanitic arm of the Nile, and called
by the Greeks Tanis, now San. It was
a royal city, Isa. 19 : 11, 13 ; 30 : 4, and
gave its name to the level country
around it, in wrhich were wrought the
first mighty works of God by Moses, Psa.
78: 12, 43. Vast heaps of ruined temples,
obelisks, sphinxes, etc., attest the an
cient grandeur of this city, and its ruin
according to prophecy, Ezek. 30:14.

ZOAR, a city on the south-east side
of the Dead sea, was destined, with the
other four cities, to be consumed by fire
from heaven ; but at the intercession of
Lot it was preserved, Gen. 14:2; 19:20-
23, 30. It was originally called Bela ;
but after Lot entreated the angel's per
mission to take refuge in it, and insisted
on the smallness of this city, it had the
name Zoar, which signifies small.

ZO'BAH, a country of Syria, whose
king carried on war with Saul and Da
vid, 1 Sam. 14 : 47 ; 2 Sam. 8:3; 10 : 6.
It seems to have lain near Damascus,
and to have included the city Hamath
conquered by Solomon, 2 Chr. 8 : 3, but
also to have extended towards the Eu
phrates, 2 Sam. 8:3.

ZO'HAR, a Hittite, Gen. 23 : 8. Also
a son of Simeon, Gen. 38 : 30, and a de
scendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 4:7.

ZO'HELETH, a large rock near the
well En-rogel, in the valley adjoining
Jerusalem on the south-east, where the
adherents of Adonijah assembled in re
bellion, IKin. 1:9.

ZOP

BIBLE DICTIONARY.

ZUZ

ZO'PHAR, one of Job's three friends,
a native of some unknown place called
Naamah. He appears but twice in the
dialogue, once less than his two associ
ates, whose general sentiments he shares,
with perhaps more severity of judgment
against Job, Job 2:11 ; 11 ; 20.

ZO'RAH, a city of Danites within the
limits of Judah, 2 Chr. 11 : 12, called also
Zoreah, Josh. 15 : 33 ; 19 : 40. Samson,
was a Zorite, or Zorathite, Judg. 13 : 2,
25 ; 1 Chr. 2:54 ; 4:2. It is now recog
nized in a secluded mountain village
called Surah, on the edge of the hills
north of Beth-shemesh. The road fol
lowed by Samson in going to Timnath
leads down through rocky gorges, very
likely to be haunted by wild beasts. It
was here that he slew the lion, without
the help of any weapon, Judg. 14:5-7.

ZOROB'ABEL. See ZERTJBBABEL.

ZUPH, plur. ZOPHIM, an Ephrathite,
ancestor of Samuel, and the region in
mount Ephraim which he inhabited,
1 Sam. 1:1; 9:5; 1 Chr. 6 : 35. See
under RAMAII II.

ZUR, a Midianitish prince, whose
daughter was slain by Phinehas, Num.
25 : 15-18, and who was himself subse
quently slain in war with the Israelites,
Josh. 13:21.

ZU'ZIM, taken by the Chaldee and
Septuagint version as an appellative for
stout and valiant men. They dwelt east
of the Jordan in the time of Abraham,
when they were subdued by Chedorlao-
mer and his allies, Gen. 14 : 5, and are
supposed to have been the same race of
giants called Zamzummim in Deut.
2:20.

497

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE,

COMPILED BY JOSEPH ANGUS, D.D.

PERIOD I

FROM THE CREATION, B. C. 4004, TO THE DEATH OF NOAH,
2006 YEARS.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

B. C.

4004.

4004.
Eden.

Eden.

40AQ 9

Gen. 1; 2:4-7.
Gen. 2:1-3.

Gen. 2:8-25.
Gen. 3:1-13
Rom. 5:14.
1 Cor. 15.
Gen. 3:14-24.
Gen. 4:1, 2.

Gen. 4:3-7.
Gen. 4:8-15.

Gen. 4:16-24.
Gen. 4:25, 26.

Gen. 5.
Gen. 5 : 5.

Gen. 6.

Gen. 6:18.
Gen. 7.
Gen. 8.
O pn Q • 1 17

Institution of the Sibbith

Creation of Adam and Eve, briefly described in

Connection of the first sin with man's subsequent j
st'\te - 1

First promise of a Saviour ; expulsion from Eden

Near Eden.
3875.
3875.
3875-3504,
Nod.
3874,
Near Eden.
3769.

3074.

2408.

2468.

2348.
2347,
Armenia, or Ar-
arat, Gen. 8:4.
Togarmah,
Ezek. 27:14.
2247, A. M.
1757.
B. c. 2233.

Shinar, or Irak
Ardbi.
1998.

Cain builds Enoch; his descendants; Lamech'b

Birth of Seth and of Enos ; world and church dis-

Genealogy from Adam to Noah ; the line of the

Wickedness of the world ; God determines to de
stroy it after a respite of 120 years ; Noah
Tvrp<irhp« (9 Ppf 9 • ^ ^

Covenant renewed with him ; he builds an ark as

Noah enters the ark ; the Deluge, A. M. 1656,

Noah and his sons ; his prediction concerning

Gen. 9:18-27.

Gpn 11-1 Q

Genealogies of Noah's sons ; Nimrod founds the

Gen. 10.

Gen. 11:10-28.

Gen. 9:28, 29.

Genealogy from Shem to Terah ; the line of the

499

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD II.

FROM THE DEATH OF NOAH TO THE BIRTH OF MOSES
417 YEARS.

DATE AND PLACE

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

B. c. I. JOB.

Uz, in Eastern The exact date of Job is not known. There is

Idunuca. good reason, however, for placing his history

before that of Abraham. Chapters 19:25-27 ;

32 : 23-28, are direct references to the work of

the Messiah, Job 1-42.

II. ABRAHAM.
1996, Birth of Abraham ; marries Sarai ; leaves Ur and

Ur, Orfa his idolatrous kindred, (Josh. 24 : 2,) - Gen. 11 : 27-32.

1922, Terah, Lot, and Sarai ; death of Terah, - - See Acts 7 : 2-4.

Haran, Charrce,

Harran.
1921, Canaan. Leaves Huran at God's command with Sarai and

Lot,--- - Gen. 12:1-9.

{Gen. 12:1-9.
RomA4tS8:25'
Gal. 3:16.

1920. Visits Egypt ; dissimulates, - - Gen. 12 : 10-20.

1918. Returns to Canaan ; Lot in Sodom, - Gen. 13 : 1-13.

1917, Hebron. Promises renewed ; goes to Mamre, Gen. 13 : 1-4-18.

1913, Siddim, Chedorlaomer ; Lot taken and rescued, Gen. 14.

El Ghor.

Melchizedek blesses Abram, Gen. 14.

1912, Hebron. Covenant of God with Abram, Gen. 15.

1910. Hagar; Ishmael born, Gen. 16.

1897. Covenant renewed; names changed; circumcis- Gen. 17.

ion,

Abraham entertains angels, one of whom is the ( Gen. 18; 19:1-
Angel of the covenant ; Sodom ; Lot's wife ; 1 36 ; 19:4-11

Lot's incest,- - ( 30-36.

1896, Gerar. Abraham leaves Hebron ; dissembles with Abime-

lech, Gen. 20.

Land of Moab. Moab and Ben-ammi born, - Gen. 19:37, 38.

Isaac born ; Ishmael sent away ; covenant with

Abimelech, Gen. 21:1-34.

Moriah, (site of Trial of Abraham's faith, - Gen. 22:1-19

the temple.)

Machpelah,near Death and burial of Sarah, Gen. 23.

Hebron. Account of Nahor ' s family, - - Gen. 22 : 20-24.

1856, Abraham sends his servant to Haran ; Laban re-

Beersheba. ceives him ; marriage of Isaac, - Gen. 24.

1850. Abraham marries Keturah ; children by her, Gen. 25:1-6.

1836, Birth of Esau and Jacob ; .their character, Gen. 25: 19-28.

Lahai-roi.

1821, Abraham dies ; Isaac and Ishmael bury him in

Beersheba. the cave of Machpelah, 1 Gen. 25 : 7-11.

500

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.
PERIOD II. — CONTINUED.

PATH AND PLACE.

EVENT OU KAXRATIVR

BIBLE REFERENCE.

B. C.

III. ISAAC AND JACOB.

1804, Esau sells Jacob his birthright ; Isaac leaves Ca-

Lahai-roi. naan,- - Gen. 25:29-35.

1804. Covenant confirmed to Isaac at Gerar, Gen. 2G : 1-5.

1804, Isaac dissembles ; covenant with Abimelcch, Gen. 26:6-33.

Beersheba.

1796. Esau marries two Hittitc women, - Gen. 26:34, 5.

1773. Death of Ishmael ; descendants, - - Gen. 25 : 12-18.

17GO, Jacob obtains his father's blessing, and flees from

Beersheba. Esau, -- Gen. 27; 28 : 1-5.

1760, Jacob's vision at Luz ; the promises continued j Gen. 28:10-22 ;

Padan-aram. to him ; stays with Laban his uncle, -- { 29:1-14.

1760, Arabia. Esau marries a daughter of Ishmael, Gen. 28 : 6-9.

1753. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel, -- Gen. 29 : 15-30.

1752-1745, Jacob's children: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and
Fadan-aram, Judah, by Leah ; Dan and Naphtali, by Bil-
Al Jezirah. hah, Rachel's maid ; Gad and Asher, by Zil-

pah, Leah's maid; Issachar, Zebulun, and j

Dinah, by Leah ; Joseph, by Rachel, j

1745. Jacob's bargain with Laban ; he becomes rich, -- Gen. 30:25-43.

1739, Galeed. Jacob, returning to Canaan, is pursued by Laban ;

1739, their covenant, — Gen. 31.

Succoth. Sec Jacob' s vision at Mahanaim ; wrestles with an ) r oo oo i
Josh. 13:27. angel at Penuel ; reconciled to Esau ; settles > ^J *•*» °6 : L~~

at Succoth, - )

1736, Shechem. Jacob removes to Shalem, Gen. 33 : 18-20 ; birth

of sons of Judah, - - Gen. 88:1-5.

1732 Dinah defiled by Shechem ; slaughter of Shechem-

ites by Simeon and Levi, Gen. 34.

thel, Luz, Jacob removes ; purges his household of idols ;
Beit-in. the promises renewed to him ; his name changed

to Israel, Gen. 35:1-15.

Rachel dies on the birth of Benjamin, Gen. 35: 16-2C

1729, Hebron. Sin of Reuben ; Jacob abides with Isaac, Gen. 35 : 21-27.

1729. Esau's descendants, Gen. 36.

IV. JOSEPH, ETC.
1728, Dothan. Joseph's two dreams ; envy of his brethren ; sold

to the Ishmaelites and to Potiphar in Egypt, - - Gen. 37.
1726, Timnath. Er and Onan slain by God ; incest of Judah and

Tamar ; Pharez, a progenitor of Messiah, born, Gen. 38:6-30.
1719, Egypt. Joseph advanced, tempted, falsely accused, and

imprisoned, Gen. 39.

1718. Pharaoh's butler and baker imprisoned ; Joseph

interprets their dreams, - Gen. 40

1716. Death of Isaac at Mamre, - Gen. 35:28, 20.

1715. Joseph interprets Pharaoh's dreams; his eleva
tion, -- Gen. 41:1-49.

1712, 1711. Birth of Joseph's two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, Gen. 41:50-52.

1708. Commencement of the seven years' famine, Gen. 41:53-57.

1707. Joseph's ten brethren come to buy corn ; Simeon

a pledge, Gen. 42.

601

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD II. — CONTINUED

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OK NARRATIVE.

BIBIJE REFERENCE.

B C.

1706.
1706.
1704-1701,

1689, Egypt.
1689.

Machpelah.
1689.
1635, Egypt.

1577, Egypt.
1573.

They come again to buy corn ; Joseph makes him
self known to them ; sends for his father,
Jacob and his family arrive ; settle in Goshen ; j

Gen. 43-45.
Gen. 46:8-25;
47:1-12.

Gen. 47:13-26.
Gen. 47:27-31;

48.

Gen. 49.

(lpn r:n.i 1 q

Joseph, by giving corn to the Egyptians, in-

Jacob's predictions concerning his sons and Ju-

ftpn ^0-14. ^1

Joseph predicts the return to Canaan ; charges
them to carry up his bones there ; his death, - -
The Israelites multiply ; a new king oppresses j

tViPin ~\

Gen. 50:22-26.
Eyod. 1:1-21;
L5-21.

Exod. 1:22.

Pharaoh orders the male children to be cast into

PERIOD III.

FROM THE BIRTH OF MOSES, B. C. 1571, TO HIS DEATH, 120 YEARS.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

B. C.

1571-1532.
1531, Midian.

1531, Egypt.

1491, Horeb,
(Acts 7:30.)

I. TO THE EXODE.
Birth, exposure, rescue, and early life of Moses, -
Moses, having killed an Egyptian, flees ; marries
Zipporah, daughter of Jethro ; Gershom born, -

The Israelites groan for their bondage, -1

God appears to Moses in a burning bush ; ap
points him and Aaron to bring the Israelites

Ex. 2:1-10.

Ex. 2:11-22.
Ex. 2:23 25;
Psa. 88.

1491, Egypt,
(4.cts 7 '31 )

Moses leaves Midian ; meets Aaron ; they deliver

HjX. o ; 4:1— i/.
FV 4-m 3i

Moses and Aaron demand the release of the Is-

TTv ^

1491.
1491.

1491.

1491.
1491

God renews his promise by his name Jehovah, —
Descendants of Reuben, Simeon, and of Levi, from
whom came Moses arid Aaron, - — - -
Moses and Aaron again sent ; confirm their mes
sage by a miracle ; magicians imitate them, -

Pharaoh refuses to let Israel go ; eight plagues, •

Ex. 6:1-13.

Ex. 6:14-27.
Ex. 6:28-30;
7:1-13.
Ex. 7:14-25; 8;
9; 10:1-20.

-pi 19-1 OA

1491

Ex 10 <91 27

1491.

Israelites bidden to ask gold of the Egyptians ; (
Pharaoh threatened with the death of the -|
firstborn - -.-_« _ /

Ex. 11:1-8;
10:28, 29;
n.q in

5i

)2

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.
PERIOD III.— CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

B. C.

491.

1491, Barneses.

The Passover eaten, the same day of the same
month on which Christ our Passover was sacri
ficed for us ; the firstborn slain, —

The exodus of Israel fVom Egypt, A. M. 2513,-- •]

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

II. JOURNEYS OF THE ISRAELITES.

1491, Succoth, First journey. Passover reinforced. Firstborn [ Ex;3_r \ \ 3-/3 3-?l
Eccl. year 1. commanded to be set apart. Joseph's bones 1

removed,-;-- ^ Num! 33:1-5.

1 mon., 1 day. Second journey. Israel guided by a pillar of I Ex. 13:20-22;

Etham. cloud and lire, Num. 33 : 6.

1491, Pihahi- Third journey. Pharaoh pursues,

Fourth journey. Passage of the Red sea. See f E
l Cor. 10 : 1, 2. Destruction of Pharaoh's! i'r or
army. Song of Moses. The bitter waters ] vr
sweetened,

Elim, Wady Fifth journey, §

Ghurundcl.
Red sea. Sixth journey, - - Num. 33:10.

2 mon., 15 day. Seventh journey. People murmur for bread. j -^ 16 '1-86
Desert of Sin. Quails and manna. Directions on manna. >• ^" ' „'., 1°,

See John 6:31, 49; Rev. 2:17, ) J

Dophkah. Eighth journey, - Num. 33:12.

Alush. Ninth journey, - Num. 33:13.

Rephidim. Tenth journey. Water given from the rock in ) ,-, .,_ -. 1

Horeb, (1 Cor. 10:4.) Joshua defeats Ama- \ £x' «o~i

lek, while Moses prays,-- --) J

3 mon., 15 day. Eleventh journey. Preparation for giving of j Ex. 19:1-25

Sinai. the law, - -- | Num. 33:15.

1491. Moral law given. Divers laws (chiefly judicial)

3 mon., 15 day. enjoined. The angel promised as a guide to

Sinai. the Israelites, - - Ex. 20:23.

The people promise obedience ; the blood of the
covenant sprinkled on them. Moses and others
have a vision of God's glory. Moses remains

forty days and forty nights in the mount, Ex. 24.

Ceremonial law given. The tabernacle and its
furniture, the priests and their garments, etc.
The Sabbath again enjoined. Daily saciifice
and incense. Rom. 8:3; Rev. 8 : 3, 4. Tables

of the law given to Moses, Ex. 25-31.

Idolatry of the calf; the tables broken ; the peo
ple punished ; the tabernacle removed out of
the camp. Moses intercedes for the people,

and asks to see God' 8 glory, Ex. 32:33.

Eccl. year 1. The tables renewed ; the name of the Lord pro-
6 mon., Sinai. claimed; God makes a covenant with Israel.
Moses stays on the mount forty days and forty

nights; his face shines, Ex. 34.

503

BIBLE REFERENCE.

Ex. 12:21-30.

Ex. 12:31-36,

and 40-42.

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD III. —CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

B. C.

1491.

Offerings of the people for the tabernacle. Beza-
leel and others prepare the tabernacle and its
furniture, '

Ex. 35-39.
{ Ex. 40:1-16;

1490. Moses commanded to rear the tabernacle and to 1 (John 1 : 14 ;

Eccl. year 2. anoint it, and to sanctify Aaron and his sons, 1 2: 19-21.

1 mon., 1 day. [ Col. 2:9.)

1490. The tabernacle set up. The glory of the Lord

Eccl. year 2. fills it. The Israelites directed by the cloud,-- Ex. 40:17-38.

1 mon., 1 day. Laws on various sacrifices and offerings, Lev. 1-7.

Consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests, — Lev. 8.
1 mon., 8 day. The offerings of Aaron. Fire consumes the sacri
fice, - - Lev. 9.

The offerings of the princes accepted, Num. 7.

Destruction of Nadab and Abihu, Lev. 10.

Of the great day of atonement, and of the scape- j Lev. 16 ; see
goat, - - ] Heb.9; 5:1.

1 mon., 14 day. The second Passover celebrated. Some allowed

to observe it in the secon^ month, Num. 9: 1-14.

Laws on meats and purifications, -- Lev. 11-15.

Miscellaneous laws, moral, ceremonial, and judi
cial. Shelomith's son stoned for blasphemy,-- Lev. 17-22 ; 24.

Laws concerning festivals, etc.,- — Lev. 23; 24.

Prophetic promises and threatenings, - Lev. 26.

Laws of vows, devotions, and tithes, Lev. 27.

2 mon., 1 day. The tribes numbered ; their order, - Num. 1 ; 2.

The Lcvitcs appointed to the service of the tab
ernacle instead of the firstborn ; their duties,- - Num. 3 ; 4.

Institution of various ceremonies. The law of

the Nazarites. The form of blessing, Num. 5 ; 6.

Consecration of the Levites ; their age and period

of service, Num. 8.

Use of the silver trumpets, Num. 10:1-10.

Manner in which the cloud guided the people, -- Num. 9:15-23.

Arrival of Jcthro with Moses' wife and sons'. He
.. ,^1 advises Moses to appoint judges to assist, Ex. 18: 1-26.

2 mon., 20 day. Twelfth journey. Order of the march,

Wilderness of Moses entreats Hobab to accompany Israel; I Num. 10:29-32;

Paran, El Tyh. Jethro returns to Midian, ( Ex. 18 : 27.

The form of blessing on the removal and resting

of the ark, Num. 10:33-36.

The burning at Taberah. People murmur for
flesh ; Moses complains of his charge ; seventy
elders appointed as a council to assist him ;

quails given in wrath, Num. 11 :1 -34.

Hazeroth. Thirteenth journey. Miriam smitten with lep- j Num. 11 : 35 ;

rosy for sedition, "j (33:17,) 12:15.

5 mon. to 7 mon. Fourteenth journey. Spies sent to search the \ -^ 19 • ifi-
Kadesh Barnea, land ; ten of them bring an evil report; Ca- > *«q ioV -10 '

or En Mishpat. leb and Joshua faithful, ) ^

604

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.
PERIOD III. — CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE,

B. C.

1-490. Israel murmurs at the report of the spies ; God) -^ 14 i QQ

Eccl. year 2. threatens ; Moses intercedes ; condemned to [• psa 90

7 mon. , 6 day. wander forty years, )

The people, going up against the will of God, are

discomfited, Num. 14:40-45.

Laws of offerings ; the sabbath-breaker stoned,-- Num. 15.
The rebellion of Korah, etc. ; earthquake, fire,
and plague inflicted ; Aaron approved as high-
priest by the budding of his rod, Num. 16 ; 17.

The charge and portion of the priests and Le-

vites, Num. 18.

Water of purification ; how to be made anc

used, - Num. 19.

1490-1452. The next seventeen journeys (15th to 31st) of the
Eccl. year 2-40. Israelites, being their wandering in the wilder
ness nearly thirty-eight years, Num. 33 : 1 9-35.

1452. Thirty-second journey ; Death of Miriam, j N 3™.'3g0: 1 '

Eccl. year 40. The people murmur for water ; Moses and Aaron

1 mon. transgressing, not to enter Canaan, Num. 20: 2-13.

1490, Kadesh. Edom refuses a passage to the Israelites, Num. 20: 14-21.

Mount Hor. Thirty-third journey ; Aaron dies ; Arad attacks Num. 20 : 22 to

Israel, and is defeated, 21:3; 33:37 -40.

Zalmonah. Thirty-fourth journey; the people murmur; (See John 3: 14;)
fiery serpents are sent; the brazen serpent Num. 21:4-9";

setup, (33:41.)

Punon, Oboth, Thirty-fifth, thirty-sixth, and thirty-seventh j Num. 21:10, 11;

lim. journeys, ( 33:42-44.

Dibon-gad. Thirty-eighth journey, Num. 33:45.

The Israelites stop at Zared, Arnon, and Beer,--- Num. 21:12-18.
Sihon the Amorite opposes their passage ; de
feated, Num. 21:21-32.

Og of Bashan attacks them ; defeated, Num. 21 : 33-35.

Almon- Thirty-ninth journey, Num. 33:46.

diblathaim.

Abarim. Fortieth journey, Nugm. '$ : 18-20»

(Luke l': 78;

Rev. 22:16;
Plains of Moab Forty -first journey; account of Balaam and 1 Cor. 15:25 ;)

by Jordan. Balak, Num. 22:1-

41 ; (33 : 48 ;)
23; 24.
Forty-second journey; idolatry of Baal-Peor; j Num. 25:1-18;

zeal of Phinehas, ] (33:49.)

Third numbering of the people, - Num. 26.

The daughters of Zelophehad ; laws of inherit- j Num. 27:1-11 ;

ance, "j 36.

Laws of offerings, vows, etc. , Num. 28-30.

1451. The slaughter of Midian ; Balaam slain, Num. 31.

Eccl. year 40. Territories given to Reuben, Gad, and part of

Manasseh, on the east of Jordan, Num. 22.

22 505

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO TEE BIBLE.

PERIOD III.— CONTINUED,

DATE AND PLACE. )

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

B. C.

1451.

Directions for the Israelites on their entering")
Canaan ; borders of the land described ; forty-
eight cities for the Levites, of which six are
to be cities of refuge ; the laws on murder, - -

III. THE REVIEW AND CLOSING CHAEGE
OF MOSES.

Eccl. year 40. Moses reviews the history of the Israelites, intro
ducing some new particulars, Deut. 1:4.

Deut. 5:9;
11 mon., 1 day. The moral law repeated and enforced, -J 10 : 1-5, 10-

The ceremonial law repeated, with injunctions j Deut. 12-16 ;

against idolatry etc., - ( 17:1.

Plains of Moab The judicial law repeated and explained. Christ | rjeut
by Jordan. foretold as the Prophet to whom they are to >• i «-°G
hearken, )

Moses directs Israel, after entering Canaan, to
write the law on stones, and to recite its bless
ings and curses upon mount Gerizim and mount
Ebal, - Deut. 27.

Prophetic promises and curses, Deut. 28.

Concluding appeal to the Israelites, Deut. 29 ; 30.

IV. JOSHUA'S APPOINTMENT— DEATH OF
MOSES.

Eccl. year 40. Joshua appointed to succeed Moses, Num. 27 : 12-23.

11 mon. Moses encourages the people and Joshua ; charges
the priests to read the law publicly every sev
enth year, Deut. 31:1-13.

God's charge to Joshua; Moses writes a song of
witness ; completes the writing of the law, and
delivers it to the Levites, with a prediction of
the disobedience of Israel, -- Deut. 31:14-29.

Moses recites his song, and exhorts Israel to set j Deut. 31 :30 ;
their hearts upon it, - "j 32: 1-47.

Moses ascends mount Nebo to view the land of

Canaan, and to die, - - - - Deut. 32:48-52.

Moses prophetically blesses the tribes, Deut. 33.

1451. Moses views the promised land ; his death, burial,

and character, ••-- Deut. 34.

BIBLE REFERENCE

Num. 33: 50-56;
34; 35.

506

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD IV.

FROM THE ENTRANCE INTO CANAAN TO THE DEATH OF
SOLOMON, 475 YEARS.

DATE i>'D PLACE.

EVE>T OR XARRATIVB

BIBLE REFERENCE.

L CONQUEST OF CANAAN, 7 YEARS.

(TO THE JUDGES, 2o YEARS.)
B. c.

1451. God's charge to Joshua, - Josh. 1 : 1-9.

Eccl. year 41. Spies sent to Jericho ; Rahah receives them, Josh. 2.

1 mon.t 1 day. Joshua reminds Reuben, etc., of their engage- f

ment, (cf. Num. 22;) they promise obedi- T , , -la 10
ence. The Israelites directed concerning the \ o j_Vo
passage of the Jordan. God encourages

Joshua, -- [

10 day. Passage of the Jordan, (A. M. 2551;) a memo- I Josh. 3:14-17;

rial erected ; the Canaanites alarmed, ( 4 ; 5: 1.

1451, Gilgal. Circumcision renewed; the Passover; manna

ceases, - - Josh. 6:2-12.

The Captain of the Lord's host appears to ( Josh. 6:1;
Joshua ; miraculous capture of Jericho ; a -| 5 : 13-15 ;

curse on the rehuilder of it, ( 6:2-27.

The Israelites discomfited through Achan's sin ;

he is destroyed, •• Josh. 7.

Capture of Ai by stratagem , Josh. 8 : 1-29.

Gilgal. The Gibeonites obtain a league with Joshua, Josh. 9.

Conquest of several kings in succession, Josh. 10.

1450-1445. The rest of the conquests, Josh. 11.

1444, Ebal and The law written on a stone altar, (cf. Dcut. 27,)

Gerizim. and proclaimed to all the people, - Josh. 8:30-35.

Reuben, etc. , return to their land on the eastern
side of Jordan ; they erect an altar < i memo
rial; Israel offended, ask an explanation, Josh. 22.

II. GENERAL DIVISION OF THE LAND.

1444. Enumeration of conquests, Josh. 12.

Land not yet .conquered, Josh. 13 : 1-6.

Joshua divides the land ; the nine tribes and a ) T , 10.714.
half receive their portions by lot ; the Levitcs V J0°"-. £V ' "
not to receive land, - : )

Inheritance of Reuben, etc., on the eastern side
of Jordan, •• Josh. 13:15-33.

Hebron, Kir- Inheritance of Caleb, - j 16* 18-19

jath Arba, T , ' ir . -,'_•• 9

Josh. 21:11. LotofJudah, - 9(3-63

Lots of Ephraim and half of Manasseh, - - Josh. 16 ; 17.

1444, Shiloh. The tabernacle set up, Josh. 18 . 1 -

Lots of the other tribes; Joshua's inherit- j iJosh. 18:2-28;

ance, --- - ---( 19.

Cities of refuge appointed, - - Josh. 20.

Levitical cities, Josh. 21.

507

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBL£

PERIOD IY. — CONTINUED.

DATK AND PLACE,

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

III. LAST ACTS OF JOSHUA, ETC.

1 427, Shechern, Joshua's charge to the elders of Israel, - Josh. 23.

fcychar N. T. Joshua addresses the tribes and renews the cove
nant, - - Josh. 24:1-28.

1426, Shechem. Death and burial of Joshua, Josh. 24 : 29-31.

Burial of Joseph's bones, etc., Josh. 24:32, 33.

IV. INTERREGNUM AND GOVERNMENT
OF JUDGES, 330 YEARS.

Conquests after Joshua's death, Judg. 1:1-26.

iNations not subdued by Israel, Judg. 1 : 27-36.

1425, Bochim. The angel of the Lord rebukes the Israelites for

not driving out the Canaanites, - Judg. 2 : 1-5.

Commencement of idolatry in Israel, Judg. 2 : 6-13

1413. Account of Micah and his image, Judg. 17.

A party of Danites, having robbed Micah of his
image, establish themselves in Laish, (after
wards Dan.) and set up idolatry, Judg: 18.

1406, Gibeah, History of the Levite and his concubine ; slaugh-

Jeba. ter of the Bcnjamites, etc., Judg. 19; 20; 21.

The captivities of Israel for idolatry, and their ( Judg. 2:14-23 ;

deliverances by judges, - ") 3:1-4.

1402-1394. Captivity of the eastern Israelites for eight years

to Mesopotamia ; Othniel judge, Judg. 3 : 5-11.

1354-1336. Captivity of the eastern Israelites for eighteen

years to Moab ; Ehud judge, - Judg. 3 : 12-30.

Captivity of the western Israelites to the Philis
tines; Shamgar judge, Judg. 3:31.

1316-1296. Captivity of the northern Israelites for twenty
years to the Canaanites ; Deborah judge ; song

of Deborah and Barak, Judg. 4 ; 5.

1256. Captivity of the eastern and northern Israelites

for seven years to Midian, - Judg. 6 : 1-6.

Bethlehem. The history of Ruth, an ancestress of the Messiah, Ruth 1-4.
1249, Shechem. Gideon judge; is visited by the Angel of the ) T , „ „ An
covenant, and delivers Israel from Midian ; V Juag- b-'-4",

refuses to be made king, ) /; °'

1235-1232. Usurpation of Abimelech ; Jotham's fable, - Judg. 9.

1232-1188. Tola and Jair judges, Judg. 10:1-5.

1206-1188. The Philistines and Ammonites oppress Israel] Judg. 10:6-18;

for eighteen years ; Jephthah ; his vow, } 11.

1187. Slaughter of Ephraim by the Gileadites, - Judg. 12: 1-6.

182-1157. Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon judges, - Judg. 12:7-15.

1156-1116. The Philistines oppress Israel forty years, Judg. 13: 1.

1156. Birth of Samson,--- Judg. 13:2-25.

1155, Shiloh. Birth of Samuel ; Hannah's song, j 1 Syn. 1 ; 2:1-

The wickedness of Eli's sons, 1 Sam. 2 : 12-21.

1143. Call of Samuel, 1 Sam. 3.

508

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD IV. — CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE,

EVKXT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERKXCK.

B. C.

1136-1117.

Marriage of Samson ; his exploits,
Judgment on Eli's house,

Judg. 14; 15:1-
19; 16:1-3.

ISam. 2:22-36,
22-25.

1116, Gaza. Capture and death of Samson, — ' iQ-4_gi

1116, Ebenezer. Israel twice defeated by the Philistines ; ark j 1 Sam. 4 ; 19-

taken and Eli's sons slain ; death of Eli, ( 22.

Ashdod,Azotus, The ark placed in the house of Dagon; re-
Acts 8: 40: moved to Ekron, (Akir,) then to ^Bethshe- ISam, 5; 6;
Esdud, mesh, (Ain Shans,) thence to Kirjath-jearim, ' 7:1, 2.

where it remains till removed by David,

1112, Mizpeh. Samuel judge ; he moves the Israelites to repent
ance ; the Philistines discomfited, - -- 1 Sam. 7:3-17.

1095, Ramah, Samuel appoints his sons judges ; their corrupt
in Ephraim. government ; the Israelites ask for a king ;

God bids Samuel hearken to them, 1 Sam. 8.

V. THE REIGN OF SAUL, 40 YEARS.

1096, Ramah. Samuel privately anoints Saul as king, and] ISam. 9; 10:1-

gives him three signs, { 16.

Mizpeh. Saul chosen and proclaimed king, ISam. 10: 17-27.

Gilgal, s. E. of Saul rescues Jabesh-Gilead ; is inaugurated as

Jericho. king; Samuel's address to Israel, 1 Sam. 11 ; 12.

1094. Saul gathers an army against the Philistines ; he

disobeys Samuel, and is warned of his rejection

from the kingdom, 1 Sam. 13:1-15.

The Philistines discomfited ; Saul's rash oath ) ^ gam j« . -, ~
endangers Jonathan ; the people rescue him ; >• OQ . 14

Saul's victories ; his family, - )

1080. Saul smites the Amalekites; spares Agag and
the best of the spoil ; denounced by Sam
uel, --- 1 Sam. 15.

1064. Samuel secretly anoints David, at Bethlehem, as
Bethlehem. future lung, ISam. 16:1-13.

(1 Sam. 17 : 1-40,
55, 56, 41-54,
57, 58; 18:1-
4 ; Psa. 9.

1063. David's victories; Saul's melancholy; he at- j 10^1^-23 ~ '
tempts to kill David T ^g! \Q_IQ '

f 1 Sam. 18 : 17-

1062, Gibeah, David marries Saul's daughter; Saul makes 30; 19:1-3;
Naioth. various attempts to kill him ; David flees to \ Psa. 11 ;

Samuel ; Saul sends after him, 1 Sam . 19 : 4-24 ;

{ Psa. 59.

1062. David's covenant with Jonathan, 1 Sam. 20.

1061, Nob and David flees to Ahimelech, (where his lie costs ) ^ „ 2i •
Gath. the lives of the priests of the house of Eli,) >• p ^ , Q\

then to Achish ; feigns madness, ) rs

509

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.
PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED.

BATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

jl Sam. 22:1;
Psa. 142 ;

B' 2 Sam 22 -1 2 •

10G2, Adullam. i David flees again, joined by several followers,- | Q. l^-S-ls''

2Sam.2S: 13-13;
IChr.ll : 15-19.

Nob. David goes to Mizpeh, then to Harcth ; slaugh- p^^lOsT 17*'

ter of the priests by Saul, 140^35 64 '

f 1 Sam. 23:1;'

Keilah. Abiathar joins David; David defeats the Phi- j 22:20-23;

listines, 1 23:6,2-5,7-12;

I Psa. 31.

TAPA TT T, -r, • i • • IT 1- ( 1 Sam. 23:13-23;

1060, Zipn. Saul pursues David ; an invasion obliges him J pga ^ .

to return,-- 1 1 Sam. 23: 24-28.

1059, Engedi, Saul pursues David; David spares Saul's life; j 1 Sam. 23: 29; 24;

HazezonTamar, Saul confesses his fault, - ( Psa. 57, 58, 63.

1058, Ziph. Death of Samuel ; David and Nabal, - 1 1 Sam. 25.

David again spares Saul's life, -1 Sam. 26.

1057. David flees to Achish, 1 Sam. 27:1-7 ; Psa. 141 ;

several resort to him, - jl Chr. 12:1-7.

David makes an excursion on the Amalekites,

and repairs to Gath with the booty, 1 Sam. 27 : 8-12.

1056. The Philistines prepare for war, and advance toi

Shunem ; David accompanies them ; Saul con-

suits the witch of Endor, 1 Sam. 28.

David dismissed from the army of the Philis- f 1 Sam. 29.
tines ; on his way back to Ziklag he is joined 4 1 Chr, 12 : 19-

by several, - - — ( 22.

On his return to Ziklag, David finds that it had
been sacked by Amalek, and his family taken ;

he pursues Amalek, and smites them, 1 Sam. SO.

Gilboa, Djebal Saul, defeated in battle and his sons slain, kills j 1 Sam. 31 ;

Gilbo. himself, j 1 Chr. 10:1-14.

Ziklag, (16 m. An Amalckite pretends to have slain Saul, and is

of Gath ?) put to death by David, 2 Sam. 1 : 1-16.

David's lament over Saul and Jonathan, 2 Sam. 1: 17-27.

VI. THE REIGN OF DAVID, 40 YEARS.

1056, Hebron. David acknowledged as king of Judah, 2 Sam. 2:1-7.

Acts 13 : 21. Ishbosheth proclaimed king of Israel, 2 Sam. 2 : 8-1 1.

1054. Civil war ensues; David waxes stronger; Ab- j 2 Sam. 12:32;

ner and Ishbosheth treacherously slain, 1 3 ; 4.

' 2 Sam. 5:1-3;
23 : 8-12, 18-
39; 5:4, 5,

1049, Hebron, David made king over all Israel ; his troops ; I 6-10 ;
Jerusalem. he dispossesses the Jebtisites of the hill of" 1 Chr. 11:1-3;

Zion. and dwells there, » 12:23-40;

11:10-14, 20
26-47, 4-9.

510

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

B. C.

1048.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

Biram of Tyre congratulates David ; David's j -/^
family; he twice defeats the Philistines, 1 ^ ™ ~ i _YT

2 Sam. 6:1-11;

6:12-23;

1046, from Kir- David removes the ark ; Uzzah, not being a j Psa. 68, 132,
jath Jearim to Levite, smitten for touching the ark, (see \ 105, 96, " 100 ;

boose of Obed- Num.4:15,) | 1 Chr. 13:1-4,

edom, thence 5-14 ; 15 : 1-

to Zion, Psa. [ 16:43, 5-24.

David forbidden to build the temple ; great | ^m' Jj.
blessings promised him ; his prayer and -j pga £ 45 22
thanksgiving, -j qg |lg ^Q"'

j 2 Sam. 8 ;
1041. Victories over Philistia, Moab, Syria, and Edom, 1 1 Chr. 18 ;

( Psa. 60. 108.

David's kindness to Mephibosheth, - 2 Sam. 9.

( 2 Sam. 10 ;

1038-1037, David defeats Ammon and Syria, 1 1 Chr. 19 ;

Medeba. ( Psa. 20, 21."

f 2 Sam. 11:1;

11:2-12,23;
1036 and 1034, Siege of Kabbah ; David's adultery and mur- j 26-31 ;

Jerusalem. der, 1 1 Chr. 20:1, 3;

Psa. 51, 82, 33,
I 103.

1033. Birth of Solomon ; Amnon, David's eldest son, ( 9 gam ^ 94

forceth his sister Tamar, David's only daugh- -! "* OK . iq. i'_o9 *

ter ; David fails to punish this injury, (

1031. Absalom kills Amnon, and flees, 2Sam. 13:23-39.

1028. Absalom brought back, and restored to his] 15^17 8-14
father's presence, 1 l»-33'

1025. Absalom raises a revolt against David, — - 2 Sam. 15: 1-12.

1024. David and his followers flee ; Zadok and Abia- f

thar sent back with the ark ; Hushai desired J 2 Sam. 15:13-27;
by David to join himself to Absalom to cir- j Psa. 3.

cum vent Ahithophel's counsels, • — [

1024, Bahurim. Ziba's treachery to Mephibosheth; Shimei j 2 Sam. 16:1-14;

curses David, - - 1 Psa. 7.

Jerusalem. Hushai defeats Ahithophel's counsel ; Ahitho- j 2 Sam. 16 : 15-

phel hangs himself, } 23; 17:1-26.

f 2 Sam. 17: 27-29;
Mahanaim, 65 David furnished with provisions, chiefly by j Psa. 42, 43, 55,

miles N. E. of Barzillai, - 1 4,5,62, 143,

Ephraim. [ 144, 70, 71.

Absalom defeated and slain by Joab, 2 Sam. 18.

Jerusalem. David returns ; Shimei pardoned ; Mephibosheth
exposes Ziba's treachery ; David's gratitude to

Barzillai, - 2Sam. 19; 20:3.

511

BIBLE REFERENCE.

L-25,

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD IV. — CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

B. C.

1023.
1021.

1019.

1018.

1016,
Jerusalem.

1016, Gibeon,

Jib, 17 m. N. w.

of Gilgal.

1015,
Jerusalem.

Tyre, Tsur.

1012,
Jerusalem.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

Revolt of Sheba, (at Abel,)
The three years' famine, —

Last wars with the Philistines ; David's praise
for victories, his enemies subdued,

David, in pride, numbers Israel ; the plague, - -

David prepares materials, and instructs Solomon
as to the building of the temple,

Adoni jah's rebellion ; Solomon anointed and
proclaimed David's successor ; Adonijah sub
mits,

David arranges the courses of the priests, etc., - -

Arrangement of the state officers,

David calls a solemn assembly, and exhorts f
both them and Solomon to the work of the
temple ; the offerings of the princes and peo
ple ; David's thanksgiving ; Solomon ac
knowledged as king,

David's final charge to Solomon ; directs Joab
and Shimei to be put to death ; David's last <
words ; his death, •

Psalms of David, of which the date and occa
sion are not known,

VII. THE REIGN OF SOLOMON, 40 YEARS.

Solomon's burnt-offering ; God giving him a
choice, he asks for wisdom ; wealth and honor
added to him, -

Solomon's wise judgment, -

Adonijah and Joab put to death ; Abiathar de
posed ; Shjmei not to leave Jerusalem,

Solomon obtains materials and men for the j
building of the templcj - |

Shimei put to death for going to Gath,

Solomon marries Pharaoh's daughter,

BIBLE REFERENCE.

2 Sam. 20:1, 2,

4-26.

2 Sam. 21:1^14.
2 Sam. 21: 15-22;

22:2-51;
IChr. 20:4-8;
Psa. 18.
2 Sam. 24:1-9;

10-25 ;
IChr. 21:1-5;

27:23,24;

21:6, 7,8-CO.

1 Chr. 22.

IKin. 1:1-4.
1 Chr. 23-26.
IChr. 27:1-22,
25-34.

1 Chr. 28:11-
21 ; 29:1-25:

Psa. 72, 91, 145.

IKin. 2:1-9;

2 Sam. 23:1-7;
IChr. 29: 26-30;
IKin. 2:10, 11.
Psa. 6, 8, 12, 19,

23, 24, 28, 29,
88-41, 61, 65,
69, 78, 86, 95,
101,104,120-
122,124,131,
133, 139.

1 Kin. 2:12;
3:4-15;

2 Chr. 1:1-5,6-
12.

IKin. 3:15-28;
2 Chr. 1013.

IKin. 2:13-38.
IKin. 5:1-18;
2 Chr. 2:1-18.
1 Kin. 2:39-46.
IKin. 3:1-3.

512

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.
PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

1012-1005,
IKin. 6:1-37.

1005,
Jerusalem.

1002.

1001,
Jerusalem.

993, Jerusalem.

980-977.
977.

976, Jerusalem.
2

The buildins? of tlie temple ---------

i Kin. 6 : 1-8,
15-36; 7: I8
60; 6:9-14,
37,38; 7:51;
2Chr. 3:1-9, 3,
4, 22, 10-14;
3:15 to 4:22;
6:1.
1 Kin. 8 : 1-11,
62-64, 12-61,
65, 66 ;
2 Chr. 5 : 2-14 ;
7:4-7; 6; 7:3,
8, 10;
Psa. 47, 97-100,
135, 136.
1 Kin. 7 : 1-12 ;
9:1-9;
2 Chr. 7:11-22.
1 Kin. 9:10-14,
15-25;
2 Chr. 8 : 1-10,
12-16.
1 Kin. 9:24;
2 Chr. 8:11.
Song 1-8.
1 Kin. 4 : 1-28,
2-19; 10:26;
9:26-28;
10:14-25,27-
29.
2 Chr. 9: 26, 25;
1 : 14 ; 8 : 17,
18; 9:13-21,
24; 1:15-17;
9:27, 28.
IKin. 4:29-33;
2 Chr. 9:22;
Prov. 1-31; 5;
6:24-35; 7.
IKin. 4:34;
10:1-13;
2 Chr. 9:23, 1-
12.

IKin. 11:1 26.

IKin. 11:26-40.
Eccl. 1-12; 3~
11:8.
IKin. 11:41-43;
2 Chr. 9:29-31.
13

Other buildings of Solomon ; God makes a cov- j

Acquisitions of Solomon ; he carries out Da
vid's arrangements for the temple services, -

Pharaoh's daughter brought by Solomon to his

Solomon's fame ; visit of the queen of Sheba, —
Solomon's wives seduce him into idolatry ; Hadac

Ahijah predicts to Jeroboam the division of the
kingdom ; Solomon seeks to kill Jeroboam

Solomon writes Ecclesiastes, or the Preacher,
probably as an expression of repentance,
Death of Solomon ; Kehoboam his son sue-

2* 5

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.
PERIOD IY. — CONTINUED.

PATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OK NARRATIVE.

EIBLK KEFERENCE.

B. C.

976, Shechem.

YIII. DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM.
On the accession of Rehoboam, the people, }
headed by Jeroboam, demand a relaxation >
of burdens, — )

Acting upon the advice of the young men in- )
stead of the old men, Ilehoboam refuses the >•
request of the people, — )

Ten tribes revolt ; Judah and Benjamin ad- j
here to Ilehoboam, and form the kingdom /-
of Judah, -- )

The ten tribes make Jeroboam their king, and
form the kingdom of Israel, -

1 Kin. 12 : 1-5 ;
2Chr. 10:1-5.

IKin. 12:6-15;

2 Chr. 10:6-15.

IKin. 12: 16-10;
2 Chr. 10:10-10.

1 Kin. 12-20.

PERIOD Y.

FROM THE DEATH OF SOLOMON TO THE CLOSE OF THE OLD
TESTAMENT CANON*

I. HISTORY OF THE TWO KINGDOMS.

JUDAII. B. C.

EEHOBOAM king 17 years, 1 Kings 976
14: 21, /.p., (Judah;) 2 Chr. 12:13,
f.p., (reigned.)

Rehoboarn, preparing to attack the ten
tribes, is forbidden by Shemaiah,
1 Kin. 12:21-24; 2 Chr. 11:1-4.

Eehoboam fortifies his kingdom ; the 974
priests and Levites of Israel resort
to him ; Kehoboam's family, 2 Chr.
11:5-23.

Ilehoboam and Judah's idolatry, 1 Kin.

14:22-24; 2 Chr. 12:1.
Shishak plunders Jerusalem, 1 Kin.

14:25-28; 2 Chr. 12:2-12.

Character and death of Ilehoboam,
1 Kin. 14:21, 1. p. 29-31 ; 2 Chron.
12:13, 1. p. 14-16.

ABLJAH, or ABIJAM, king 3 years, 953

1 Kin. 15:1, 2, 6 ; 2 Chr. 13:1, 2.
Abijah defeats Jeroboam in battle,

2 Chr. 13:3-21.
His heart not perfect.

* The names of new kings are here printed 1n capitals ; and if founders of new dynasties,
in italic capitals.

514

ISRAEL.

2 years; lie estab
lishes himself at Shechem. 1 Kings
12:25.

Jeroboam, having set up golden calves
at Dan and Bethel, is reproved by a
man of God, 1 Kin. 12:26-33 ; 13:1-
10.

Seduced by an old prophet of Bethel,

the man of God disobeys the word

of the Lord, and is slain by a lion,

IKin. 13:11-32.

These calves borrowed from Egypt,

where Jeroboam had resided.
Twice warned by the man of God and
by Ahijah, yet persisting in his idol
atry.

The step seemed politic. It seemed a form
of worship something like that establish
ed at Jerusalem, and attracted the tribes,
but in the end it proved the ruin of the
kingdom.

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD V. CONTINUED.

JUDAII.

Character and death of Abijah. ASA
king 41 years, 1 Kin. 15 : 3-10 ; 2 Chr.
13:22; 14:1.

Asa puts away idolatry, and strength
ens his kingdom, 1 Kin. 15:11-15;
2 Chr. 14:2-8; 15:10-18.

Asa's victory over the Ethiopians,
2 Chr. 14:9-15.

Moved by Azariah, Asa makes a sol
emn covenant with God, 2 Chr
15:1-15, 19.

Asa bribes Ben-hadad king of Syria to
attack Baasha, 1 Kin. 15:16-22.

Asa, reproved by Hanani for applying
to Ben-hadad, puts him ia prison,
2 Chr. 16:7-10.

His idolatrous alliance with Syria, and his
imprisonment of the prophet, after all
bis reformations, prove his ruin.

Asa's death. JEHOSHAPHAT king
25 years ; his piety and prosperity,
1 Kin. 15:23, 24; 22:41-47; 2 Chr.
16:11-14; 17:1; 20:31-33; 17.2-
19 ; compare ver. 6 and 20:33.
His great error is his alliance with Ahab,
whose daughter Athaliah his son Jeho
ram marries. Ilence his expedition to
liamoth, which nearly cost him his life.

Jehoshaphat visits Ahab, and joins
with him in battle against the Syr
ians, 2 Chr. 18.

Jehoshaphat reproved by Jehu for
joining with Ahab. He visits his
kingdom, and exhorts the judges,
etc., to be faithful, 2 Chr. 19 ; Psa.
82.

B. C.

957
956

955
953
951

944
942

941

931
930

926

917
914

910
to
906

902
and
901
900

ISRAEL.

Ahijah denounces Jeroboam, 1 Kin.
13:33, 34; 14:1-18.

Jeroboam's death. NADAB king 2
years, 1 Kin. 14:19, 20; 15:25, 26.

Nadab slain at Gibbethon. BAASHA
king 24 years, 1 Kin. 15:27-34.

Baasha, attempting to build Ramah,
is attacked by the king of Syria,
2 Chr. 16:1-6.

Baasha denounced by Jehu ; his death.
ELAH king 2 years, 1 Km. 16:1-8.

Elah slain. ZIMRI king 7 days ; de
stroys Baasha' s house. Omri elect-
ed king. Zimri destroys himself,
IKin 16:9-20.

OMRI king 12 years, including 6 years'
civil war with Tibni. Samaria built,
1 Kin. 16:21-26.

Omri dies. AHAB king 22 years. Jer
icho rebuilt by Hiel, who reaps Josh
ua's curse, IKin, 16:27-34.
Kin. 16 :25 Compare Mic. 6 :26 ; 1 Kin.
16:34; Josh. 6:26.

Elijah prophesies a famine ; raises the
widow's son ; his trial with the

?rophets of Baal. Elisha a prophet,
Kin 17-19.

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria. The Syr
ians twice defeated. Ahab denounc
ed, 1 Kin. 20.

Ahab seizes Naboth's vineyard. Eli
jah denounces him, 1 Kin. 21.

[Ahab makes war on Syria, and is slain,
as Micaiah predicted. AHAZIAH
king, 1 Kin. 22:1-35, 36-40, 51-53.

Ver. 39. See Amos 3: 15.

Psa. 82 placed here from internal evidence,
(Towns.)

515

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.
PERIOD V.— CONTINUED

JUDAH.

Overthrow of Moab, etc. Jehoram
regent, 2 Chr. 20 : 1-30 ; Psa. 115 ;
46.

Jehoshaphat joins Ahaziah. Being
reproved, and his ships wrecked, he
refuses to join in a subsequent ex
pedition, 1 Kin. 22 : 48, 49 ; 2 Chr.
20:35, 37.

Afterwards joins Joram against Moab,
and is saved only by a miracle,
2 Kin. 3.
On 2 Chr. 20 :13 ; see Joel 2 :16.

2 Kin. 9:2, 13. "Read, therefore, in 1 Kin.
19 : 16, grandson ; and by Elijah anoint
ing Jehu, understand ordering Elisha to
do it. Jehu was anointed to exterminate
the house of Ahab.

Jehoram begins to reign in concert
with Jehoshaphat, 2 Kin. 8:16.

2 Chr. 21 : 5. Three dates are given for the
beginning of Jehoram's reign : B. c. 897,
when he was regent during his father's
absence, 2 Kin. 1 :17 ; 3:1: 891, 2 Kin.
8:16-, and 889.

Death of Jehoshaphat. JEHORAM,
or JORAM, king 8 years ; his wick
ed and troubled reign. Elijah's let
ter, written before his translation,
brought to him, 1 Kin. 22 : 45, 50 ;
2 Kin. 8 : 17-22 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 34 ; 21 : 1-
18.

Ahaziah begins to reign as viceroy to
his father, 2 Kin. 9:29.

Death of Jehoram. AHAZIAH king

. one year ; his evil reign, 2 Kin. 8 : 23-
27; 2 Chr. 21:19, 20; 22:1-4.

Ahaziah joins Joram against Hazael,
and afterwards visits him at Jezreel,
2 Kin. 8:28, 29.

Ahaziah slain by Jehu, 2 Chr. 22:7-9.

ATIIALIAII usurps the throne 6 years.
Joash the son of Ahaziah rescued,
2 Kin. 11:1-3 ; 2 Chr. 22:10-12.

516

B. C

897

894

893

892

891

890

to

887

886
885

884

883

ISRAEL.

Psa. 115 and 46. The schools of the proph
ets, (Naioth,) 1 Sam. 10 :10 ; 19 :20 ; 2Kin.
2 : 2, seem to hare trained at this time a
large number of religious teachers.

Ahaziah falling sick and sending to in
quire of Baalzebub, is denounced by
Elijah. JEHORAM, or JORAM, his
brother, king 12 years, 2 Kin. 1 ;
3:1-3.

Elijah translated. Elisha acknow
ledged as his successor ; his mira
cles, 2 Kin. 2.

Joram, joined by Jehoshaphat and the
king of Edom, defeats Moab, 2 Kin.
3:4-27.

Elisha multiplies the widow's oil;
promises a son to the Shunammite,
2 Kin. 4:1-17.

Naaman healed, 2 Kin. 5.

Elisha causes iron to swim ; discloses
the Syrian king's purpose, and smites
his army with blindness, 2 Kin. 6 : 1-
23.

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria ; severe
famine ensues ; plenty restored by
the sudden flight of the Syrians,
2 Kin. 6:24-33; 7.

Elisha raises to life the widow's son ;
other miracles, 2 Kings 4 : 18-44 ;
8:1,2.

2 Kin. 4 :44. This is Elisha's twelfth mir
acle, Elijah having wrought six. Town-
send places 4 : 18 after 4:17; but there is
clearly an interval of two years or so be
tween them.

Return of the Shunammite. Hazael
kills Ben-hadad, and becomes, as
Elisha predicted, king of Syria,
2 Kin. 8:3-15.

Joram being wounded in battle by the
Syrians, retires to Jezreel, 2 Chron.
22:5, 6.

Jehu anointed, 2 Kin. 9:1-13. |

Joram slain by Jehu, 2 Kin. 9:14-28.

TEIW king 28 years ; slays Jezebel,
Ahab's sons, Ahaziah' s brethren,
and Baal's worshippers, 2 Kings
9:30-37; 10:1-31.

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD V. CONTINUED.

JUDAH.

JEHOASH, or JOASH, king 40 years.
Athaliah slain, 2 Kings 11 : 4-12 ;
2 Chr. 23-24:3.

Joash repairs the temple, 2 Kin. 12:4-

16; 2 Chr. 24:4-14.
Death of Jehoiada, 2 Chr. 24:15, 16.

Joash and the people fall into idola
try ; Zechariah, reproving them, is
slain in the temple-court, (cf. Matt.
23:35.) The Syrians invade Judah,
2 Chr. 24:17-24 ; 2 Kin. 12:17, 18.

Joash slain by his servants. AMA-
ZIAH king 29 years, 2 Kin. 12:19-
21 ; 14 : 1-6 ; 2 Chron. 24 : 25-27 ;
25:1-4.

Amaziah hires an army of Israelites to
assist him against Edom, but at a
prophet's command he sends them
back, 2 Chr. 25:5-10.

Amaziah smites the Edomites and wor
ships their gods, 2 Chron. 25 : 11 ;
2 Kin. 14:7 ; 2 Chr. 25:12, 14-16.

Arnaziah provokes the king of Israel
to battle, and is taken prisoner by
him, 2 Kin. 14:8-14.

Amaziah slain. UZZIAH, or AZA-
RIAH, king 52 years. During the
days of Zechariah he reigns well,
2 Kin. 14 : 17-22 ; 15 : 1-4 ; 2 Chr.
25:25; 26:15.

Amos 7 : 10-19, Lightfoot and others place
after 2 Kin. 14:28.

B. C.

877

860
855

850
849
842

841

840

838

836
827

826
823
822

to
800

801
793

Hazael oppresses Israel, 2 Kin. 10:32,

33.
Death of Jehu. JEHOAHAZ king 17

years. 2 Kin. 10:34-36 ; 13:1, 2.
History of Jonah. Jon. 1-4.
Israel given over by God to Hazael

and Ben-hadad, and delivered, 2 Kin.

13:1-7.
Jehoash begins to reign in concert with

Jehoahaz, 2 Kin. 13:10.

Death of Jehoahaz. JEHOASH, or
JOASH, king 16 years. He visits
Elisha, who promises three victo
ries. Hazael dies, 2 Kin. 13 : 8, 9,
11, 14-19, 22-24.

Elisha dies. A corpse thrown into
Elisha' s sepulchre revives, 2 Kin.
13:20, 21.

Jehoash thrice beats the Syrians, 2 Kin.
13:25.

The Israelites, who had been dismissed
by Amaziah, plunder the cities of
Judah as they return, 2 Chr. 25:13.

Jehoash defeats the king of Judah,
and plunders the temple, 2 Chron.
25:17-24.

Death of Jehoash. JEROBOAM II.
king 41 years ; he reigns wickedly,
2 Kin. 13:12, 13 ; 14:15, 16, 23, 24.

Jeroboam restores the coast of Israel,
according to the word of Jonah,
2 Kin. 14:25-27.

Hosea makes his first appeal to the ten
tribes, Hos. 1-3.

Amos denounces judgment against the
surrounding nations, and against
Israel and Judah, Amos 1-9.
517

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE,

PERIOD V. — CONTINUED.

JUDAII.

On the increase of Uzziah's army, Joel
foretells the overthrow of Judah,
Joel 1-3.

The three children have names given to
them, indicating the place of the wicked
ness of the house of Ahab, (ver. 4 ; see
1 Kin. 21 :1 ;) their punishment, not find
ing mercy in calamity ; and their rejec
tion, no longer the people of God. They
are, however, to be gathered again un
der the Messiah, their one Head, ver. 11 ;
ver. 7, see 2 Kin. 19 :C5.

Uzziah struck with leprosy for invad
ing the priest's office. Jotham re
gent, 2 Kin. 15 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 16-
20, 21.

2 Kin. 15 : 5, several, that is, lone or sepa
rate.

Isaiah designated in a vision to the
prophetic office. He prophesies of
Christ's kingdom, and of judgment
on the people for their sins, Isa.
1:1; 6:2-5.

Death of Uzziah. JOTHAM king 16
years ; his prosperity, 2 Kin. 15 : 6,
7, 32-35; 2 Chr. 26:22, 23; 27:1-6.

Micah reproves the wickedness of Ju
dah, Mic. 1, 2.

Judah begins to be afflicted by Syria
and Israel. Death of Jotham,
2 Kin. 15:36-38 ; 2 Chr. 27:7-9.

AHAZ king 16 years, 2 Kin. 16:1-4;
2 Chr. 28:1-4.

Invasion of Pekah and Eczin. Isaiah
prophesies on the occasion, denounc
ing Ahaz's intended alliance with
Assyria, 2 Kings 16 : 5 ; Isa. 7-9 ;
10:1-4.

Isaiah prophesies the ruin of Damas
cus and of the ten tribes, Isa. 17.

Judah devastated by Syria and Israel ;
the latter restore their captives, by
advice of Oded, 2 Chr. 28:5-15.

Ahaz, being assailed by enemies, hires
Tiglath-pileser the king of Assyria
518

IB. c.

787

783

771

770

769

765

761
759

757

756
753

742

740

ISRAEL.

1 :3, see 2 Kin. 16:9; ver. 6, see 2Kin.l8 :8;
1:8, see 2 Chron. 26: 6 ; ver. 11, see Num.
20 : 14 ; 5 :27, see 2 Kin. 10 :32 : 17 :6.

Death of Jeroboam, 2 Kin. 14:28, 29.

An interregnum for eleven years.
State of Israel during the interreg
num. Hosea denounces judgment,

Hos. 4.
ZECHARIAH, fourth from Jehu, king

six months. Shalluin slays him,

2 Kin. 15:8-12.
SIIALLUM king one month. Mena-

hem slays him, 2 Kin. 15:13-15.
MENAIIEM king 10 years, 2 Kings

15:16-18.
Pul of Assyria, coming against Israel,

is bribed to return, 2 Kin. 15 : 19,

20.

Death of Menahcm. PEKAIIIAH king
2 years, 2 Kin. 15:21-24.

Pekahiah slain by Pekah. PEKAI1
king 20 years, 15:25-28.

Isa. 1:1.

Isa. 7-10:4. On the order, compare 7:5
with 2 Kin. 16:5.

Isa. 1 :2-31. On order, see ver. 7, 8, com
pared with 2 Chr. 28 :6-9.

Isa. 6:1, see John 12:41.

Isa. 6 :13, see 2 Kin. 25 :12.

Isa. 2:19, see Rev. 6:15.

2 Chr. 27 :2, see chap 26 :19.

Isa. 7 : 8, see 2 Kin. 17 :24.

Reign of Ahaz, 15 years.

" Hezekiah, 29 "

" Manasseh II.,---21 "

65 "

Tsa. 7: 16, see 2 Kin. 15:29.
Isa. 8 :1, a man's pen, that is, common writ
ing ; see Rev. 13:18; 21:17.
Mic. 1:5, seel Kin. 16:32.
Mic. 1:13, see Jer. 34:7.

Isa. 17 see 2 Kin. 16:9: 18:11.

740 Tiglath-pileser ravages Gilead, Gali-
I lee, and Naphtali, and carries cap-

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PEHIOD V. CONTINUED.

JUDAII. IB. c.

against them. Obadiali and Isaiah, j
2 Kin. 16:6-9; 2 Chr. 28:16, 21, 17-'
20; Obad. ;" Isa. 1:2-31 ; 28.
Sacrilege and idolatry of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 738

28:22-25; 2 Kin. 16:10-18; Hosea
5, 6.

Death of Ahaz, 2 Kings 16 : 19, 20 ;
2 Chr. 28:26, 27 ; Isa. 14:28-32.

IIEZEKIAH king 29 years, 2 Kings
18:1, 2; 2 Chr. 29:1.

Eeformation by Hezekiah, 2 Kings
18:3-6; 2 Chr. 29:2-36; 80, 31.

Moab denounced, Isa. 15, 16.

Micah supports Hezekiah' s reforma
tion, Mic. 3-7.

See Jer. 26:18; Mic. 3:9.

Hezekiah' s prosperity, 2 Kin. 18:7, 8.

Prophecy of the restoration of the ten
tribes, of the punishment of Egypt,
and conversion of Egypt and As
syria, Isa. 18, 19.

730
726

723
721

ISRAEL.

tive their inhabitants to Assyria,
2 Kin. 15:29.
Isa. 5 : 21, see 2 Sam. 5 :20.

Pekah slain by Hoshea, 2 Kin. 15: CO,
31.

Anarchy for nine years.

HOSHEA king 9 years. Shalmaneser
king of Assyria invades his territory
and makes him a tributary, 2 Kin.
17:1-3.

Isa. 14:28-32, against Thilistia, see 2 Chr.
26:6. Ahab, who subdued them, was
dead ; but a cockatrice out of that nest,
Hezekiah, was still to bite them, 2 Kin.
18:8.

Isa. 15. The destruction of Moab by Shal
maneser foretold. They are exhorted to
renew their tribute, 16 :1. See 2 liincs
3:4.

Hoshea attacked and imprisoned by
Shalmaneser for not giving the trib
ute. Hosea predicts the captivity
of the ten tribes, and exhorts to re
pentance, 2 Kin. 17:4; Hos. 7-14.

Shalmaneser besieges Samaria, 2 Kin.

17:5; 18:9.
The ten tribes carried into captivity

unto Assyria, 2 Kings 17 : 6-23 ;

18:10-12.

. HISTORY OF JUDAII TO THE CAPTIVITY, 114 YEARS.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCB.

B. C.

» 715.
714.

713, Judea.

Tyre denounced, Isa. 23. Prophecy concerning

-.1

Isa. 10:5;
14:27.
Isa. 24; 26:17,
18; 27.
Isa. 22 : 1-14 ;
21;
2Kin. 18:13-16;
2 Chr. 32:1-8;
Isa. 36 : 1 ; 20 ;
29-31.
9

The desolation and recovery of Judea predicted,
ptr

Isaiah predicts the invasion by Assyria and the
destruction of liabylon. Sennacherib comes
up against Judah, but being pacified by a trib- -
ute, retires. Isaiah denounces Egypt, and

i

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD V.— CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

Jerusalem.

712.
'12, Jerusalem.

711, Judea.

. 710-G99.
697, Jerusalem.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

Sickness of Hezekiah ; his song of thanksgiv
ing. Isaiah predicts the blessings of Christ's
kingdom, and judgments of the enemies of
Zion, -

Nineveh denounced by Nahum, -•

Hezekiah showing in pride to the ambassadors (
from Babylon his treasures, Isaiah predicts -
the Babylonian captivity, •

Second invasion of Sennacherib ; destruction of
his army, - -- |

Various prophecies of Isaiah,

Hezekiah' s wealth ; his death. MAN ASSEII king
fifty-five years ; his awful impiety ; judgment j
denounced by God' s prophets,

2 Kin. 20 : 1-0,

8, 9-11, 7 ;
Isa. 38:1-6, 22,
7,8,21,9-20;
2 Chr. 32:24;
Isa. 32-35.
Nah. 1-3.
2 Kin. 20: 12- 19;
Isa. 39 ;

2 Chr. 32: 25, 26.
2 Kin. 18: 17-37,
26-28; 19:1-
37.
Psa. 44, 73, 75,

76;
Isa. 36: 2, 11-22;

37:.l-38;
2 Chr. 32:9-21-

23.
Isa. 40-66 ;

57:3-9.
2 Kin. 20: 20, 21;

21:1-16;
2 Chr. 32: 27-33;
33:1-10.

Isaiah predicts the captivity of Shcbna, Isa. 22 : 15-25.

678, Samaria. The heathen nations, who had been transplanted
to Samaria in place of the Israelites, being
plagued by lions, make a mixture of religions, - 2 Kin. 17:24-41.
677, Babylon. Manasseh taken captive by the king of Assyria ;
his conversion and restoration ; he puts down

idolatry, - 2 Chr. 33: 11-1 7.

642, Jerusalem. Death of Manasseh. AMOX king two years ; his j 2 Kin. 21: 17-22 ;

impiety, - j 2 Chr. 33: 18-23.

' 2 Kin. 21: 23-26;
640. Amon slain by his servants. JOSIAII king thir- j 22:1, 2 ;

ty-one years, ] 2 Chr. 33: 24, 25;

34:1, 2.

634. Josiah vigorously puts down idolatry, 2 Chr. 34 : 3-7.

G28. Jeremiah called ; he expostulates with the Jews,

on account of their sins, - Jer. 1:2; 3 : 1-5.

623, Jerusalem. Josiah provides for the repair of the temple, f 2 Kin. 22:3-20;
The Book of the Law having been found, ! 23:1-3,4-20;
Josiah consults Huldah ; he causes it to be 1 2 Chr. 34:8,28*

read publicly, and renews the covenant, [ 33.

623. Zephaniah exhorts to repentance, Zeph. 1, 2, 3.

622, Jerusalem. A most solemn celebration of the Passover by 2 Kin. 23: 2 1-27;

Josiah, 2Chr, 35:1-19.

612. Jeremiah reproves the backsliding of the peo- Jer. 3:6-11, 12-

ple, and bewails the coming captivity, 25 ; 4-6,

612. Habakkuk predicts judgment, - Hab. 1-3.

611. Jeremiah exhorts the people to repentance, and

laments their approaching calamities, Jer. 7-10.

520

BIBLE REFERENCE.

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE,
PERIOD V. — CONTINUED.

DATK AND PLACE.

KVEXT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

B. C.

G10.

609, Megiddo
and Jerusalem.

Eiblah.

608.
606.

Jerusalem.
606.

Jeremiah reminds the people of the covenant of
Jotdah,

Josiah slain in battle with the king of Egypt.
Jeremiah and the people lament him. JEIIO-
AHAZ king three months,

Jehoahaz deposed and imprisoned by Pharaoh-
Necho, and subsequently taken to Egypt.
JEHOIAKIM king eleven years,

Jeremiah delivers various predictions, and appeals
to the Jews respecting the captivity and destruc
tion of Jerusalem,

Jeremiah predicts the fate of Pashur, Jer. 20 : of
Shallum, that is, Jehoahaz, and Jehoiakim, —

Apprehension and arraignment of Jeremiah,

Jeremiah predicts the overthrow of the army of
Pharaoh-Necho king of Egypt, by Nebuchad
nezzar, -

The obedience of the Rcchabitcs to their father
contrasted with the disobedience of the Jews, - -

Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jews for
seventy years, and the subsequent judgment
on Babylon, -

Jeremiah desires Baruch to write his prophecies
on a roll, and then to read it publicly in the
temple , - -

Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and puts Je- ~|
hoiakim in fetters, intending to take him to 1
Babylon, but afterwards releasing him, makes f
him a tributary, and spoils the temple, J

Nebuchadnezzar orders the master of his eunuchs
to select and send to Babylon some of the royal
family and nobility, to stand in the king's pal
ace. Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah,
(otherwise called Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Me-
shach, and Abednego,) are taken there,

Jer. 11 ; 15, 12.
2 Kin. 23: 29, 80,

28, 30 L p.,

81, 32;
2Chr.35:20-27;

36:1, 2.
2 Kin. 23 : 33-

37;
2 Chr. 36:3-5.

Jer. 13-19.

Jer. 22:1-23.
Jer. 26.

Jer. 46:1-12.
Jer. 35.

Jer. 25.

Jer. 36: 1-8; 45.

2 Kin. 24:1;

2 Chr. 36:6,7;
Dan. 1:1, 2.

Dan. 1,3,4,6,7.

III. FROM THE FIRST CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM, B. C. 606, TO THE DECREE
OF CYRUS, FOR THE RESTORATION OF THE JEWS, B. C. 536—70 YEARS.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE

B. C.

Babylon.
605.

603.

EVENTS AT JERUSALEM, WITH CONTEM
PORANEOUS EVENTS AT BABYLON.

Daniel meets with kindly treatment, Dan. 1:5, 8-17.

Baruch again reads the prophetic roll ; Jehoiakim

Jer. 36:9-32.
2 Kin.
24.
521

burns it,
Jehoiakim rebels against Nebuchadnezzar,-

•<

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD V. — CONTINUED.'

DATE AND PLACE.

B. C.

Babylon.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

Dan. 1:18-21.

Daniel before Nebuchadnezzar,

Interprets Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan. 2 ; de
scribing the Babylonian, 32, Medo- Persian, 32-
39, Macedo-Grecian, 32-39, and Roman em
pires, 33, 40-43, with Messiah's kingdom, 34,
35, 44, 45.

2 Kin. 24:5-9
599. Death of Jchoiakim. JEIIOIACIIIN or JECIIONIAH J 2 Chr. 36:8, 9;

king three months, 1 Jer. 22:24-30'

[ 23.
699. Second capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnez- ]

zar. Jchoiachin is carried to Babylon, with I op™ in 10
many of his subjects. ZEDEKIAH or MATTA- [ T £9.1 9.~;

NIAII king eleven years, j x' ~;

Jer. 29 : 1-14,

697. Predictions of the duration of the captivity, - - - 1 16-20, 15, 21-

32.

Of the restoration of the Jews, -- - "- Jer. 30, 31.

695. Predictions against the surrounding nations, j ,Jer. 27, 28, 48,

Hananiah the false prophet denounced, ) 49.

Prophecies against Babylon, Jer. 50, 51.

Babylon. Ezekiel's vision in Babylon ; his commission, (-,-•• o

Ezek. 1-3:1-21. He prophesies of the mis- 4 l zr^ 6:*--^ >

eries of Jerusalem, - (

694. Visions of the idolatries which occasioned the

captivity, - Ezek. 8, 10, 11.

Babylon. Various predictions against the false prophets, \ Ezek. 12-19 ;

Jerusalem, and the Jewish nation, \ 16 ; 18: 5-18.

693. Prophecies addressed to the elders of the Jews, - - Ezek. 21-23.

Jer. 37: 1,2;

Jerusalem. Zedekiah's rebellion and wickedness, --j ? S?" ?,: : ?? ;

A Lnr. ou:Io ;

Jer. 52:3.

The wickedness of priests and people, (the cause
of the captivity, ver. 15, 16,) with a summary
account of the judgments that followed, 2Chr. 36: 14-21.

690. Nebuchadnezzar lays siege to Jerusalem for the \ T ^ t°'KO' t

third time,- .-| Je^93;\;62

Babylon. Ezekiel foretells the destruction of Jerusalem, — Ezek. 24.

Jerusalem. Capture of the city foretold. The people, at Jere
miah's word, release their Hebrew bond-servants, Jer. 34 : 1-10.
589. Jeremiah shut up in prison ; his predictions there, Jer. 32, 33.

Babylon. Ezekiel in Babylon, prophesies against Egypt, ) Ezek. 26.
Ezek. 29: 1-16, and against Tyre, j See Isa. 23.

Terusalem. The Chaldeans raise the siege to march against
the approaching Egyptian army. Jeremiah

predicts the destruction of the Philistines, Jer. 87:5; 47.

On the departure of the Chaldean army, the]

people recall their bond-servants, for which i Jer. 34:11-22;
Jeremiah denounces them, and predicts the f 37:6-10
speedy return of the Chaldeans, j

522

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.
PERIOD V. — CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

B. C.

688.

Babylon

667.

673.
672.

670.

569.
668-563.

661.

658.
656.

638.
637.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

Jeremiah reimprisoncd ; continues to denounce
Zedekiah ; he is put into the dungeon of
Malchiah,

Ezekiel, in Babylon, again prophesies against
Egypt and Nineveh,

Jerusalem finally taken. Zedekiah carried to
Babylon. Jeremiah delivered,

Nebuzaradan burns the temple, and carries
away the people, leaving a few poor persons
to till the land,

BIBLE REFERENCE.

Jeremiah bewails the desolation of his country, -

Gedaliah appointed governor. Jeremiah and j
many others attach themselves to him, |

Ishmael slays Gedaliah, and attempts to carry
away the people to the Ammonites ; Johanan
intercepts him ; the people, fearing the Chal
deans, flee into Egypt, contrary to the com
mand of God, - J

Jeremiah prophesies against Egypt and the j
idolatrous Jews,-- - j

Brief summary of the captivities by Nebuchad
nezzar,

REMAINDER OF THE HISTORY OF THE
JEWS IN CAPTIVITY— BABYLON.

Ezekiel predicts the utter desolation of Judca, —
?redietions against Ammon, Moab, Edom, Plii-

listia, Tyre, and Egypt,

Ezekiel appeals to the captives,

Svil rulers denounced ; restoration of the Jews j
promised ; predictions of Messiah's kingdom, j

'rophesies of the church and its enemies, and of
the conversion of the Jews,

Szekiel's vision of the future temple, -

jast prediction against Egypt,

Jer. 37 : 11-21 ;
21 ; 38; 39:15-
18.
Ezek. 80:20-26 j

31.

2Kin. 25:2, 4-7;
Jcr. 52:5-7;

39:2-7,11-14.
2 Kin. 25:8-21:
Jer. 52:12-30;

39:8-10.
Psa. 74, 79, 83,

94.

Lam. 1-5.
2 Kin. 25: 22-24;
Jer. 40:1-16.

2 Kin. 25 : 25,

26;
Jer. 41-43:1-7.

Jer. 43:8-13;
46: 13-28; 44.

Jer. 52:28-30.

Ezek. 33:21-33.
Ezek. 25, 27, 28-,

32.

Ezek. 33:1-20.
Ezek. 34-37, 17,

last clause.

5zek. 38, 39.
Ezek. 40-48.
Ezek. 29:17-21;

30:1-19.
Dan. 3.
Dan. 4:1-27.

STebuchadnezzar sets up an image, -

Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's second dream,
Che fulfilment of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, in his

madness, and subsequent recovery, Dan. 4:28-37.

Evil-Merodach king of Babylon releases Jehoia- j 2 Kin. 25 : 27-30 ;

chin, ] Jer. 52:31-34.

Daniel's first vision of the living creatures, Dan. 7.

Belshazzar's feast. Babylon taken, Dan. 5.

Daniel's vision of the ram and he-goat, Dan. 8.

Daniel's prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem, j Dan. 9

Prophecy of the seventy weeks, -- — j Psa. 102.

| Daniel cast into the den of lions, I Dan. 6.

523

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE 131BLE.
PERIOD V.— CONTINUED.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

B. C.

636.

Jerusalem and
Babylon.

Decree of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the tem
ple, and restoration of the Jews to their own
country,

Psalms conjectured to have been written during
the distresses and afflictions of the church,
chiefly in the Babylonish captivity,

2Chr. 36:22, 23;

Ezra ] : 1-4 ;

Psa. 126, 85.

Psa. 10, 13-15,
25-27, 36, 37,
49, 50, 53, 67,
77, 80, 89, 92,
93, 123, 130,
137.

IV. FROM THE DECREE OF CYRUS, B. C. 536, TO THE FINAL PROPHECY OF
THE OLD TESTAMENT, B. C. 397, ABOUT 139 YEARS.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE

BIBLE REFERENCE.

B. 0.

FROM THE RETURN OF THE JEWS TO THE
DEDICATION OF THE SECOND TEMPLE.

Ezra 1:5-11; 2;

3:1-7
536, Jerusalem. Return of the Jews. Cyras restores the vessels I Psa. 87, 107,

of the temple. An altar set up, 1 111-114, 116,

117, 125, 127,
128, 134.
535, Jerusalem. Foundation of the second temple, under the Ezra 3: 8-13;

direction of Zerubbabel, Psa. 84, 66.

534. The building of the temple interrupted by the Ezra 4 : 1-5, 24 ;

'Samaritans, - - Psa. 129.

Babylon. The last vision of Daniel, Dan. 10-12.

Ezra 4: 24; 5:1;
Hag. 1:1-11;
Ezra 5:2;

620, Jerusalem. Building of the temple resumed. Haggai and Hag. 1 : 12-15 ;
Zechariah incite the people to the work, and - ' 2 : 1-9 ;

exhort them to repentance, - Zech. l:l-(

Hag. 2:10-23:
Zech. 1:7-21:
2; 6; 2:5.
Ezra 5: 3-17;
519 The building of the temple again interrupted, I 6 : 1-13 ;

and resumed, - | Psa. 138 ;

Zech. 7, 8.
Ezra 6: 14-22;

616. Dedication of the second temple, 1 Psa. 48, 81, 146-

150.

524

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD Y. — CONTINUED.

DATS AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

FROM THE OPPOSITION TO THE JEWS IN
THE REIGN OF XERXES TO THE DEATH
OF HAMAN.

486. Opposition in the reign of Xerxes, Ezra 4:6.

464. Opposition in the reign of Artaxerxes Longima-

nus, - - Ezra 4:7-23.

462, Susa. Artaxerxes, or Ahasuerus, divorces Vashti his

queen, Esth. 1.

458. Ezra commissioned to visit Jerusalem, Ezra 7 : 2-14.

457. Artaxerxes makes Esther queen, Esth. 2:1-20.

Jerusalem. Ezra comes to Jerusalem ; causes the people to

put away their heathen wives, Ez. 8 10,18-44.

Concluding prophecies of Zechariah, Zech. 9-14.

Susa. Mordecai discovers the conspiracy against Ahasu
erus, Esth. 2:21-23.

453, 452. Plot of Haman to destroy the Jews, and its de
feat. The feast of Purim, Esth. 3-10.

FROM THE FIRST COMMISSION OF NEHE
MIAH TO THE CLOSING OF THE OLD TES
TAMENT CANON.

445, Susa. Nehemiah receives a commission from Artaxerxes

to visit Jerusalem, and rebuild the wall, - Neh. 1 ; 2:1-8.

Jerusalem. Nehemiah arrives at Jerusalem. Sanballat )

strives to hinder the work; the builders [• JNe/1; '£

work under arms,-- - )

Nehemiah relieves the Jews oppressed by usury ;

his own generosity, !Neh. 5.

The wall completed by the Jews, and dedi- j Neh. 6; 12:27-

cated, | 43.

Susa. Nehemiah returns to Persia, - Neh. 7:1-4.

f Neh. 7 : 6-73 ;

Jerusalem. Second commission of Nehemiah, and reforma- J ?' 9j ^ ' |* '
tion, | y.\ : i3;i_3

I Psa. 1, 119.

Malachi prophesies against the corruptions intro- j Mai. 1, 2, 3 : 1-
duced during the second absence of Nehemiah, | 15.

428. Further reformation by Nehemiah, Neh. 13:4-31.

397. Final prophecy of the Old Testament, Mai. 3 : 16-18 ; 4,

Detached genealogies, etc. , inserted probably at j 1 Chr. 1-9 ;
the completion of the canon, 1 Neh. 12: 10-26.

525

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

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CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

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CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

f§ d -^

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fjJ tijjl

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528

CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE.

PERIOD VII.

FROM THE BIRTH OF JESUS CHRIST TO THE END OF THE FIRST

CENTURY.

DATE AND PLACE.

EVENT OR NARRATIVE.

BIBLE REFERENCE.

A. D

1. Nativity of Jesus Christ, (four years before the

common era,) - Luke 2:1-16.

12. Jesus visits Jerusalem, - Luke 2:41-52.

18. Augustus Ca>sar followed by Tiberius.

26. Pilate sent from Rome as governor of Judea, Luke 3:1.

29. John the Baptist begins his ministry, Matt. 3:1.

30. Jesus baptized by John, - --- Matt. 3:1.

33. Jesus Christ was crucilied, and rose from the dead, Matt. 27 ; 28.

34. Ananias and Sapphira struck dead, •-- Acts 5.

35. Stephen stoned, and the church persecuted, Acts 6; 7.

36. Saul converted, ---- Acts 9; 13:9.

37. Tiberius dies, and is followed by Caligula.

38. Conversion of the Gentiles, «*- Acts 10.

41. Caius Caligula succeeded by Claudius.

42. Herod Agrippa made king of Judea.

44. James beheaded by Herod ; Peter liberated b* an

angel, ---- Acts 12:1-10.

54. Claudius CiEsar followed by Nero.

63. Paul sent a prisoner to Rome, »>- Acts 2G ; 23.

65. The Jewish war begins.

67. • The Roman general raises the siege of Jerusalem,

by which an opportunity is afforded for the
Christians to retire to Pella beyond Jordan, as
admonished by Christ, - Matt. 24 : 1G-21

68. Paul suffers martyrdom at Rome by order of

Nero, 2Tim. 4:6, 7.

69. Vespasian made emperor by his army.

70. Jerusalem besieged and taken by Titus Vespa

sian, according to the predictions of Christ ;
when 1,100,000 Jews perished, by famine,
sword, fire, and crucifixion; besides 97,000
who were sold as slaves, and vast multitudes
who perished in other parts of Judea, Luke 13:41-44.

71. Jerusalem and its temple razed to their founda

tions, Matt. 24:2.

79. Vespasian dies, and is succeeded by Titus. Her-

culaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an erup
tion of Vesuvius.

81. Titus dies, and is succeeded, by Domitian.

95. John banished to the isle of Patmos, by Domi

tian, Rev. 1:9.

96. John writes the Revelation.

96. Domitian succeeded by Nerva.

97. John liberated from exile. New Testament

canon closed.

98. Nerva dies, and is succeeded by Trajan.

100. John, the last surviving apostle, dies, about one

hundred years old.

23

TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPHETS.

TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPHETS,

SHOWING- THE PERIODS DURING WHICH IT IS SUPPOSED THEIR
PROPHECIES WERE DELIVERED.

r—

KINGS OF
JUDAH
CROW.VED.

B.C.

sdn

9
5

JEREMIAII. I

EZEIUEL.

DANIEL.

-ti

M

J

|

7,

<

OKADIAH.

JONAH.

~,
u

£

NAHUM.

HABAKKUK. 1

ZEPHANIAH. |

HAGGAI.

ZECHARIAH. j

MALACHI. j

KINGS OF
ISRAEL
CROWNED.

Amaziah, 831.

1

Jeroboam II., £25

C| f\

1

Uzziah, 8K
Sill)

I

1

j

1

nterregnum, 78

Menahem, 772

Tekahiah, 761

760

Jotham, 75:

yso

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Hezekiah, 7i(-
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

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CHRONOLOGIC

AL TAB

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K 10

YEARS

TABLES

WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEY, MENTIONED
IN THE BIBLE.

1. JEWISH WEIGHTS, REDUCED TO ENGLISH TROY WEIGHTS.

Ibs. oz. pen. gr.

The gerah, one twentieth of a shekel, 0 0 0 12

Bekah, half a shekel, - 0050

The shekel, - - 0 0 10 0

The maneh, 60 shekels, - 2600

The talent, 50 manehs, or 3,000 shekels, 125 000

2. SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF LENGTH, REDUCED TO ENGLISH

MEASURE.

Eng. ft. Inches.

A digit, - - 0 0.912

4 = A palm, --- 0 3.648

12= 3=Aspan, -- 0 10.944

24= 6= 2 = Acubit, --- 1 9.888

96= 24= 8= 4 = A fathom, - - - --- 7 3.552

144= 36= 12= 6 = 1.5 = Ezekiel'sreed, 10 11.328

192= 48= 16= 8= 2= 1.3 = An Arabian pole, 14 7.104

1920 = 480 = 100 = 80 = 20 = 13.3 = 10 = A measuring line, - - -145 11.04

3. THE LONG SCRIPTURE MEASURES.

Ens. miles, races. Feet.

A ciibit, - ---.- 0 0 1.824

400 — A stadium, or furlong, ---0 145 4.6

2000 = 5 - A sabbath-day's journey, - - - 0 729 3

4000= 10= 2 = An eastern mile, --- -- ---1 403 1

12000= 30= 6= 3 = Aparasang, - 4 153 3

96000 = 240 = 48 = 24 = 8 = A day's journey, - 33 172 4

NOTE.— 5 feet =- 1 pace ; 1,05^ paces = 1 mile.
532

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

4. SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR LIQUIDS, REDUCED
TO ENGLISH WINE MEASURE.

Gal. pints.

Acaph, -- 0 0.625

1.3 = A log, -- .-0 0.833

5.3 = 4 = A cab,-- .- 0 8.333

1G = 12 = 3 = Ahin,--' --c- ---1 2

32 = 24 = 6 = 2 = A scah, - - - 2 4

DG = 72= 18= 6= 3 = A bath, ephah, or firkin,-- -7 4.50

900 = 720 = 180 = GO = 30 = 10 = A kor, chores, cr homer, -75 5.25

5. SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR THINGS DRY,
REDUCED TO ENGLISH CORN MEASURE.

Eu. Tks. Gal. Tints.

Agachal, - 0 0 0 0.1-11

20 = Acab, - -- -- 0 0 0 2.833

30 = 1.8 = An omcr, or gomer, '0 0 0 5.1

120= 6 = 3.3 = Aseah, -- -0 1 0 1

300= 18 = 10 = 3 = Ancphah, -- -0 3 0 3

1800= 90 = 50 =15= 5 = Alctcch, -4001-

3000 = 180 =100 = SO = 10 = 2 = A homer, or Lor,---- 8 001

6. JEWISH MONEY, REDUCED TO THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN

STANDARDS.

£ s. d. $ cts.

Agcrah, --- 0 0 1.3087 002.5

10 = Abckah, --- 0 1 1.CS75 025.09

20= 2 = A shekel, - - 0 2 3.375 050.187

1200= 120= 50 = A manch, or minaHebr., 5 14 0.75 2509.35

00000 = 0000 = 3000 = 00 — A talent,- - - 342 3 9 1505 62.5

A solidus aurcus, or sextula, was worth -- 0 12 0.5 204.09

A siclus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth 1 16 0 8 03

A talent of gold was worth - -5475 00 24309 00

In the preceding table, silver is valued at 5s. and gold at £4 per ounce.

7. ROMAN MONEY, MENTIONED IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, RE
DUCED TO THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STANDARDS.

£ s. d. far. $ cts.

A mite, -000 0.75 000.343

A farthing, about -- -- 0 0 0 1.50 000.087

A penny, or denarius,-- •- 0 0 7 2 013.75

A pound, or mina, -- - - 3260 13 75

533

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX

OF

TOPICS TO BE NOTICED IN HEADING THE BIBLE.

The inspired writing's are infinitely rich in truth, and each verse is so con
nected with the rest that an intelligent inquirer may easily extend his investiga
tions from one passage over the whole of Scripture. Without attempting to
exhaust topics of inquiry, we mention the following. The letters may be prefixed
to each verse, or not, according to the taste of the reader.

B.

What analogies between sensible and
spiritual things may be here traced ?

What prophecy is here accomplished?
where found ? when written ? what
rule of interpretation is illustrat
ed?

What blessing is here sought or ac
knowledged, or promised, and
\vhy ?

What custom is here referred to ?

What trait of character is here given ?
good or bad ? belonging to our nat
ural or our renewed state ? what
advantages are connected with it ?

What doctrine is here taught? how
illustrated ? what its practical in
fluence ?

What difficulty is here found in his
tory or in doctrine ? how explain
ed?

What evangelical or other experience is
here recorded ?

What example is here placed before
us? of sin or of holiness? les
sons ?

What facts arc here related? what
doctrine or duty do they illustrate ?
do you commend or blame them,
and why?

What is here forUdden ? in thought,
word, or deed ?

What is the geographical position of
tints country, or place? and what
its history ?

What facts of natural history or of
general history are here referred to
or illustrated ?

What institution or ordinance is here
mentioned ? on whom binding ?
what its design? what its connec
tion with other institutions?

What instructions may be gathered

from this fact, or parable, or mir
acle?

K. What knoidcdge of human nature, or
want of knowledge, is here dis
played ?

L. What Levitical institute is here men
tioned? why appointed?

M. What miracle is here recorded? by
whom wrought? in whose name?
what were its results ? -what is
hereby taught?
What is worthy of notice in this

name ?

What obligation or duty is here en
forced ? how ? and from what mo
tives ?

P. What promise is here given? to
whom ?

p. What is the meaning of the parable
here given? what truth as to God,
Christ, man, "the kingdom," is
taught?

Q. What important question is here pro
posed? what is the true answer?

R. What prophecy is here recorded? is it
fulfilled? how? when?

S. What sin is here exposed ?

s. What sect is here introduced? men
tion its tenets.

T. What type is here traced ?

t. What threatening ? when inflicted?

U. What unjustifiable action of a good
man ? what unusual excellence in
one not pious ?

IF. What woe is here denounced ; what
warning given ? against whom, and
why ?

JL. What is here taught of the work,
character, person of Christ ?

x, Wbat sublimity of thought or of lan-
' gtiage id here ? what inference fol
lows ?

534

14 DAY USE

RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED

LOAN DEPT.

This book is due on the last date stamped below,
or on the date to which renewed. Renewals only:

Tel. No. 642-3405

Renewals may be made 4 days prior to date due.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.

PEB10197259

BEtTDCD JUNU73-5PM f

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